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Unit I (Chatgpt)

1. Defining Artificial Intelligence

Definition:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the branch of computer science concerned with creating systems that
exhibit human-like intelligence. These systems are capable of performing tasks such as reasoning,
learning, decision-making, and understanding language.

Characteristics of AI:

1. Learning: The ability to acquire knowledge and improve from experience (machine learning).

2. Reasoning: Drawing conclusions from incomplete or ambiguous information.

3. Problem-solving: Finding solutions to complex or unfamiliar problems.

4. Perception: Understanding and interpreting sensory data (e.g., images, sounds).

5. Language Processing: Interpreting and generating natural language.

History of AI:

1943: McCulloch and Pitts proposed a model of artificial neurons.

1956: The term "AI" was coined at the Dartmouth Conference.

1980s: Introduction of expert systems.

2000s: Growth in machine learning and neural networks.

Goals of AI:

1. To mimic human cognitive functions.

2. To automate mundane tasks (e.g., industrial automation).

3. To enable smarter decision-making in areas like healthcare, finance, and education.

Applications of AI:

Healthcare: Diagnostics, treatment recommendations.

Transportation: Autonomous vehicles.

Finance: Fraud detection, algorithmic trading.

Gaming: Strategic decision-making systems.

AI continues to evolve and impact various industries, making it a transformative force in technology.

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2. Defining AI Techniques
Definition:

AI techniques refer to the methods and approaches that enable machines to solve problems, make
decisions, and simulate human intelligence. These techniques form the backbone of AI systems and
are classified into various categories.

Categories of AI Techniques:

1. Search Techniques:

Involves finding solutions in large problem spaces.

Examples:

Breadth-First Search (BFS): Explores all possible solutions level by level.

Depth-First Search (DFS): Explores a single branch deeply before backtracking.

A*: Combines path cost and heuristic to find the optimal solution.

Applications: Pathfinding in games, logistics.

2. Knowledge Representation:

Focuses on storing and organizing knowledge logically.

Examples: Semantic networks, frames, ontologies.

"If-then" rules for reasoning.

Applications: Expert systems, decision support systems.

3. Learning Techniques:

Algorithms that learn from data.

Categories:

Supervised Learning: Uses labeled data.

Unsupervised Learning: Finds patterns in unlabeled data.

Reinforcement Learning: Learns by interacting with the environment.

Applications: Image recognition, NLP, robotics.

4. Reasoning Techniques:

Uses logical deduction and inference.

Types:

Deductive reasoning (specific conclusions from general rules).

Inductive reasoning (general rules from specific data).

Abductive reasoning (best explanation for observations)

AI techniques ensure efficiency and accuracy in achieving intelligent behavior.

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3. Using Predicate Logic and Representing Knowledge as Rules

Predicate Logic:

Predicate logic is a formal system in mathematics and computer science for expressing facts,
relationships, and reasoning. Unlike propositional logic, which deals with simple true/false values,
predicate logic involves variables and quantifiers.

Syntax:

1. Constants: Represent specific objects (e.g., "John").

2. Variables: Represent objects that can vary (e.g., x).

3. Predicates: Represent properties or relations (e.g., IsHuman(x)).

4. Quantifiers: Universal Quantifier (∀): Indicates that a statement applies to all objects. Example: ∀x
(IsHuman(x) → Mortal(x)).

Existential Quantifier (∃): Indicates that a statement applies to at least one object. Example: ∃x
(IsHuman(x) ∧ IsTeacher(x)).

Knowledge Representation as Rules:

Knowledge in AI systems is often represented in the form of rules:

1. Rules: IF-THEN structures that encode reasoning.

Example:

IF Animal(x) AND Mammal(x)

THEN WarmBlooded(x).

Applications:

Predicate logic is widely used in expert systems, where knowledge is encoded to make decisions, and
in knowledge bases, where reasoning is performed.

4. Representing Simple Facts in Logic

Facts in logic represent atomic information about the world that is known to be true. They are the
building blocks of logical reasoning in AI.

Representation:

1. Propositional Logic:

Represents facts as simple statements.

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Example: "It is raining" → .

Logical operators:

AND (∧): (both must be true).

OR (∨): (either can be true).

NOT (¬): (negation of ).

IMPLIES (→): (if , then ).

2. Predicate Logic:

Represents facts with more complexity using predicates and variables.

Example: "Socrates is a man" → .

Applications:

1. Reasoning: Drawing conclusions from known facts.

2. Decision-Making: Building logical decision trees.

3. Rule-Based Systems: Encoding business logic.

5. Computable Functions and Predicates

Computable Functions:

A function is computable if it can be calculated using a well-defined algorithm.

1. Characteristics:

Takes input, processes it, and returns an output.

Example: .

2. Computation Models:

Turing Machines: Abstract machine capable of simulating any computable function.

Lambda Calculus: Mathematical formalism for defining functions.

Predicates:

Predicates are logical statements that evaluate to true or false.

1. Syntax: Predicate(Arguments).

Example: IsEven(4) → True.

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2. Usage: Represent properties or relationships.

