1. What does the choice of protection depend on?

 Type.
 Rating of the protected equipment.
 Importance.
 Location.
 Probable abnormal condition.
 Cost

2. What is the function of Relays?

 Detect abnormal conditions
 Initiate corrective action as quickly as possible to return system to normal state

3. Define Relay, Protective Relay and Trip Circuit.

 Relay: Device by which electric circuit is controlled or closed by changing in other circuit
 Protective Relay: Device which closes its contacts, when operating quantity reaches pre-
determined magnitude/phase.
 Trip Circuit: Circuit that controls circuit breaker for opening operation, contains trip coil, relay
contacts auxiliary switch and battery supply.

4. Draw Basic Connections of Trip Circuit

5. Define Pick-up value.

 Value of operating quantity above which the relay operates and closes its contacts.
6. Compare Between Fault Clearing Time, Relay Time and C.B. Time.
Fault Clearing Time Relay Time Circuit Breaker Time
Time between the occurrence of Time between the occurrence of Time between closure of trip circuit
fault and final arc extinction in C.B. fault and closure of relay contacts and final arc interruption
Fault Clearing Time = Relay Time + C.B. Time

7. What are the results of fault and what are the faults caused by?
 Defect in the electric circuit, so:
o The flow of current is diverted from intended path.
o The potential drops to zero at the location of fault.
 The nearest generation station could go out of synchronism.
 Transient stability will determine whether the different station will remain synchronized
or not.
 Faults should be cleared quickly to prevent cascaded failures (BLACKOUTS)
o Current will be thousands of amperes.
o High current will lead to increase heat.
o Short Circuit is associated with arcs.
 Caused by breaking of conductors or insulation failure.

8. Compare between different types of faults in a power system?

Line to Line to Symmetrical
Line to Ground Line to Line
Ground Short Circuit
-The most common type
of faults -Conductors of different -Similar to line to line but -Three Phase Short Circuit
-From flash-over on the phases touch each other t involves fault to earth (Most Severe)
insulation string

9. What is zone of protection?

 Power system is covered by zones.
 No part of the system is left unprotected.
 Neighboring zones overlap so there is no deadspot.

10. Compare between Primary and Back-Up Protection

Primary Protection Back-Up Protection

The essential protection for protecting system or
It is added as a precautionary measure
machine
First to act Next in the line of defense-meaning
11. Compare between types of Back-Up Protection.
Back-Up by
Back-Up by Time
Relay Back-up Breaker Back-up Remote Back-up Duplication
Grading
Principle
 Protective
devices are
duplicated
 Different
 Same Breaker  Same station
 Different Breakers for
for primary and and at same
breakers for primary and  Grading the time
back-up speed
primary and back-up setting for circuit
 Protective  Used for EHV
back-up  The breakers are brakers in each
systems are Transmission
 Both breakers at different zone of
different by lines, busbars,
are in the same stations protection
separate trip large generators
station (Completely
coils and large
independent)
transformers
 Fast and reliable
 Costly

12. Mention the qualities of protective relaying.

 Selectivity
 Speed, Time
 Sensitivity
 Reliability
 Adequateness

13. What is meant by selectivity?

 The protective relaying should select the faulty part of the system and isolate it from the healthy
part.
 Should not operate for faults beyond its protective zone

14. Why fault clearing time is significant?

 Rapid fault clearing minimizes the damage.
 Improving power system stability

15. Why is time lag provided?

 Permit discrimination between primary and back-up
 Prevent operation of relay during transients, starting currents, permissible load fluctuations

16. Define Sensitivity.

 Smallest value of actuating quantity at which the protection starts operation in relation with
minimum value of fault current in the protected zone.

Sensitivity( 𝐾 )=
17. Define Reliability.
 Measure the degree of certainty that a piece of equipment will perform
.
% Reliability = × 100
. .

18. Define Dependability.

 Measure the certainty that the relays will operate correctly for all faults for which they are
designed to operate
.
% Dependability = × 100
.

