DOI: 10.1002/cad.

20441

CO M M E N TA RY

Teen dating violence: From analyzing the

problem to finding solutions

Barbara Krahé

University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Correspondence
Barbara Krahé, University of Potsdam, Department of Psychology, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–25, D-14476 Potsdam, Germany.
Email: [email protected]

1 INTRODUCTION

The contributions to this Special Issue have accumulated a broad spectrum of insights into
the problem of teen dating violence. By focusing on evidence gathered in a range of Euro-
pean countries, they complement the existing knowledge base, derived largely from studies
conducted in North America, by helping to identify both similarities and differences in the
scale and correlates of dating violence in teen dating relationships. Together, (the review by
Tomaszewska and Schuster 2021) and the original studies presented in this Special Issue
show that experiencing and engaging in behavior intended to inflict harm on a romantic
partner is a reality in the dating relationships of many teenagers, with a range of negative
effects on their physical and mental well-being and the development of healthy intimate
partnerships. The take-home message collectively presented by the papers in this issue is
as clear as it is simple: Teen dating violence is a serious social problem that requires mea-
sures at the individual, interpersonal, and societal level to prevent its occurrence and high-
light its norm-violating character. In this brief commentary, I attempt to outline promising
avenues for intervention and the need for systematic policy responses to reduce the prob-
lem of teen dating violence.

2 WHAT IS THE “EVIDENCE” REQUIRED FOR EVIDENCE-BASED

INTERVENTIONS?

There is a broad consensus in the scientific literature that psychological interventions

should be “evidence-based.” Realizing this claim involves at least three basic objectives.
First, a solid knowledge base is needed about the scale of the problem at hand, in this
case about the prevalence of different forms of teen dating violence perpetration and vic-
timization. Second, we need to use our theoretical knowledge to identify the causes of

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© 2021 The Authors. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Child & Adolescent Development. 2021;1–7. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cad 1

2 KRAHÉ

the problem so that we know which factors are promising candidates to be modified and
acknowledged by interventions at different levels, from the individual to the societal level.
The third task involves a careful empirical evaluation of the efficacy of the interven-
tions, using state-of-the-art evaluation designs and considering differences between target
groups, before the intervention is applied on a larger scale.
With respect to the first task, the current set of analyses joins a host of findings, includ-
ing meta-analytic evidence, in demonstrating that teen dating violence is a widespread
problem, yet findings vary widely as a function of differences in conceptual definitions,
measures, and research designs. Moreover, as Tomaszewska and Schuster (2021) highlight,
the available evidence from Europe—just as from North America—predominantly exam-
ined dating violence among heterosexual youth, neglecting youth with a LGBTQIA+ iden-
tity. Moreover, as shown by the individual studies, the issue of gender differences in teen
dating violence victimization and perpetration is still far from being resolved, with higher
prevalence rates for physical dating violence perpetration among females found in some
studies (Baier et al., 2021; Bertok et al., 2021), but not in others (Schuster et al., 2021; Toplu-
Demirtaş & Aracı-İyiaydın, 2021). Moreover, comparing perpetration rates for male and
female adolescents may yield different conclusions for different forms of dating violence
(Oyarzún et al., 2021). In all of these respects, the current findings tie in with the evidence
generated by studies conducted in North America.
Regarding the identification of modifiable risk factors of teen dating violence, the stud-
ies in this Special Issue contribute several promising results. Although mostly correlational
and therefore awaiting confirmation through longitudinal designs, they present evidence
that relationship features, such as conflict, passion, intimacy, and commitment, are linked
to teen dating violence victimization and perpetration in complex ways (Bertok et al.,
2021; Bianchi et al., 2021). They also suggest that dating violence is not an isolated phe-
nomenon in the social relationships of adolescents. Instead, it shows overlap and paral-
lels with other forms of aggression, such as school violence (Baier et al., 2021), and is pre-
dicted by broader normative beliefs about the acceptability of aggression over and above
specific attitudes condoning physical aggression against a dating partner (Schuster et al.,
2021).
Moreover, the current evidence clearly shows that the occurrence of teen dating violence
varies in relation to variables in adolescents’ social environment. Exposure to violence in
the family (Toplu-Demirtaş & Aracı-İyiaydın, 2021), having friends who engage in violent
behavior (Baier et al., 2021), and experiencing low levels of informal control in the fam-
ily and school context (Bertok et al., 2021) were all identified as correlates of teen dating
violence, again confirming established findings from previous research.

