UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION
PRESENTED BY
S.VALAI GANESH M.E-CAD/CAM
RAMCO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
RAJAPALAYAM
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Introduction to Mechatronics – Systems –

Concepts of Mechatronics approach – Need for
Mechatronics – Emerging areas of Mechatronics –
Classification of Mechatronics. Sensors and
Transducers: Static and dynamic Characteristics of
Sensor, Potentiometers – LVDT – Capacitance
sensors – Strain gauges – Eddy current sensor –
Hall effect sensor – Temperature sensors – Light
sensors
 MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin

(1970’s) and can be defined as the application of
electronics and computer technology to control the
motions of mechanical systems

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 MECHATRONICS
It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and
manufacturing system design (Figure 1.1.2). It involves
application of electrical, mechanical, control and
computer engineering to develop products, processes
and systems with greater flexibility, ease in redesign and
ability of reprogramming. It concurrently includes all
these disciplines

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 MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics can also be termed as replacement of

mechanics with electronics or enhance mechanics with
electronics. For example, in modern automobiles,
mechanical fuel injection systems are now replaced with
electronic fuel injection systems. This replacement made
the automobiles more efficient and less pollutant

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 MECHATRONICS

By employment of reprogrammable
microcontrollers/microcomputers, it is now easy to add
new functions and capabilities to a product or a system.
Today’s domestic washing machines are “intelligent” and
four-wheel passenger automobiles are equipped with
safety installations such as air-bags, parking (proximity)
sensors, anti-theft electronic keys etc

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

A system can be thought of as a box or a

bounded whole which has input and output elements,
and a set of relationships between these elements

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

Actuators: Solenoids, voice coils, D.C. motors, Stepper motors,

Servomotor, hydraulics, pneumatics.

Sensors: Switches, Potentiometer, Photoelectric, Digital

encoder, Strain gauge, Thermocouple,
accelerometer etc.

Input signal conditioning and interfacing: Discrete circuits,

Amplifiers, Filters, A/D, D/D.

Digital control architecture: Logic circuits, Microcontroller,

SBC, PLC, Sequencing and timing,
Logic and arithmetic, Control
algorithm, Communication.
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MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

Output signal conditioning and interfacing: D/A, D/D,

Amplifiers, PWM, Power transistor, Power Op - amps.

Graphical displays: LEDs, Digital displays, LCD, CRT

The actuators produce motion or cause some action;
The sensors detect the state of the system parameters,
inputs and outputs;
Digital devices control the system;
Conditioning and interfacing circuits provide connection
between the control circuit and the input/output devices;
Graphical displays provide visual feedback to users
 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A measurement system can be defined as a black

box which is used for making measurements. It has the
input as the quantity being measured and the output as
a measured value of that quantity

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Measurement system consists of the following

three elements.
a) Sensor

b) Signal conditioner

c) Display System

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

SENSOR
A sensor consists of transducer whose function is to
convert the one form of energy into electrical form of
energy. A sensor is a sensing element of measurement
system that converts the input quantity being measured into
an output signal which is related to the quantity.

Temperature Sensor – Thermocouple

Input – Temperature
Output – E.M.F
(Electrical Parameter)

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

SIGNAL CONDITIONER
A signal conditioner receives signal from the sensor
and manipulates it into a suitable condition for display. The
signal conditioner performs filtering, amplification or other
signal conditioning on the sensor output.

Temperature measurement – Single Conditioner function

(Amplifier)
Input – Small E.M.F value
(From sensor)
Output – Big E.M.F Value
(Amplified)
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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

DISPLAY SYSTEM
A display system displays the data (output) from
the signal conditioner by analog or digital. A digital
system is a temporary store such as recorder.

Display – L.E.D

Input – Conditioned Signal

(from signal conditioner)

Output – Value of the quantity (Temperature)

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

CONTROL SYSTEM

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM

CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

ELEMENTS OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

The elements of closed loop control system are

Comparison Unit
Control Unit
Correction Unit
Process Unit
Measurement Device

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

ELEMENTS OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

ELEMENTS OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

System of Controlling Room Temperature

Controlled Variable : Room temperature

Reference Variable : Required Room temperature
(pre-set value)
Comparison Element : Person compares the measured
value with required value
Error Signal : Different between the measured
and required temperatures.
Control Unit : Person
Correction Unit : The switch on the fire
Process : Heating by the fire Measuring
Device : Thermometer

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

System of Controlling Water Level

Controlled variable : Water level in the tank
Reference variable : Initial setting of the float and lever
position
Comparison Element : The lever

