How to Write a Lab Report

by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to construct a well-written lab report. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:

1. Lab Report
Lab reports provide a model for research papers, which are the most frequently written documents in
scientific fields. Lab report structure varies by field; however, the goals of a lab report remain consistent:
identify an area to explore, conduct an experiment, document your findings, and communicate the significance
of your results.

A well-written lab report demonstrates the researchers’ understanding of the concepts behind the data
collected. Knowing the purpose behind the basic components of a lab report will assist you in organizing your
ideas clearly and expressing your thoughts coherently.

⚙ THINK ABOUT IT

You will complete two Touchstone Lab Reports in this course that provide an opportunity to reflect on
simulation activities and to practice your written scientific communication skills. In the lab reports, students
are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the scientific method, developing hypotheses,
following procedures, and experimental errors. A lab report template is provided for you and will be the
foundation for the Touchstone. After completing the lab report template, you will upload the report for
grading. Please see the Touchstone pages for specific details.

 TERM TO KNOW

Lab Reports
A written document that describes an experiment, the reason for the experiment, the results of the
experiment, and the implications of the experiment.

2. Lab Report Structure

A well-written lab report demonstrates the researchers’ understanding of the concepts behind the data
collected. Knowing the purpose behind the basic components of a lab report will assist you in organizing your

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ideas clearly and expressing your thoughts coherently. The following list is an example of a common lab
report organizational structure:

1. Hypothesis
2. Background and Theory
3. Methods and Data Collection
4. Results and Observations
5. Discussion, Conclusions, and Implications

 HINT

You will use this common structure when you prepare lab report assignments in this course.
2a. Hypothesis
The first step of a lab report is to state the hypothesis of the experiment. The hypothesis is a claim that
answers a question or makes a prediction about an event that has not yet occurred.

 HINT

To learn more about how to form a proper hypothesis refer to the lesson on the Scientific Method.
In science, we are always working to develop a better understanding of our universe. Science uses models as
a tool to improve future understanding based on current understanding. A model is a representation created
by the scientist to explain real-world phenomena that cannot be directly observed because the variables are
difficult to manipulate. The model can be of a physical item, like a molecular model, or it can be a
representation of a concept, like evolution due to natural selection. Scientists develop mathematical models
that use data from complex systems to predict change over time, like tectonic movements or global warming.
Models also allow us to make predictions about events that have not yet occurred, like weather forecasting
models.

In order to ensure that data is not excluded or misinterpreted from the model, scientists use a process called
scientific reasoning to document and evaluate their observations. Scientific reasoning, also known as critical
thinking, helps develop better models of understanding by testing observations against scientifically
established models. If the model holds true given the data, the model is supported. If the model does not hold
true given the data, the model is rejected. Exciting science happens when an experiment provides data that
fails to support a current model and a new model must be developed!

⭐ BIG IDEA

By applying the major steps of critical thinking, we can relate our observations to a scientific model that
helps us better understand our world.

IN CONTEXT
In Section 1 of your Touchstone Lab Reports, you will be asked to describe the overall simulation
objective and your hypothesis. Let’s practice how to use the steps of critical thinking to answer a
question about polydactyly in cats.

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 Some cats have more than 5 toes on each paw, a condition known as polydactyly. Polydactyly is an
observed trait that is found equally in male and female cats. Even though having more than 5 toes
on each paw is rare among house cats, those cats with the polydactyly gene mutation always
present with extra toes on one or more paws.

If we were to make a claim in the form of a hypothesis about the polydactyly mutation that we
observe in cats, we would make a statement that answers a question or makes a prediction about
the mutation. A hypothesis makes a claim then predicts an outcome, often presenting as an if-and-
then statement.

 EXAMPLE This hypothesis is well stated: “If my polydactyl cat has kittens, then the kittens will
have more than five toes on at least one paw.”

 EXAMPLE This hypothesis is poorly stated: “The polydactyl gene mutation always impacts
offspring that carry it.”

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hypothesis
A tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for gathering and checking
information.

Model
A representation created by the scientist to explain real-world phenomena that cannot be directly
observed because the variables are difficult to manipulate.

Scientific Reasoning
A type of critical thinking that creates greater understanding of a topic through testing
observations against already established models and theories.
2b. Background and Theory
The second step of a lab report is to provide the reader with any background theory, previous research, or
formulas needed to understand your experiment. Ask yourself, what information does the reader need to
know to understand the importance of your experiment and data?

