Pulse Modulation Techniques

Sampling Theorem:
Sampling Techniques:
The sampling of a signal is done in several ways. Different types of sampling techniques are as
follows.
Basically, there are three types of sampling techniques as under:
1. Instantaneous sampling/Ideal Sampling
2. Natural sampling
3. Flat-top sampling.
Out of these three, instantaneous sampling is called ideal sampling whereas natural sampling
and flat-top sampling are called practical sampling methods.
Ideal Sampling or Instantaneous Sampling or Impulse Sampling:
In the proof of sampling theorem, we used ideal or impulse sampling. In this type of sampling,
the sampling function is a train of impulses. Figure 9.11(b) shows this sampling function.

Figure: Ideal Sampler Circuit

x(t) is the input signal (i.e., signal to be sampled) as shown in figure. Following figure shows a
circuit to produce instantaneous or ideal sampling. This circuit is known as the switching
sampler.
The working principle of this circuit is quite easy. The circuit simply consists of a
switch. Now if we assume that the closing time 't' of the switch approaches zero, then the
output g(t) of this circuit will contain only instantaneous value of the input signal x(t). Since
the width of the pulse approaches zero, the instantaneous sampling gives a train of impulses of
height equal to the instantaneous value of the input signal x(t) at the sampling instant.

Figure: Ideal Sampling Techniques

We know that the train of impulses may be represented as

This is known as sampling function and its waveform is shown in figure.

The sampled signal g(t) is expressed as the multiplication of x(t) and .
Thus,
The Fourier transform of the ideally sampled signal given by above equation may be expressed
as

The above equation represents the spectrum of ideal sampling.

Natural Sampling:
The instantaneous sampling results in the samples whose width approaches zero. Due to this,
the power content in the instantaneously sampled pulse is negligible. Thus, this method is not
suitable for transmission purpose. Natural sampling is a practical method; circuit used for
natural sampling is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Natural Sampler

In natural sampling the pulses has a finite width equal to .
Let us consider an analog continuous-time signal x(t) to be sampled at the rate of f s Hz . Here it
is assumed that fs is higher than Nyquist rate such that sampling theorem is satisfied.
Again, let us consider a sampling function c(t) which is a train of periodic pulses of
width and frequency equal to fs Hz.
With the help of this natural sampler, a sampled signal g(t) is obtained by
multiplication of sampling function c(t) and input signal x(t).
When c(t) goes high the switch is turned ON
Therefore,
And
Where A is the amplitude of pulse train
The waveforms of signals x(t), c(t) and g(t) have been illustrated in figures respectively.

Figure: Natural Sampling Waveforms

Now, the sampled signal g(t) may also be described mathematically as
The Fourier series of any exponential signal is given as

Here, c(t) is the periodic train of pulse of width and frequency fs

Where

Hence c(t) is given as

Hence naturally sampled signal is given as

Now, the spectrum of the naturally sampled signal is given as

The arbitrary spectrum corresponding to G(f) is shown below

Figure: Spectrum of Naturally sampled Signal

Flat-Top Sampling:
Like natural sampling flat top sampling is also a practical sampling technique. But
natural sampling is quite complex compared to flat top sampling.
In flat top sampling, the top of the samples remains constant and is equal to instantaneous
value of message signal x(t). The Following figure shows the flat top sampler, which is a
combination of Sample and Hold circuits.

Figure: Sample and Hold Circuit, Flat top samples

From figure, it may be noted that only starting edge of the pulse represents instantaneous
values of the message signal x(t). Also the flat top pulse of g(t) is equal to convolution of
instantaneous sample and a pulse h(t).
This means that the width is also depends on the pulse h(t) and sampling instant is determined
by the delta function.
i.e.
where

The impulse train is given as

Now,

The same can be written as

The flat top sample function g(t) is

Which can be written as

By substituting the values

Now g(t) can be modified as

The Fourier Transform for the same can be determined using the equation

As

But

Now G(f) is given as

 Figure: Flat-Top Sampling Waveforms
Aperture Effect:
The spectrum of flat top sampled signal is expressed as

This equation shows that the signal g(t) is obtained by passing the signal s(t) through a filter
having transfer function H(f). The corresponding impulse response h(t) in time-domain.
Here H(f) is the transfer function of the rectangular pulse. The spectrum of this rectangular
pulse shown in the following figure; let the spectrum of s(t) be the rectangular pulse train as
shown in the figure.
We know that G(f)=S(f).H(f)

Comparison of Sampling Techniques:

S.N
Parameter Natural Sampling Flat Top Sampling
o:
Principle of
1 It uses Chopping Principle It uses “sample and Hold” circuit
sampling
 Circuit of
2
sampler