Error signal : Difference between the

actual & initial setting of the
lever positions

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

Control Unit : The pivoted lever

Correction : The flap opening or closing
the water supply
Unit Process : The water level in the tank
Measuring device : The floating ball and lever

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

Automatic Speed Control of Rotating Shaft

Potentiometer - To set the reference value

(Voltage to be supplied to
differential amplifier)

Differential amplifier - To compare amplify the

difference between the
reference and feedback values

Tachogenerator - To measure the speed of the

rotating shaft and is connected

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

AUTOMATIC SPEED CONTROL OF ROTATING SHAFT

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 MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

SEQUENTIAL CONTROLLERS
It is used to control the process that are strictly
ordered in a time or sequence.

Examples
DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE
AUTOMATIC CAMERA
ENGINE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

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 DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE

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DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE
 DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE

There are four main cycles in washing machine operations.

Pre-wash cycle

Main Wash cycle

Rinse cycle

Spinning cycle

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 DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE

(I) PRE WASH CYCLE SYLLABUS

•Pre-wash cycle may involve the following sequence of
operations.
•Opening of valve to fill the drum when a current is supplied.
• Microprocessor is used to operate the switch for opening
closing the valve.
•Closing the valve after receiving the signal from a sensor
when the required level of water is filled in the washing
drum.
•Stopping the flow of water after the current is switched off
by the microprocessor.
•Switch on the motor to rotate for stipulated time.
•Initiates the operation of pump to empty the water from the
drum.
•Pre-wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the drum by
cold water
 DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE

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(II) MAIN WASH CYCLE
Main wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the
drum by hot water and the sequence of operations in main
wash is as follows:

•Cold water is supplied after the Pre-wash cycle is

completed.
•Current is supplied in large amount to switch on the heater
for heating the cold water.
•Temperature sensor switches off the current after the
water is heated to required temperature.
•Microprocessor or cam switch ON the motor to rotate the
drum
•Microprocessor or cam switches on the current to a
discharge pump to empty the drum.
 DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE

(III) RINSE CYCLE

Rinse cycle involves washing out the clothes with cold

water a number of times and the sequence of operations in a
Rinse cycle are as follows:

•Opening of valve to allow cold water into the drum when

the microprocessor are given signals to supply current after
the main wash cycle is completed.
•Switches off the supply current by the signals from
microprocessor
•Operation of motor to rotate the drum
•Operation of pump to empty the drum and respect this
sequence a number of times.

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 DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE CYCLE

(IV) SPINNING CYCLE

Spinning cycle involves removing of water from the

clothes and the sequence of operations is

•Switching on the drum motor to rotate it at a higher speed

than a rinsing cycle.

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 AUTOMATIC CAMERA

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 ENGINE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

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 ENGINE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

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 SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF
MECHATRONICS
• In Mechatronics, the technologies of electronics,
software and information systems are integrated with
Mechanical engineering

• The success of industries in manufacturing and

selling goods in a world market increasingly depends on
an ability to integrate electronics and computing
technologies into a wide range of products and processes.

• The performance of many current products

like………… and manufacturing process could be simple,
cheap, reliable and with a greater flexibility of operation
than the earlier products
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 SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF
MECHATRONICS
• To sustain in a competitive situation, we need
integrated and interdisciplinary approach named
mechatronics.

• In achieving this integration, it combines its core

discipline electronics engineering, computing and
mechanical engineering with links into areas-
manufacturing technology management and working
practices.

• Mechatronics may be referred as electromechanical

systems or control and automation engineering

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 NEED FOR MECHATRONICS
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I. CHANGING MARKET CONDITIONS
• Market situations are so volatile that often products
become obsolete very fast because of the changing
perceptions of consumers.
• Competition is so tough that the sellers market is
turning into buyers market.

II. SHORT PRODUCT RUNS

Short production cycles, batch production and job
changeovers frequently influence the possibility of short
production runs, market demand and obsoletion of
features.