In this portion of your lab report, you will also explain in detail the previous models that have been used and

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tested that support or are related to your hypothesis. These previous models are often referred to as your
reasoning or theory.

IN CONTEXT
In Section 2 of your Touchstone Lab Reports, you will be asked to introduce relevant background
knowledge on the simulation topic. You will find research and references in the lab manual included
with each simulation. Include supporting details from the lab theory to support the answers you list in
the lab report.

Sticking with our example hypothesis—predicting polydactyly in a cat’s offspring—we may want to
present previous data that has been reported regarding polydactyly in cats. Our reasoning or theory
may be presented in the following manner:

 EXAMPLE
“Prior research by Lettice, Hill, and Devenney in 2008 found that polydactyly in cats is a
congenital autosomal dominant trait caused by a mutation in the ZRS gene. Further research also
indicates that polydactyly in cats often only presents on the front paws (Axel, 2013).”

2c. Methods and Data Collection

The third step of your lab report will cover your experiment in detail. You will provide the reader with a list of
equipment and materials used.

 HINT

This list does not have to be written in complete sentences but should be accurate and complete.
You will then describe the experimental procedure in chronological order. Theexperimental procedure will
state all the steps of the experiment in order as they actually happened. It is essential for you to record the
procedures as they occurred even if the order was not consistent with the description in a manual or how you
thought it was supposed to happen. This is so another researcher could replicate your experiment if they are
testing for similar outcomes.

 EXAMPLE If you were supposed to expose a chemical to red light for 5 minutes and you actually
exposed the chemical to red light for 7 minutes, you need to document an exposure time of 7 minutes.
If you deviated from your plan or standard procedure, be sure to document why. Deviations should be limited
and only occur in situations where scientific discovery is needed.

 EXAMPLE Sticking with our chemical example, perhaps there was no change to the chemical in 5
minutes of light exposure, so you changed your exposure time to 7 minutes, this would be an acceptable
deviation.
Deviations due to intentional error or carelessness by the researcher are not acceptable deviations.

 EXAMPLE Let's say our researcher intended to expose the chemical to red light for 5 minutes.
However, the researcher stepped away to calibrate an instrument and instead exposed the chemical to
red light for 7 minutes. It would not be acceptable to use this data. As the researcher was not present to
observe the results at the 5-minute mark to justify a deviation from the planned procedure.
In addition to the experimental procedure, you should also report your experimental methodology. The
experimental methodology provides detail about your sample size, variables, statistical analysis, and methods

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used to account for error. Choosing the correct experimental methodology for your experiment helps the
reader evaluate your experiment for validity and reliability.

 HINT

To learn more about how to form a proper hypothesis refer to the lesson on the Scientific Method.
Validity and reliability are concepts that readers can use to evaluate how well your experimental methodology
and experimental procedure can test your hypothesis.

Validity is the extent to which your experiment results measure what they are supposed to measure. You can
check the validity of your experiment by correlating the results with other measures of the same concept or
other established theories.

Reliability is the extent to which the results from your experiment can be repeated by another researcher
under the same conditions. Reliability can be checked by comparing the results across time and across
different parts of the experiment.

In order to minimize error and increase the reliability of data collected during experiments, measurements
must be taken multiple times. The more times you collect the measurement, the less likely you will have
errors. However, replicating measurements takes time and money; as a result, we typically only repeat
measurements two or three times in a lab course setting.

IN CONTEXT
In Section 3 of your Touchstone Lab Reports, you will explain each step you completed in the
simulation including the equipment and techniques you used. What was the experimental procedure
you followed?

Continuing with our example hypothesis—predicting polydactyly in a cat’s offspring—our

experimental procedure may be presented in the following manner:

 EXAMPLE
A female Maine Coon with a Hemingway ZRS mutation was placed in a pen with a male Maine
Coon without the Hemingway ZRS mutation. The female Maine Coon was given 1 cc of
Progesterone to regulate estrus cycle and increase sexual receptivity and fertility. The cats were
kept together for 60 days to capture two full heat cycles. The female Maine Coon was
administered an ultrasound upon completion of the breeding time. Ultrasound confirmed a
pregnancy of 25 days gestation. The female cat was sequestered and fed a diet of high-calorie
high-protein Hill's Science Diet twice daily at the rate of 12oz per feeding. On the 43rd day
following breeding, the female cat gave birth to six kittens (five of which were female and one of
which were male). The kittens were then examined for the polydactyl mutation and data was
recorded.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Experimental Procedure
The specific steps and techniques used to conduct an experiment.

Experimental Methodology
The research design and methods used to manipulate variables to establish a cause and effect.