3 Waveform

4 Uses This method is used Practically This method is used practically.

5 Sampling Rate Sampling rate satisfies the criteria Sampling rate satisfies the criteria.
Noise
6 Noise interference is minimum Noise interference is maximum
interference
Time Domain
7
representation
Frequency
8 domain
Representation

Analog Pulse Modulation Methods:

We know that in analog modulation system, some parameter of a sinusoidal carrier is varied
according to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. In pulse modulation methods, the carrier
is no longer a continuous signal but consists of a pulse train. Some parameter of which is varied
according to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. There are two types of pulse modulation
systems as under:
1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
2. Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
In pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), the amplitude of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal whereas in pulse time modulation (PTM), the timing of the
pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied. They are two types of PTM as under:
1. Pulse width modulation (PWM)
2. Pulse position modulation (PPM)
In Pulse width modulation, the width of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with
the modulating signal whereas in Pulse position modulation (PPM), the position of pulses of the carrier
pulse train is varied.
At this point, it may be noted that all the above pulse modulation methods (1.e., PAM, PWM
and PPM are called analog Pulse modulation methods because the modulating signal is analog in nature
in PAM, PWM and PPM.
 Figure: PAM, PWM, PPM Waveforms
PAM SIGNALS:
The PAM signals can be generated using the sampling techniques.
There are three methods for generating PAM waveforms they are as follows:
Ideally sampled PAM, Naturally sampled PAM and Flat-top sampled PAM; Refer Pages 3-8
Merits and Demerits of PAM:
In PAM, generation and demodulation is simple. However, PAM produces the
amplitude variations. We know that noise much effects the amplitude of a waveform, so like
AM, PAM is also less immune to noise.
PAM wave has pulse with varying amplitude therefore, the power required to transmit
is not constant.
Classification of PAM based on signal polarity:
PAM signals can be classified according to signal polarity.
1. single polarity
2. Double polarity
The following figures shows single and double polarity PAM waveforms

Figure: Single Polarity PAM

Figure: Double polarity PAM

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

In pulse time modulation, the signal to be transmitted is sampled as in pulse amplitude
modulation. In pulse time modulation, amplitude of pulse is held constant, whereas, position of
pulse or width of pulse is made proportional to the amplitude of signal at the sampling instant.
Then we have two types of pulse time modulation, viz. Pulse Width Modulation [PWM] and
Pulse Position Modulation [PPM]. Since in both PWM and PPM, amplitude is held constant
and does not carry information, amplitude limiters can be used. The amplitude limiters, similar
to those used in FM, will clip off the portion of the signal corrupted by noise and thus provide
a good degree of noise immunity.
Pulse Width Modulation is also known as pulse Duration Modulation [PDM]. Three
variations of pulse width modulation are possible. In one variation the leading edge of the
pulse is held constant and change in pulse width with signal is measured with respect to the
leading edge. In other variation, the tail edge is held constant and with respect to it, pulse
width is measured. In the third variation, centre of the pulse is held constant and pulse width
changes on either side of the centre of the pulse. This is illustrated in the following figure.
 Figure: PWM Signals
Generation of PWM Signal:
The block diagram of PWM generator is shown in the following figure. It consists of saw tooth
generator and comparator. The saw tooth generator generates a saw tooth signal which is used
as a sampling signal. The comparator compares the amplitude of modulating signal x(t) and
the amplitude of sampling signal, i.e. saw tooth signal. The output of the comparator is high as
long as the instantaneous amplitude of x(t) is greater than that of the saw tooth signal. Thus,
the duration for which the comparator output remains high is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal, x(t) As a result, the comparator output is a PWM signal.

Figure: Generation of PWM signals

As Shown in the figure, the leading edges of the PWM signal coincide with the falling edge of
saw tooth signal. Thus it is generated at fixed time instants; however the occurrence of the
trailing edges depends on the instantaneous amplitude of signal x(t).

Practical PWM generator circuits:

The practical pulse width modulator is basically a monostable multivibrator with a modulating
input signal applied at the control voltage input. Internally, the control voltage is adjusted to
2/3 Vcc. Externally applied modulating signal changes the control voltage, and hence the
threshold voltage level. As a result, time period required to charge the capacitor up to
threshold voltage level changes, giving pulse width modulated signal at the output.