III. VARIETY IN PRODUCT RANGE

Variation in size, shape, feature, facility, performance and
aesthetics are governed by customer likes, dislikes and
 NEED FOR MECHATRONICS

IV. GOOD PRODUCT QUALITY AND CONSISTENCY

V. DEMAND FOR INCREASED FLEXIBILITY

FMS, CNC, robots and AGVs

VI DISTRIBUTED CONTROL AND LOCAL DECISION MAKING

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 EMERGING AREAS OF MECHATRONICS
Control systems
Robots (Transport and welding)
Industrial automation (barcode systems and production
belts)
Building automation (security systems, automatic door
closing systems)
Home appliances (Washing machines and dish washers)
Automotive
Defence Industry

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 EMERGING AREAS OF MECHATRONICS

Medical Applications
Aeronautical Engineering
Image processing and Sound processing
Production
Laser optical systems (barcode)
Intelligent measuring devices (calibration, measuring
and testing devices)

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MECHATRONICS

PRIMARY LEVEL MECHATRONICS

Integrates electrical engineering with mechanical

action at the basic control level
Example : Fluid valves and relay switches

SECONDARY LEVEL MECHATRONICS

Integrates microelectronics into electrically controlled

devices
Example : cassette tape player.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MECHATRONICS

TERTIARY LEVEL MECHATRONICS

Integrates advanced control strategy using

microelectronics, microprocessors and other application
specific integrated circuits.

QUATERNARY LEVEL MECHATRONICS

This level attempts to improve smartness a step ahead

by introducing intelligence and fault detection and
isolation capability into the system

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS

SENSORS
It is an element which is not subjected to physical
change experience a related change.

Example: LVDT

TRANSDUCERS

It is an element which is subjected to physical change

experience a related change.

Example: Tactile Sensors.

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 SENSORS
SENSORSAND
ANDTRANSDUCERS
TRANSUCERS
Sensor
classification

Based on Based on Based on Based on

Based on
contact Application Principle Power supply
measurement

Contact Torque Thermal Active

Absolute
Non Passive
contact Load Magnetic
Relative
Displace
ment Optical

Temper
Electrical
ature

Intensity Eddy
Current

Etc., Hall effect

Chemical

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
Sensors classification

• Broadly classified into

– Direct sensor (stimulus converted to electrical
signal)
– Complex sensor (sensor may incorporate several
transducers to convert stimulus to electrical
signal)

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
Sensors classification
Passive Sensor:

It requires external power supply. Active sensors are

sometime called as parametric (because their property
can be change in response to the external effect and
these property can be subsequently converted to electrical
signal).
Eg: strain gauge

Active Sensor:

It requires no power supply

Eg: photodiode, piezoelectric and
thermocouple.
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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
Sensors classification
Absolute Sensor:
An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in
reference to an absolute physical scale that is
independent on the measurement conditions.
– Eg: a thermistor: a temperature-sensitive
resistor
Relative Sensor:
A relative sensor produces a signal that relates
to some special case.
– Eg: thermocouple: It produces an electric
voltage that is function of temperature
gradient across the thermocouple wires
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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
Sensors classification

• The absolute and relative sensors is a

pressure sensor. An absolute-pressure
sensor produces signal in reference to
vacuum—an absolute zero on a
pressure scale.
• A relative-pressure sensor produces
signal with respect to a selected
baseline that is not zero pressure (e.g.,
to the atmospheric pressure)
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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS

Static characteristics:
– Static characteristics are values given when
study state condition occur, i.e. the values
given when the transducer has settled
down after having received some input.
Dynamic characteristics:
– Dynamic characteristics refer to the
behaviour between the time that the input
value changes and the time that the value
given by the transducer settles down to the
steady-state value.
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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
STATIC CHARACTERSTICS
(I) RANGE AND SPAN
The range of a transducer defines the limits between
which the input can vary.
The difference between the limits (maximum value -
minimum value) is known as span.
For example a load cell is used to measure force. An
input force can vary from 20 to 100 N. Then the range of
load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load cell is 80 N (i.e.,
100- 20)

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
(II) ERROR

•The algebraic difference between the indicated value and

the true value of the measured parameter is termed as the
error of the device.
•Error = Indicated value — true value
•For example, if the transducer gives a temperature reading
of 30°C when the actual temperature is 29° C, then the error
is + 1°C. If the actual temperature is 3 1° C, then the error is
— 1°C.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY

(III) ACCURACY

•Accuracy is defined as the ability of the instrument to

respond to the true value of the measure variable under the
reference conditions.
•For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1° C.
This means that reading given by the thermocouple can be
expected to lie within + 1°C (or) — 1°C of the true value.

•Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range

output (or) full scale deflection.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY

(IV) SENSITIVITY

The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much

output we can get per unit input.
sensitivity = Output / Input
(V) PRECISION

It is defined as the degree of exactness for which the

instrument is intended to perform

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
(VII) HYSTERESIS ERROR

•When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the

graph of output Vs value of measured quantity.