19. Define Security

 Measure the certainty that the relays will not operate incorrectly for any fault
.
% Security = × 100
.

20. Differentiate between protective scheme and protective system

 Protective scheme consists of set of protective systems
 Protective system is named according to the protected equipment

21. Write briefly on Relay unit.

 Important component of the protective system
 Named according to its type of construction and principle of operation
 Have 3 constructions:
o Electromagnetic
o Static
o Digital
 Classified according to:
o Functions
o Time characteristics

22. Compare between Relay constructions

Electromechanical Static or Electronic Digital or Microprocessor
 Single Relay is enough
 May include additional
 Several individual relays
 One or more relays required features not available with
required
electromechanical and
electronic relays
23. Compare between Analog, Digital and Numerical Relays
Analog Relays Digital Relays Numerical Relays
Measured quantities are Measured AC quantities are Measured AC quantities are
converted into lower voltages manipulated in analog form and sequentially sampled and
but with similar signals converted into square wave converted into numeric data
Logic Circuits or microprocessors Logic Circuits or microprocessors
These signals are then
compare the phase relationships compare the phase relationships
compared directly to reference
of the square wave to make a of the square wave to make a
values
trip decision trip decision

24. What are the Static Relays?

 Do not have any movable parts in their measuring systems
 Measurements by stationary electronic circuit
 Use various low power components
o Diodes
o Transistors
o Thyristors
o Resistors
o Capacitors
 Use silicon-type components because of their stability over a wide temperature range.

25. Compare between Relay Types

Current/Voltage/Frequency Distance Differential
 Operates when input meets  Use voltage and current to  Look at imbalance between
setting measure impedance to fault inputs
 Common for power
transformers and generators
 Used for transmission lines

26. Compare between Relay trip times

Instantaneous Time Delay
 Relay operates as soon as operating value met  Operating value is delayed
 Fixed Delay: Separate timing element
 Inverse Relay: Magnitude of operating
quantity and relay operating curve
 Delay decreases as operating value increases

27. Define Instantaneous Relay and IDMT Relay.

 Instantaneous Relay: Fast relay has relay time < 0.2 sec and has no time lag
 IDMT Relay: Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay as an inverse characteristic of current vs.
time, up to certain increased value of current after which the time is definite.
1. The measurement in majority of protective relays can be grouped as:
 Magnitude measurement
o Overcurrent
o over-voltage
o undercurrent.
 Product measurement such as power (V.I.cos(Φ)).
 Ratio measurement such as impedance (V / I).
 Comparison between similar electrical quantities such as vector difference between currents.

2. Briefly discuss the Magnitude Measurement.

 Respond to magnitude of actuating quantity:
o Current from CT’s
o Voltage from PT’s
 Frequency
 Waveform
 Rate of rise
 Depends upon the resultant output of the secondary current/voltage fed into the relay
 Single actuating type or multi actuating type

3. Briefly discuss the Product Measurement.

 Double actuating type, actuated by voltage and current
 Two fluxes are produced and the torque produced by their interaction is given by: T = V.l.cos(Φ)

4. What is the Attracted Armature Relay?

 Attracted armature relays respond to both AC and DC because torque is proportional to 𝐼 .
 They are fast relays. They have fast operation and fast reset because of small length of travel
and light moving parts.
 Described as instantaneous.

5. How can we obtain slow operating and resetting times and what are
their values?
 By fitting copper ring around the magnet, and by means of bellows
 Operating time = 0.1 sec , resetting time = 0.5  Slow
 Operating time = 0.5 milli-second  Fast
6. Draw Plunger type electromagnetic attraction relay and mention its
operating principle

 Current flowing in the coil of the plunger generates magnetic field

 If the force is great enough, contacts will be closed
 F = 𝐾 𝐼 − 𝐾 → 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 = 0 → I=

7. Draw balanced beam relay and mention its operating principle

8. Draw induction disc relay

9. Briefly discuss the Watt-hour Meter type Induction disc relay

 Torque is produced by interaction between flux and the eddy currents in the disc (produced by
flux Φ and Φ ).
 The current setting is selected by inserting a knob to take desired number of turns of the coil in
the circuit.