Example: , where .

6. Procedural vs. Declarative Knowledge

7. Logic Programming
Logic programming is a paradigm where logic is used as a programming language.

Features:

1. Facts: Known truths.

Example: Parent(John, Mary).

2. Rules: Conditions derived from facts.

Example: Grandparent(X, Y) :- Parent(X, Z), Parent(Z, Y).

3. Queries: Questions to infer information.

Example: ?- Grandparent(John, X).

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Applications:

1. Prolog: Language for logic programming.

2. Expert Systems: Diagnosing diseases, legal reasoning.

#2

Artificial Intelligence by Saroj Kaushik and supplemental knowledge.

1. Defining Artificial Intelligence (AI):

Artificial Intelligence is the study of how to make machines exhibit human-like intelligence. This
definition is structured based on four key approaches:

1. Thinking Humanly (Cognitive Modeling): Focuses on simulating human thought processes.

Example: Building systems like neural networks to mimic the brain.

2. Acting Humanly (Turing Test): Involves creating systems that behave indistinguishably from
humans, such as chatbots and virtual assistants.

3. Thinking Rationally (Logic): AI systems reason logically to solve problems using techniques like
predicate logic or symbolic reasoning.

4. Acting Rationally (Rational Agent): Agents operate based on achieving goals with the most optimal
decisions.

Applications: Natural language processing (NLP), computer vision, robotics, healthcare diagnostics,
and smart decision-making systems.

Key Components:

Perception: Processing sensory data like images or sound.

Knowledge Representation: Encoding information about the world.

Learning: Algorithms that allow systems to adapt and improve.

Relevance: AI enhances automation and intelligence across industries, revolutionizing fields like
education, defence, and science.

2. Defining AI Techniques
AI techniques are methods used to solve problems and implement intelligent systems. These
include:

1. Search Methods:

Uninformed Search: Includes strategies like breadth-first search (BFS) and depth-first search (DFS),
which explore all possibilities without prior knowledge.

Informed Search: Methods like A* use heuristics to efficiently find solutions.

2. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning:

Uses techniques like semantic networks, frames, and rules to store and process information.

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3. Learning Algorithms:

Supervised Learning: Involves labelled datasets for training (e.g., classification).

Unsupervised Learning: Identifies hidden patterns in data (e.g., clustering).

Reinforcement Learning: Based on rewards and penalties for actions in an environment.

4. Planning and Decision-Making: AI systems plan actions to achieve specific goals (e.g., game AI or
autonomous robots).

Applications: Face recognition, game-playing algorithms, language translators, and predictive

analytics.

3. Using Predicate Logic and Representing Knowledge as Rules

Predicate logic is the foundation for representing and reasoning about relationships and properties
in AI.

Predicate Logic:

1. Structure:

Constants represent specific objects (e.g., Socrates).

Variables denote generic elements (x, y).

Predicates express properties (e.g., Human(Socrates)).

2. Quantifiers:

Universal (∀): Applies to all instances (e.g., ∀x Human(x) → Mortal(x)).

Existential (∃): Applies to some instances (e.g., ∃x Loves(x, Mary)).

Knowledge Representation Using Rules:

1. Facts: Base-level knowledge (e.g., Bird(Tweety)).

2. Rules: Derived knowledge in "IF-THEN" format (e.g., IF Bird(x) THEN CanFly(x)).

3. Inference: Logical reasoning to deduce new facts (e.g., Modus Ponens).

Applications: Rule-based expert systems for medical diagnosis or legal reasoning

4. Representing Simple Facts in Logic

Facts are the atomic components of knowledge representation.

Methods to Represent Facts:

1. Propositional Logic:

Facts are represented as simple statements.

Example: "It is raining" → .

2. Predicate Logic:

Provides a structured way to represent complex facts.

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Example: LivesIn(John, London) denotes John lives in London.

Syntax in Logic:

Logical Connectives: AND (∧), OR (∨), NOT (¬), IMPLIES (→).

Example: "If it rains, the ground is wet" → .

These representations form the basis for reasoning in AI systems, especially for querying and
updating knowledge bases【14】【15】.

5. Computable Functions and Predicates

Computable Functions:

-Functions that can be computed using finite procedures.

-Computability is linked to Turing machines, which represent abstract computational models.

Predicates:

Logical statements that evaluate to true or false.

Applications:

Used in expert systems to validate data or perform logical reasoning【14】【16】.

6. Procedural vs. Declarative Knowledge

AI integrates both types of knowledge to build systems capable of solving complex problems【13】
【14】.

7. Logic Programming
Logic programming is a declarative programming paradigm based on formal logic.

Key Features:

1. Facts: Represented as base truths (e.g., Parent(John, Mary)).

2. Rules: Encoded knowledge (e.g., Grandparent(X, Y) :- Parent(X, Z), Parent(Z, Y).).

3. Queries: Logical questions for reasoning (?- Grandparent(John, X)).

Applications:

1. Prolog Programming: Popular for natural language processing and expert systems.

2. Reasoning Systems: Used in AI to deduce and validate logical conclusions【13】【15】.