•First for increasing values of the measured quantity and

then for decreasing values of the measured quantity.
The two output readings obtained usually differ from each
other.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
(VIII) REPEATABILITY

The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are

its ability to give the same output for repeated applications of
the same input value.

(IX) RELIABILITY

The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that

it will perform its assigned functions for a specific period of
time under given conditions.

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
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(X) STABILITY
The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the
same output when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.

(XI) DRIFT
The term drift is the change in output that occurs over
time.

(XII) DEAD BAND

There will be no output for certain range of input

values. This is known as dead band. There will be no output
until the input has reached a particular value.
 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY SYLLABUS

(XIII) DEAD TIME

It is the time required by a transducer to begin to respond
to a change in input value.

(XIV) RESOLUTION
Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the
measured value that can be detected.
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value
which will produce an observable change in the input
 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY

(XV) BACKLASH
Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle
through which any part of a mechanical system can be
moved in one direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important
in the precision design of gear trains

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
SAMPLE PROBLEM I

Find the resolution for an instrument having full scale

of 500V and 100 main scale division with subdivision of
10 per main division

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 SENSORS AND TRANSUCERS
SAMPLE PROBLEM II

Sensitivity of a thermocouple is 0.01V/oC. Find the

output voltage if the temperature is 200oC. Also find
temperature for 3.5V output

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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
DYNAMIC CHARACTERSTICS

(A) Response Time

(B) Time Constant

(C) Rise time

(D) Settling time

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 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
DYNAMIC CHARACTERSTICS
RESPONSE TIME
• This is the time which
elapses after a constant
input, a step input is
applied to the
transducer up to the
point at which the
transducer gives an
output corresponding
to some specified
percentage.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERSTICS
TIME CONSTANT

• This is the 63.2% response time.

• The time constant is a measure of the
inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will
react to changes in its input: the bigger the
time constant , the slower the reaction to a
changing input signal.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERSTICS
RISE TIME

• This is the time taken for the output to rise to

some specified percentage of the steady-
state output.
• Often the rise time refers to the time taken
for the output to rise from 10% of the
steady- state value to 90 or 95% of the
steady state value.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERSTICS
SETTLING TIME

• This is the time taken for the output to

settle to within some percentage.

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 SENSORS
POTENTIOMETER

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 SENSORS
POTENTIOMETER

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 SENSORS
APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER

These sensors are primarily used in the

control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that
the moving member or component reaches its
commanded position.
These are typically used on machine-tool
controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing,
these are used in control of injection molding
machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying,
robotics, etc. These are also used in computer-
controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

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 SENSORS
POTENTIOMETER- PROBLEM I
A rotary potentiometer is used for angle
measurement. Potentiometer is supply with 10 V and is
set at 82o. The range of this single turn pot is 350o.
Calculate the output voltage?

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POTENTIOMETER- PROBLEM II
A potentiometer which is used to measure
the rotational position of shaft has 850 turns of wire.
The input range is from -160o to +160o. The output
range is from 0V to 12V. Determine (a) the span (b)
the sensitivity in volts per degree and (c) the average
resolution in volts.

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POTENTIOMETER- PROBLEM III
A potentiometer resistance transducer has a
total winding resistance of 8 kΩ and a maximum
displacement range of 5 cm. The power dissipation at
maximum displacement is not to exceed 50 mW.
Determine the output voltage of the transducer when
the input displacement is 2 cm.

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 SENSORS
POTENTIOMETER- PROBLEM IV
A potentiometer which is used to measure
the rotational position of shaft has 750 turns of wire.
The input range is from -150o to +150o. The output
range is from 0V to 10V. Determine (a) the span (b)
the sensitivity in volts per degree and (c) the average
resolution in volts.

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 SENSORS

LVDT

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 SENSORS
LVDT

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 SENSORS
LVDT- PROBLEM I
The output of an LVDT is connected to a 10A ammeter
through an amplifier whose amplification factor is 400.
An output of 5mA appears across the terminals of
LVDT when the core moves through a distance of
0.95mm. Calculate the sensitivity of LVDT and that of
the whole set up. The ammeter scale has 100
divisions. The scale can be read to 1/10 of a division.
Determine the resolution of the instrument in
millimetres.