10. Mention the operating principle of Thermal Relays

 Operates due to the thermal effect of current, as it senses the current by temperature rise
 Do not measure the temperature directly
 Can respond to unbalanced three phase currents, as temperature increase due to negative
sequence.
 Used on motor starters

11. Mention the operating principle of Directional Relays

 Responds to:
o Flow of power in a definite direction with reference to the location of CT's and PT's.
o Magnitude and sign (direction) of power applied at their terminals.
12. Mention the principle of measurement Directional Relays
 P = V I cos Φ
 where Φ is a phase angle between I and V
 Q = V I sin Φ
 For 270° < Φ < + 90°, cos Φ = +ve, P = +ve.
 For Φ = 90° and 180°, P = zero.
 For + 90° < Φ < +270°, P = -ve.
 Therefore, the power flow can be sensed by sensing the magnitude and sign of V I cos Φ.
o The voltage coil of the directional relay is supplied from secondary of voltage-transformer.
o The current coil is supplied from the secondary of current transformer.
 The directional relay senses the power and responds if the power is positive

13. What are the causes of frequency varying? And what is the
frequency relay used for?
 Causes of frequency varying:
o Over-speeding: due to loss of load
o Under-speeding: due to increase in load
 Frequency relay is used in generator protection and generator control, they can be under-
frequency or over-frequency relays

14. What are Under voltage relays provided for?

 A.C. Circuits
 busbars
 motors
 rectifiers
 transformers

15. Briefly discuss the Under Voltage Relays.

 Undervoltage relays can have instantaneous characteristic or inverse characteristic depending
upon the construction and design
 The construction of instantaneous under-voltage relays is similar to usual induction relay or
attracted armature relay. But the directions of torque/forces on the movable element of relay are
different.
 For normal voltage, the restraining torque/force reduces and the relay operates due to operating
torque/force given by the spring.
 Inverse time under voltage relays have inverse characteristic, their operating time reduces with
reduction in voltage.
 Induction disc type construction is used for inverse under voltage relay. The relay coil is
energized by voltage to be measured either directly or via a voltage transformer.

16. What is the difference between under voltage relay and normal
induction relay
 The construction of instantaneous under-voltage relays is similar to usual induction relay or
attracted armature relay. But the directions of torque/forces on the movable element of relay are
different.
1. What is overcurrent protection? What are its types?
 Protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level.
 Has the following types:
o High speed overcurrent protection.
o Definite time overcurrent protection.
o Inverse minimum time overcurrent protection.
o Directional overcurrent protection (of above types).

2. What is overloading? What are its causes? How can we protect the
circuit from overcurrent?
 Taking more current than rated current, cat be short circuit current
 Overloading causes rise in temperature.
 Using thermal relays.

3. Briefly discuss the short circuit current.

 Could be phase faults, earth faults or winding faults.
 Several times (5 to 20) full load current.

4. How do you use overcurrent protection in protecting a machine?

 When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided as a back-up
and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained through fault.

5. What are protection devices used in overcurrent protection?

 Fuses
 C.B.
o With overloaded coils
o Tripped by over-current relays
 Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
 Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.

6. What are the primary requirements of over-current protection?

 The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over-current, and current
surges.
 The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over-current protections so as to
discriminate.

7. How can we achieve the previous requirements?

 The time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays).
 If time delay cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneous relaying is used.
8. What are the applications of over-current protection?
1) Motor Protection
2) Transformer Protection
3) Line Protection

9. How can we protect motor from over-current?

 For Motors > 120 H.P.
o Inverse time Relay
o Instantaneous phase Relay
o Ground over-current Relay
 Small and Medium size motors
o Thermal relays used for overload protection
o HRC fuses for short-circuit protection.
o Cost of CT’s and protective relays is not economically justified

10. How can we protect transformer from over-current?

 For large transformer
o Over-current Relay
o Differential Relay
o Temperature Indicators and Alarms
 Small transformers < 500 KVA
o Drop-out fuses
o Cost of relays plus circuit breakers is not generally justified.