Figure: Monostable multivibrator as a Pulse Width Modulator

 Figure: PWM output of Monostable Multivibrator
The following figure shows another monostable multivibrator circuit to generate PWM signals.
The stable state for above circuit is T 1 OFF and T2 ON. The positive going trigger pulse at B 1
makes T1 ON. Due to this the voltage at C 1 falls as T1 now begins to draw the collector current.
As a result, Voltage at B2 also falls and T2 is switched OFF, C begins to charge up to the
collector supply voltage Vcc through R. After a time determined by the supply voltage and the
RC time constant of the charging network, the base of the T 2 becomes positive to switch T2
ON. The transistor T1 simultaneously switched OFF. It stays in OFF state until the arrival of
the next trigger pulse. To make T2 ON, the base of the T2 must be slightly more positive than
the resistor voltage across RE. This voltage depends on the emitter current I E which is
controlled by the signal voltage at the base of T 1. Therefore, the changing voltage necessary to
turn OFF the transistor T2 is decided by the signal voltage. If signal voltage is maximum, the
voltage that capacitor should charge to turn on the transistor

Figure: Monostable Multivibrator

T2 is also maximum. Therefore, at maximum signal voltage, capacitor has to charge to
maximum voltage requiring maximum time to charge. This gives us maximum pulse width at
the maximum signal voltage. Same way at the minimum signal voltage the time for the
capacitor to charge will be minimum giving minimum pulse width. Hence we will get a pulse
width modulated signal at C2.

Demodulation of PWM Signal:

Following figure shows the block diagram of PWM detector. As shown in the figure, the
received PWM signal is applied to the Schmitt trigger circuit. The Schmitt trigger circuit
removes the noise in the PWM waveform. The regenerated PWM is then applied to the ramp
generator and the synchronization pulse generator. The ramp generator produces ramps for the
duration of pulses such that heights of ramps are proportional to the widths of PWM pulses.
 Figure: PWM Detector
The maximum ramp voltage is retained till the next pulse. On the other hand synchronous
pulse generator produces reference pulses with constant amplitude and pulse width. These
pulses are delayed by specific amount of delay. The delayed reference pulses and the output of
ramp generator are added with the help of adder. The output of adder is given to the level
shifter. Here, negative offset shifts the waveform as shown in the figure. Then the negative
part of the waveform is clipped by rectifier. Finally, the output of rectifier is passed through
low-pass filter to recover the modulating signal.
 Figure: Waveforms for the Detection of PWM Signals
Advantages of PWM:
1. Unlike, PAM, noise is less, since in PWM, amplitude is held constant:
2. Signal and noise separation is very easy.
3. PWM communication does not require synchronization between transmitter and
receiver.
Disadvantages of PWM:
1. In PWM, pulses are varying in width and therefore their power contents are variable.
This requires that the transmitter must be able to handle the power contents of the pulse
having maximum pulse width.
2. Large bandwidth is required for the PWM communication as compared to PAM.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
In this system, the amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of
each pulse, with reference to the position of a reference pulse, is changed according to the
instantaneous sampled value of the modulating signal. Thus the transmitter has to send
synchronizing pulses to keep the transmitter and receiver in synchronism. As the amplitude
and width of the pulses are constant, the transmitter handles constant power output, a definite
advantage over the PWM. But the disadvantage of the PPM system is the need for transmitter-
receiver synchronization. Pulse Position modulation is obtained from PWM signals as shown
in the following figure.

Figure: PPM Waveforms

Each trailing edge of the PWM signal is a starting point of the pulse in the PPM.
Therefore, position of the pulse varied according to change in the width of the PWM signal
which is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the sampled modulating signal.

Generation of PPM Signal

The figure shows the block diagram of PPM generator. It consists of PWM generator followed
by the monostable multivibrator. Since in PPM, output remains high for fix duration from the
trailing edges of the PWM signal, the trailing edge of the PWM signal is used as a trigger input
for the monostable multivibrator.

Figure: PPM Generator

Practical PPM Generator Circuit:
The practical PPM circuit consists of differentiator and a monostable multivibrator. The input
to the differentiator is a PWM waveform. The differentiator generates positive and negative
spikes corresponding to leading and trailing edges of the PWM waveform. Diode D 1 is used to
bypass the positive spikes. The negative spikes are used to trigger the monostable
multivibrator. The monostable multivibrator generates the pulse of same width and amplitude
with reference to trigger input, to give PPM waveform.

Figure: Practical PPM Generator

Figure: PPM Waveforms

Demodulation of PPM Signal:
In the case of pulse-position modulation, it is customary to convert the received pulses that
vary in position to pulses that vary in length. One way to achieve this is illustrated in following
figure.