3 TOWARD A MULTI-LEVEL INTERVENTION APPROACH

The brief summary has shown what the present papers add to the international knowledge
base about the factors that (a) are linked to differential probabilities of teen dating violence
and (b) can potentially be changed through intervention efforts, providing a solid basis for
the development of such interventions. Because potential risk factors are located at dif-
ferent levels, interventions also need to adopt a multi-level perspective (Rothman et al.,
2015). Several widely used teen dating violence interventions have been developed in the
North American context, most of which consist of a range of components addressing ado-
lescents, parents and teachers, and local communities. Examples that have been subjected
to systematic empirical evaluation comprise Dating Matters (Niolon et al., 2019), Fourth R
(Wolfe et al., 2009), Safe Dates (Foshee, Dixon, et al., 2015), and Shifting Boundaries (Taylor
et al., 2015).
KRAHÉ 3

In terms of designing intervention content and evaluating intervention success, the

most extensive research literature is available about interventions designed to change
individual-level variables, most notably awareness, attitudes, and normative beliefs (Vagi
et al., 2013). Many of these programs are implemented in a school context, and most are
directed at male and female youth in the roles of both perpetrators and victims. A meta-
analysis of school-based interventions that compared an intervention group with a control
group found significant intervention effects on increasing knowledge and reducing posi-
tive attitudes about teen dating violence, the acceptance of rape myths, and the odds of
victimization, whereas no effect was found on the odds of perpetration (De La Rue et al.,
2017). Another meta-analysis confirmed the positive effects on attitudes, but not on the
odds of victimization (Lee & Wong, 2020). Instead, this analysis yielded a significant effect
size for reducing perpetration. A meta-analysis that included only more methodologically
rigorous randomized control studies and examined different forms of teen dating violence
separately found significant reductions of emotional, physical, and sexual dating violence
perpetration and lower odds of emotional and physical victimization in the intervention
groups (Russell et al., 2021). In one of the very few intervention studies from Europe, a
Spanish study found intervention effects on dispelling myths about romantic love, improv-
ing self-esteem, and improving anger regulation, but not on the odds of dating violence
perpetration or victimization (Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2018).
A key aspect of developing successful dating violence prevention measures is the recog-
nition of the needs and challenges of specific groups. Rather than adopting a “one-size-fits-
all” approach, it is increasingly recognized that programs need to take specific vulnerabili-
ties and risk factors into account. For example, the meta-analytic finding that risk markers
for the perpetration of dating violence differ for male and female adolescents as well as
evidence that females may suffer more negative consequences of dating violence victim-
ization than males call for interventions that reflect these differential factors (Spencer et al.,
2021; Taquette & Monteiro, 2019). Moreover, interventions need to be adapted to the spe-
cific life situation of adolescents that may define them as high-risk groups for experiencing
and/or engaging in dating violence. For example, specially adapted programs have been
developed for adolescents with a history of exposure to domestic violence (e.g., Foshee,
Dixon, et al., 2015; Rizzo et al., 2018), for teenage mothers (e.g., Herrman & Waterhouse,
2014; Kan et al., 2021), and for sexual and gender minority youth (e.g., Wesche et al., 2021).
Because dating relationships are deeply embedded in cultural norms and scripts, interven-
tions also need to consider adolescents’ ethnic and cultural background (Eaton & Stephens,
2018; Malhotra et al., 2015).
Acknowledging the pivotal role of the family in laying the ground for the development
of dating relationships, family-based interventions have been developed (Doucette et al.,
2021). Examples are Families for Safe Dates (Foshee et al., 2012) or Mums and Teens for Safe
Dates (Foshee, Benefield, et al., 2015). These programs are directed at changing caregivers’
awareness, attitudes, and responses regarding teen dating violence, and promising results
regarding their efficacy have been demonstrated in systematic evaluations by the respec-
tive teams.
Similarly, research on risk factors for teen dating violence has pointed to the influential
role of peers (Cascardi & Jouriles, 2018; Ellis & Dumas, 2018). In adolescence, peer relation-
ships become increasingly important, and peers’ tendency to show aggressive behavior
was shown to have a contagious effect on initially less aggressive individuals through prin-
ciples of direct reinforcement and observational learning (Busching & Krahé, 2018; Jung
et al., 2019). Therefore, school-based interventions provide a good setting for changing
peer norms about the acceptance of dating violence, and in line with the proposal for an
integrated approach to prevention, norms about other forms of youth aggression (Joseph
& Kuperminc, 2020). Furthermore, the consistent finding that dating violence is more likely
4 KRAHÉ