11. How can we protect line from over-current?

1) Instantaneous overcurrent relays.
2) Inverse time overcurrent relays.
3) Directional overcurrent relay.

12. Mention different ways of the instantaneous over-current protection.

 Attracted armature type.
 Moving iron type.
 Permanent magnet moving coil type.
 Static.

13. Mention different ways of the in over-current protection.

 Electromagnetic induction type.
 Permanent magnet moving coil type.
 Static.

14. Mention way of the in over-current protection.

 Double actuating quantity induction relay with directional feature.
15. Where does HRC fuses being used?
 They are used in low voltage medium voltage and high voltage distribution systems, generally up
to 11 kV.

16. Mention characteristics of Relay units for over-current protection.

1) Definite characteristic
2) Inverse characteristic
3) Extremely Inverse
4) Very Inverse
5) Inverse

17. Compare between characteristics of relay units for over-current

protection.
Definite characteristic Inverse characteristic More Inverse characteristic
the time of operation is almost time is inversely proportional to time is inversely proportional to
definite current current
𝐼 𝑡=𝐾 𝐼 𝑡=𝐾 𝐼 𝑡=𝐾
where n can be between 2 to 8.
The choice depends on discrimination desired

18. What are instantaneous relays?

 Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag and which operate in less than
0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second.

19. What are relays which are not instantaneous called?

 Time Delay Relay

20. Compare between definite and inverse curve.

Definite time curve Inverse curve
is one in which operating time is little affected by is one in which the operating time becomes
magnitude of actuating current. However even definite less as the magnitude of the actuating
time relay has a characteristic which is slightly inverse. quantity is increased.

21. What are the setting rules?

 Pickup current setting:
o The minimum current value for which the relay operates.
 Time-delay setting:
o Time-delay before a relay whenever the fault current reaches a value equal to or greater
than the pickup current

22. What is the plug setting? What is the function of time multiplier
(TMS)?
 Refers to the magnitude of current at which the relay starts to operate.
 (TMS) decides the arc-length through which the disc travels, by reducing the length of travel, the
time is reduced.
23. IDMT Relay Characteristics (IEC 60255)

24. What is the data required for determination of actual operating time
of a relay?
 Time-PSM curve
 Current setting
 Time setting
 Fault current
 CT ratio

25. Construction and Operation of CT Connections in Over-current

Protection
 The three current transformers and relay coils connected in star and the star point is earthed.
 When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the secondary current of CT's increases.
 This current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up.
 The relay contacts close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker operates.
 Definite time relay can be set to get desired delay. Auxiliary relay is used to close trip circuit.=

26. Methods of CT Connections in Over-current Protection

 The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays responds to phase faults and
earth faults including single-phase to earth fault.
 For proper function of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of CT’s and polarity
connection should be noted.
27. What is Earth (Ground)Fault?
 When the fault current flows through earth return path
 Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults
 Earth faults are relatively frequent
 When separate earth fault protection is not economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault
currents. However, such protection lacks sensitivity.

28. What are connections of CT’s for Earth Fault Protection?

1) Residually connected Earth Fault Relay
2) Earth-fault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit

29. Draw Residually connected Earth Fault Relay and mention its theory.

 In absence of earth-fault:
o the vector sum of the three line currents is zero.
o The vector sum of the three secondary currents is also zero. ( 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 0)
 The sum (𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 ) is called residual current (Iresidual). Therefore, the residually connected
earth-fault relay does not operate.
 However, in presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and (𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 ≠ 0)
 Hence (Iresidual ) flows through the earth-fault relay. If the residual current is above the pick-up
value, the earth-fault relay operates.
30. Draw Earth-fault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit?

31. Draw Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection Relay and

mention its theory?