Figure: PPM Demodulator

As shown in the figure flip-flop circuit is set or turned 'ON' (giving high output) when the
reference pulse arrives. This reference pulse is generated by reference pulse generator of the
receiver with the synchronization signal from the transmitter. The flip-flop circuit is reset or
turned 'OFF' (giving low output) at the leading edge of the PPM pulse. This repeats and we get
PWM pulses at the output of the flip-flop.
The PWN pulses are then demodulated by PWM demodulator to get original
modulating signal.
Advantages of PPM:
1. Like PWM, in PPM amplitude is held constant thus less noise interference.
2. Like PWM, signal and noise separation is very easy.
3. Due to constant pulse widths and amplitudes, transmission power for each pulse is
same.
Disadvantages of PPM:
1. Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is required.
2. Large transmission bandwidth is required as compared to PAM.
Comparison of PAM, PWM and PPM Systems:

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) System:

Pulse-code modulation is known as a digital pulse modulation technique. In
fact, the
pulse-code modulation (PCM) is quite complex compared to the analog pulse
modulation techniques (i.e., PAM, PWM and PPM) in the sense that the message signal
is subjected to a great number of operations.
Figure 2 shows the basic elements of a PCM
system.
P CM
Transmitter:

Fig 2: PCM
Generator.
The pulse code modulation technique samples the input signal x(t) at a frequency fs
≥2W. This sampled ‘variable amplitude’ pulse is then digitized by the analog to digital
converter. The parallel bits obtained are converted to a serial bit stream.
In PCM generator, the signal x(t) is first passed through the low pass filter of
cutoff frequency ‘w’ Hz. This low pass filter blocks all the frequency components above
'W' Hz. Thus x(t) is band-limited to 'W' Hz. The sample and hold circuit then
samples this signal at the
 rate of fs. Sampling frequency fs, is selected sufficiently above Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing
i.e., fs≥2W.
The output of sample and hold is called x(nTs). This x(nTs) is discrete in time and continuous
in amplitude. A q-level quantizer compares input x(nTs ) with its fixed digital levels. It assigns
any one of the digital level to x(nTs) with its fixed digital levels. It then assigns any one of the digital
level to x(nTs) which results in minimum distortion or error. This error is called quantization error.
Thus output of quantizer is a digital level called xq(nTs).
The quantized signal level xq(nTs) is given to binary encoder. This encoder converts input
signal to 'v' digits binary word. Thus xq(nTs) is converted to 'V' binary bits. The encoder is also
called digitizer.
It is not possible to transmit each bit of the binary word separately on transmission line.
Therefore ‘v’ binary digits are converted to serial bit stream to generate single baseband signal. In a
parallel to serial converter, normally a shift register does this job. The output of PCM generator is
thus a single baseband signal of binary bits.
An oscillator generates the clocks for sample and holds, a parallel to serial converter. In the
pulse code modulation generator discussed above; sample and hold, quantizer and encoder
combinely forms an analog to digital converter.
PCM Receiver:
The following figure shows the block diagram of a PCM receiver. The regenerator at the start
of PCM receiver reshapes the pulses and removes the noise. This signal is then converted to parallel
digital words for each sample.

Fig 3: PCM Receiver

The following figure shows the reconstructed waveform.

Fig 4: Reconstructed waveform

The digital word is converted to its analog value x, (f) along with sample and hold. This signal, at
the output of S/H is passed through low-pass reconstruction filter to get yD(t).

17 | P a g e
 As shown in reconstructed signal, it is impossible to reconstruct exact original signal x
(t) because of permanent quantization error introduced during quantization at the
transmitter. This quantization error can be reduced by increasing the binary levels. This is
equivalent to increasing binary digits (bits) per sample. But increasing bits ‘v’ increases the
signaling rate as well as transmission bandwidth.
Quantization:
In communication systems if we want to transmit digital signal with available analog
signal, it is important to convert the available analog signal in to digital signal. This means that
we have to convert a continuous time signal in the form of digits. To see how a signal can be
converted from analog to digital form, let us consider an analog signal. First of all, we get
samples of this signal according to sampling theorem.
Now, we can say that the signal is defined only at the sampling instants. This means that
it no longer is a continuous function of time, but rather, it is a discrete-time signal. However, since
the magnitude of each sample can take any value in a continuous range, the signal is still an analog
signal.
This difficulty is neatly resolved by a process known as quantization. In quantization, the total
amplitude range which the signal may occupy is divided into a number of standard levels. Each
sample is approximated or rounded off to the nearest quantized level Since each sample is
now approximated to one of the levels therefore the information is digitized.
The quantized signal is an approximation of the original one. We can improve the
accuracy of the quantized signal to any desired degree simply by increasing the number of levels.

18 | P a g e