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 Validity
The extent to which a measurement or result is accurate and measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability
The overall consistency of a measurement. The results of the measurement produce the same
results under the same conditions.
2d. Results and Observations
The fourth step in writing a well-constructed lab report is to report your findings. Results and observational
data are usually reported in tables, graphs, and visual figures. Graphics should be clear, concise, and well-
labeled. Evidence is the scientific data that supports the claim we have made.

Any significant results should be called out in verbal form. You can capture the reader's attention by providing
a sentence or two that discusses the calculation, the trends, and any special features.

Statistical significance is built upon the notion of a normal distribution or bell curve. Anormal distribution
begins by plotting the mean, or average, of a data set that assists in representing a large collection of
numbers with a single digit. The standard deviations are separations in increments below (-) or above (+) the
mean that lead to separations between 68.2%, 95.4%, and 99.7% of the data set, with 68.2% representing one
standard deviation, 95.4% representing two standard deviations, and 99.7% representing three standard
deviations. The standard deviation is important in research as it reflects the degree of variation or dispersion
in the data from the central mean.

 EXAMPLE A Normal Distribution Bell Curve Showing 68.26% centered between 1 standard deviation,
27.7% between 1 standard deviation and 2 standard deviations, and 3.77% between 2 and 3 standard
deviations.

Statistical significance is the probability that a result will fall on the distribution curve at or below a certain
percentage, usually 1% or 5%, represented as P 0.05 and P 0.01, respectively. Statistical significance indicates
the likelihood that a result did not occur by simple chance alone, and can be used to determine whether a
hypothesis should be rejected or accepted.

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The further a measurement is from the mean, the more likely it is an outlier. An outlier is an outlier is a
measurement that differs significantly from other data points and is typically thrown out and considered a
point of error.

Errors can be random, systematic, or blunder errors.Random errors occur due to chance and can be a result
of slight fluctuations in instrumentation, environments, or measurement technique. Systemic errors result in
measurements that are different even when conducted under the same conditions. Systemic errors have a
clear cause and can be eliminated. Blunders are errors due to the carelessness of the researcher and are
considered outright mistakes.

IN CONTEXT
In Section 4 of your Touchstone Lab Reports, you will describe any obtained results from the
simulation. Were these results expected or unexpected?

If we continue using our polydactyl cat example, we may report our findings as follows:

 EXAMPLE
Upon visual observation of the Maine Coon cat litter, four of the six Maine Coon kittens exhibit
the polydactyly mutation. This phenotypic expression was found on four of the five females within
the litter. One female and the only male within the litter did not express the polydactyly mutation
on any of their four paws. All four of the females with the polydactyly mutation had the mutation
on their front paws. None of the polydactyly females had the mutation on their back paws. Three
of the four females demonstrated polydactyly on their right front paws and not on their left front
paws. One of the four polydactyly females demonstrated polydactyly on both their right and left
front paws.

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 The number of females compared to males in the litter was unexpected as well as the number of
females compared to males that exhibited the polydactyly phenotype. Due to the low number of
kittens evaluated, less than 30, observations cannot be directly correlated to the breed as a
whole. In addition, only phenotypic expression was evaluated, not the specific genotype of the
kittens.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Evidence
Data that support a claim.

Normal Distribution
A bell curve that provides the probability distribution of a random variable.

Mean
The average of a set of data.

Standard Deviations
The amount of dispersion from the mean in a set of data.

Statistically Significant
The probability that a result from experimental data is attributed to a specific cause. The higher
the statistical significance, the less likely a result is due to chance.

Outlier
A data point that differs significantly from other data points.

Random Error
An error in experimentation that is a result of chance.

Systematic Error
An error in experimentation that can be clearly identified and controlled.

Blunders
An error in experimentation that is a result of carelessness or mistakes.
2e. Discussions, Conclusions and Implications
In the fifth step of a lab report, you will explain, analyze, and interpret your results. This portion should be
written in paragraph format and should be written as a discussion of what is not obviously apparent in your
data. Your conclusions should answer the question “What is the meaning of my experimental results?”

After you clearly explain your conclusions, you will then discuss any new questions that might be raised from
the results. You will want to identify any ambiguities in the data, provide logical explanations for problems in
the results, and account for any difference in the results from what you might have expected.

This is also where you will discuss any possible errors that could have occurred in human reporting,
instrumentation, or in the environment. If you took steps to account for these errors, you will want to explain
those steps and the limitations of your abilities to eliminate flaws in the experiment.