 The increase in current of phase causes corresponding increase in respective secondary currents.
 The secondary current flows through respective relay-units.
 Very often only two-phase relays are provided instead of three, because in case of phase faults
current in any at least two phases must increase.
 Hence two relay-units are enough.
32. Draw Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Current Transformer
and mention its theory.

Let 𝐼 , 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 be the three-line currents

Φ , Φ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Φ be corresponding components of magnetic flux in the core.

Assuming linearity, we get resultant flux Φ

Φ = 𝐾(𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 ) ________ where k is a constant.

Referring to theory of symmetrical components.

𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 3𝐼 = 𝐼 ___ where, 𝐼 is zero sequence current and 𝐼 is current in neutral to ground circuit.

During earth fault, the earth fault current flows through return neutral path. For example for single line
ground fault, 𝐼 = 3𝐼 = 𝐼

Hence the zero-sequence component of 𝐼 produces the resultant flux in the core. Hence core balance
current transformer is also called as zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT).

During normal condition:

o Earth fault is absent

o (𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 0)
o Φ =0
o Relay does not operate
1. Briefly discuss the Distance Protection
 A distance relay measures the ratio ( V / I ) at relay location which gives the measure of distance
between the relay and fault location.
 The impedance (resistance/reactance/admittance) of a fault loop is proportional to the distance
between the relay location and the fault point.
 For a given setting, the distance relay picks up when impedance measured by it is less than the
set value. Hence it protects a certain length of line. Hence it is called distance relay.
 The Ratio ( V / I ) is the impedance of the fault loop. Hence, the relay is also called “Impedance
Relay”
 The relay setting is 𝑍 . They relay will operate if the measured impedance is less than the set
value. So that, It protects a certain length of line.

 At the fault location → V = 0

 At the relay location → =𝑍
 If 𝑍 < 𝑍 → The relay will trip

2. Draw Impedance (Distance) Relay.

3. What is the principle of R-X Diagram.

4. What are types of Types of Distance Relays?

1) Plain Impedance Relay.
2) Directional Impedance Relay.
3) Mho type distance Relay.
4) Reactance type distance Relay.

5. What are the Disadvantages of Plain impedance relay?

 Relay is non-Directional. Therefore, discrimination between faults on neighboring sections is not
possible with plain impedance protection.
 It is non directional. Selectivity cannot be obtained as it operates for faults on either side. Circle
covers all four sectors.

 As it measures resistance and reactances, it is affected by resistance of arc, and results in under-
reach.
 It is affected by power swings (fluctuation of reactive power) (changes in voltage and current due
to switching) as the circular characteristic covers a large area on every side of center. Swing
point comes within circle.
 Reach Point = Furthest point at which relay can operate = 𝑍
o Over-Reach: Relay operates if 𝑍 > 𝑍

o Under-Reach: Relay operates if 𝑍 < 𝑍

6. What is Under-Reach?
 The relay is affected by 𝑅 (Short T.L.)
 The impedance relay will measure (𝑍 + 𝑅 )
. ×
 𝑅 = .

Where:
o 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠.
o L= Length of arc in meters in open standstill air.
o I = Fault current in Amperes.
 Shot Transmission line:
o 𝑅 ≫≫ 𝑍
o Under-Reach √
 Long Transmission line:
o 𝑅 ≪≪ 𝑍
o Under-Reach ×

7. Why it is desirable to examine the behavior of distance relays during

power swings?
 A sudden change in loading condition in a power system causes power swings between load point
and source.
 Under certain circumstances, the power swings can cause the operation of distance relays.

8. What are power swings and what are its advantages?

 During switching of lines, large loads or generating units, surges of real power and reactive power
flow through transmission lines causing oscillations in the voltage vectors and current vectors.
 The power swing is represented by a curve originating in load region and travelling towards relay
characteristic.
 During power swings the measurement of (V/I) by distance relays at sending-end and receiving-
end substations do not represent true (V/I) characteristic of the line.
 The measurement is falsified by power swings and the distance relay may operate wrongly if the
measured V/A falls within the operating characteristic of the relay.