to occur in relationships characterized by high levels of conflict and dysfunctional conflict

resolution styles points to the importance of interventions promoting constructive ways of
negotiating conflict (Bonache et al., 2017).
Finally, interventions are needed that are located at the societal level. Evidence that teen
dating violence is higher in disorganized neighborhoods with a lack of connectedness calls
for creating structures, for example through supervised youth centers, that promote norms
of non-violence in social interactions and safe spaces for developing respectful and respon-
sible teen relationships (Johnson et al., 2015). Moreover, there is evidence of a significant
positive association between gender inequality (defined at the level of States in the U.S.)
and physical dating violence victimization reported by females (Gressard et al., 2015). The
finding that no association was found in this study with female sexual victimization or
with male sexual and physical victimization by a dating partner shows the complexity of
societal-level variables that requires more systematic research.

4 IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY MEASURES

Despite the fact that most of the research on the risk factors and prevention of teen dating
violence has focused on individual- and interpersonal-level variables, these studies have
important implications for policy measures required to reduce the prevalence of violence
in teen dating relationship. First, approaches are needed at the societal level to raise aware-
ness of the problem of teen dating violence. As we have seen, attitudes condoning violence
against dating partners and, more broadly, in social relationships, are linked to a greater
likelihood of adolescents engaging in and experiencing violence in dating relationships
and of parents failing to recognize and respond to warning signs that their children may
be at risk. Therefore, campaigns designed to convey the message that different forms of
harmful behavior against a dating partner are unacceptable are needed and have to be
properly evaluated.
Second, issues around teen dating violence need to be given a dedicated place in school
curricula addressing sex and relationship education and should be part of every school’s
commitment to create a violence-free social environment and encourage bystander inter-
vention (Banyard et al., 2020). Furthermore, schools and universities should be required
to develop support systems to which victims of teen dating violence may turn and train
teachers to recognize warning signs of teen dating violence among their students. Existing
approaches in response to the problem of adolescent bullying may inform such initiatives,
as the two forms of youth aggression were found to have similar risk factors, dynamics, and
outcomes.
Third, possible societal risk factors contributing to teen dating violence should be more
closely monitored. This includes the identification of at-risk neighborhoods with a high
level of community violence that may spill over into the dating relationships of adoles-
cent residents. It also includes attention to the role of violent media, especially media with
misogynous content, that may fuel the normative acceptance of violence against dating
partners and was found to be related to men’s engagement in dating and sexual violence
in particular (Rodenhizer & Edwards, 2019). Accordingly, media awareness training should
be incorporated into the contents of prevention programs (Friedlander et al., 2013).

5 CONCLUSION

Adopting a bird’s-eye perspective on the large field of teen dating violence research, it
is clear that current theoretical and empirical knowledge on risk factors and effective
KRAHÉ 5

interventions is based almost exclusively on studies from North America. While basic psy-
chological mechanisms, such as social learning or peer influence, may hold in a general
fashion, other aspects, such as patterns and norms of teen dating and relevant contextual
features, such as drinking culture or gender roles, are more strongly culture-bound and
may differ between countries. The studies in this Special Issue have contributed to the
analysis of parallels as well as specifics of data from European countries with established
findings from the North American literature. For example, they show the same inconclu-
siveness regarding gender differences in the prevalence of teen dating violence apparent
in several previous meta-analyses, which requires further theorizing and empirical inves-
tigation. At the same time, it has to be stated that despite clear evidence of substantial
prevalence rates, systematically evaluated interventions from Europe are notably absent
from the research literature, calling for intensified research funding and efforts.
A second summary observation is that analyses of risk and protective factors of teen dat-
ing variables and prevention efforts for which methodologically sound evaluation stud-
ies are available have focused almost exclusively on individual- and interpersonal-level
factors. Very few studies have included systematic evaluations of changes in social con-
text, for example, in the form of awareness-raising campaigns or introduction of for-
mal or informal control. Addressing this shortcoming is clearly a challenge, but it is
needed, not least to persuade policy makers that teen dating violence cannot be changed
by focusing solely on the individual victims and perpetrators. Developing loving and
trustful intimate relationships is a key task in adolescence, and it is our obligation as a
society to create a supportive environment without violence in which this task can be
accomplished.

ORCID
Barbara Krahé https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8306-8497

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How to cite this article: Krahé, B.. (2021). Teen dating violence: From analyzing the
problem to finding solutions. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development,
1–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20441