IN CONTEXT
In Section 5 of your Touchstone Lab Reports, you will describe the conclusions and implications if

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 the simulation results. For example, how do your results relate back to the original purpose and your
hypothesis? Were there any systematic sources of error that could have affected the results? What
did you learn? What is the importance of these findings and how can you apply them to other real-
world situations?

If we continue using our polydactyl cat example, a discussion paragraph may look similar to:

 EXAMPLE
“The data indicates that a polydactyl cat will produce offspring demonstrating the polydactyl trait
50% of the time if mated with a cat without the polydactyl mutation (Allen, 2017). As expected, the
experiment showed that a cat with the polydactyl gene produced at least one offspring with the
polydactyl mutation. When bred with a cat without the polydactyl mutation, six kittens were born,
four of which inherited the polydactyl mutation. All four polydactyl kittens expressed more than
five toes on one of the front paws. This observation has previously been made by Axel in 2013.
All four polydactyl kittens were female, despite prior evidence that polydactyl expresses evenly
among males and females. There are several possible reasons that the polydactyl kittens were
all female, including the fact that a larger percentage of the offspring group was female (83%).
Further research should be conducted on the percentage of polydactyly offspring that express
polydactyly on the back paws by sex and whether these rates change when mating occurs
between two polydactyl cats.”

3. References and Appendices

References will include an itemized list that directs a reader to any of the resources, readings, manuals, or
works that were used, referred to, or mentioned in order to conduct your experiment. These items may
include research articles, manuals, websites, videos, or reports. References are often used to justify the
development of your hypothesis, the methodology chosen to conduct your experiment, and previous work
that assisted in your interpretation of your results. Every field will have a preferred method for documenting
references. Make sure you know what citation style is appropriate for your occupation.

Common styles of references are listed in the following table:

Citation Style
Full Title Field
Abbreviation

APA American Psychological Association Social Sciences

MLA Modern Language Association Humanities

CMS Chicago Manual of Style History and Arts

APSA American Political Science Association Political Science

ASA American Sociological Association Sociology

CSE Council of Science Editors Scientific Disciplines

Harvard Harvard Style Economics

ACS American Chemical Society Chemistry

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 AMA American Medical Association Field of Medicine

Institute of Electrical and Electronics

IEEE Engineering and IT Disciplines
Engineers

NLM National Library of Medicine Field of Medicine

Vancouver Vancouver Style Medical Disciplines

The Bluebook: A Uniform System of

Bluebook Used in Political and Law Documents
Citation

Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Used in Political and Law Documents
OSCOLA
Authorities in the UK

 HINT

Visit www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/ for examples of each citation style.

Appendices are graphs, pictures, reports, notes, and tables that provide all your raw data and calculations.
Reports from instruments, calibration information, or bench notes should be provided in the appendices.
When referencing these items in other portions of the lab report you will just make a statement such as:
“Reports from scanning microscope are contained in appendix E” or “Visual observations and images from
Maine Coon kitten litter are contained in appendix A”. You will list appendices in chronological order as they
are referenced in the lab report.

⚙ THINK ABOUT IT

Citing your research and references is an important step in the lab report process. You will not be
expected to provide references in your Touchstone Lab Reports for this course because all of the
information you need to complete the simulations has already been provided for you in Labster.

 TERMS TO KNOW

References
Information that directs a reader to identified work that was cited, referred to, or mentioned in a
text.

Appendices
Graphs, pictures, reports, notes, or tables that provide additional material related to a document.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned how to construct the components of a well-written lab report. Although the
structure of a lab report may vary, the goals and components will remain consistent. You explored
how to write a hypothesis and use scientific reasoning to document and evaluate your observations.
You learned the importance of providing the background, theory, research, and formulas needed for
your audience to understand your experiment. You learned how and why you need to carefully
document your methods and data collection, describing the experimental procedure chronologically
and maintaining validity and reliability in the experimental methodology. You learned how to record
your results and observations, including the key scientific data that supports your claim. You
examined how to discuss your conclusions and implications to help your audience understand the

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 meaning and importance of your results. Finally, you learned how to document your references and
appendices.

Source: SOURCE: THIS CONTENT HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM https://openstax.org/books/biology-

2e/pages/1-1-the-science-of-biology and https://openstax.org/books/introductory-statistics/pages/1-1-
definitions-of-statistics-probability-and-key-terms

REFERENCES

Caulfield, Jack (2022). Scribbr: Citation Styles Guide. Retrieved 8.16.2022 from
https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles

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