9. What is the advantage and disadvantage of static relay?

 The static relays are provided with features to block the relay against permissible power swing
but operate for faults.

10. Briefly discuss the Reactance Type Distance Relay, mention its
advantages and draw characteristics
 The main advantage of reactance relay is that it is not affected by fault resistance. The
characteristic of plain reactance relay is a line parallel to R-axis in R-X plane.
 The reactance relay is not used by itself. It is generally used along with Mho Relay.
 Hence such relays are used for protection of short lines having fault currents less than 20 kA, In
such lines the effect of fault resistance is predominant.
11. Draw Ideal characteristics of Plain Reactance Type Distance Relay.

 Briefly Discuss the Mho Relay (Admittance Relays)

 Mho relay is also known as Admittance Relay M

 Measures a component of admittance Yθ. 
 It is also called as angle impedance relay.

12. Mention the characteristics of Mho Relay

 The mho characteristic on R-X diagram is a circle passing through origin.
 This characteristic is obtained by polarizing the impedance relay and directional relay.
1) Characteristic is directional and will operate for faults in one direction only.
2) Relative reach of the relay goes on changing for various ratios of R/X.

13. Draw the characteristics of Mho Relay

1. Briefly discuss the Differential Protection
 A differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities.
 A differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities.
 The relay responds to the vector difference between the two i.e to I1 - I2, which includes
magnitude and/or phase angle difference
 Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protected zone is exactly determined by
location of CT's.
 The vector difference is achieved by suitable connections of current transformers or voltage
transformer secondaries.

2. What are Applications of Differential Protection?

 Protection of Generators.
 Protection of Generator-Transformer Unit.
 Protection of Transformer.
 Protection of Feeder (Transmission Line) by Pilot Wire Differential Protection.
 Protection of Transmission Line by Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection.
 Protection of Large Motors.
 Bus-zone Protection.

3. Write the principle of circulating current differential (Merz-Prize)

protection and draw the circuit
4. What are difficulties in Differential Protection?
1) Difference in pilot wire lengths.
2) CT Ratio errors during short-circuits.
3) Saturation of CT magnetic circuits during short circuit condition.
To overcome this difficulty, the Percentage Differential Relay, or 'Biased Differential
Relay' is used.
4) Magnetizing Current Inrush in transformer while switching in.
To avoid this difficulty Harmonic Restraint is provided for the differential relay.
5) Tap-changing.

5. Write the principle of Biased or Percent Differential Relay and draw the
circuit.
6. Show the operation characteristic of Biased or Percent Differential
Relay.
7. Write the principle of Balanced Voltage Differential Protection and
draw the circuit.

8. What does the term pilot mean?

 The term “pilot” means that between the ends of transmission line there is interconnecting
channel of some sort over which information can be conveyed.

9. What is pilot relaying?

 An adaptation of the principles of differential relaying for the protection of transmission line
sections.

10. Does differential relaying is used for transmission line protection?

And why?
 No, differential relaying is not used for transmission-line protection because the terminals of a
line are separated by too great distance to interconnect the CT secondaries.
11. What does the pilot relaying provide and what is its difficult?
 Pilot relaying provides primary protection only; back-up protection must be provided by
supplementary relaying.

12. What are types of pilots?

 Three different types of such channels are in use
o Wire pilot
o Carrier-current pilot
o Microwave pilot”.

13. Briefly discuss the wire pilot.

 A wire pilot consists generally of a two-wire circuit of the telephone-line type, either open wire or
cable, frequently such circuits are rented from the local telephone company.

14. Briefly discuss the carrier-current pilot.

 A carrier-current pilot for protective relaying purposes is one in which low-voltage, high frequency
currents are transmitted along a conductor of a power line to a receiver at the other end, the
earth and ground wire generally acting as the return conductor.

15. Briefly discuss the microwave pilot.

 A microwave pilot is an ultra-high-frequency radio system operating above 900 Megacycles.