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LVDT- PROBLEM II

The output of LVDT is 1.5 V in maximum displacement. At

certain load the maximum deviation from its original
position is ±0.003 V. Find the linearity of the device

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LVDT- PROBLEM III
An LVDT with secondary Voltage of 10 V, is having range
of 50 mm. Find the output voltage when the core is 20
mm from center towards S2. Also find sensitivity of
transducer.

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 SENSORS
LVDT- PROBLEM IV

Calculate the LVDT core displacement if the output

voltage developed across the terminal of LVDT is 1.5 V.
The sensitivity of the LVDT is 2V/mm.

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 SENSORS
APPLICATIONS OF LVDT SYLLABUS

• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo

valve applications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic
cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products
viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products
being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals
during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak
detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an
ATM.
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CAPACITANCE SENSORS

Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor

and is primarily used to measure the linear displacements
from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It
comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one
capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear
displacement might take in two forms

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 SENSORS
CAPACITANCE SENSORS

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 SENSORS
APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITIVE SENSORS
• Feed hopper level monitoring
• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
To measure shape errors in the part being
produced
To analyze and optimize the rotation of
spindles in various machine tools such as surface grinders,
lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by
measuring errors in the machine tools themselves

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 SENSORS
CAPACITIVE SENSORS - PROBLEM I
Calculate the capacitance of an air gap parallel plate
capacitor with plates 900 mm2 and a plate separation of 1
mm. Calculate the change in capacitance when movable
plate is displaced 0.4 mm further from fixed plate.

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 SENSORS
CAPACITIVE SENSORS - PROBLEM II
A Parallel plate capacitor transducer has plate area of
800 mm2 and air separation of 0.5 mm is used to
measure displacement of an object coupled to one plate of
capacitor. Find capacitance when displacement is
0.1 mm. Also, find sensitivity of transducer. Assume
ε = 8.85*10-12 F/m.

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 SENSORS
STRAIN GAUGES

Strain gauge are devices whose resistance changes

under the application of force or strain

They can be used for measurement of force, strain,

pressure, displacement, acceleration etc.

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length

in the direction of applied load to the original length of an
element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element

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 SENSORS SYLLABUS
STRAIN GAUGES
Strain gauge are devices whose resistance changes
under the application of force or strain

They can be used for measurement of force, strain,

pressure, displacement, acceleration etc.

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length

in the direction of applied load to the original length of an
element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element
ΔR/R α ε;
ΔR/R = G ε
where G is the constant of proportionality and is
called as gauge factor. In general, the value of G is considered
in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order
of 100 Ω.
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STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
THEORY OF STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

STRAIN
GAUGE

MECHANICAL OPTICAL ELECTRICAL

BONDED UNBONDED FOIL

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 SENSORS
MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
OPTICAL STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
BONDED STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
BONDED STRAIN GAUGES
• The resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine
resistance wire of about 0.025 mm in diameter or less.
• The grid is cemented to carrier(base) which may be a thin
sheet of paper, a thin sheet of Bakelite or a sheet of
Teflon.
• The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so
as to prevent it from any mechanical damage.
• The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
specimen under study.
• This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid
of wires.
• Size of SG is as small as 3mm by 3mm square and large as
25mm long and 12.5mm wide.

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 SENSORS
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGES

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 SENSORS
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGES
• At Initial preload , the strains and resistances of the four
arms are nominally equal, with the result the output
voltage of the bridge, e0 =0.

• When applying pressure produces small displacement, the

displacement increases tension in two wires and
decreases it in the other two, thereby increases the
resistance of two wires which are in tension and
decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wires.

• These causes unbalance in the bridge and producing an

output voltage which is proportional to input
displacement.

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FOIL STRAIN GAUGES

• This class only the extension of the bonded metal wire strain
gauge.
• It has much greater heat dissipation capacity as compared with
wire wound strain gauges on account of their great surface
area for the same volume.
• Foil type gauges are mounted on a flexible insulating carrier
film about 0.025 mm thick which is made of polymide, glass
phenolic etc.
• Typical gauge resistance are 120, 350 and 1000Ω with
allowable gauge current of 5 to 40mA and gauge factor 2 to 4.
• Gauge size about 0.38mm long and safe bend radius 1.5mm.

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COMPOSITION OF STRAIN GAUGE MATERIAL
S.No Strain Gauge Composition Gauge
factor(λ)
1 Constantan or 55% cu, 45% Ni 2
advance
2 Isoelastic 1 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 4% Mn,Si, 3.5
Molybdenum, 52% Fe
3 Isoelastic 2 36%Ni, 8%Cr,0.5% 3.6
Molybdenum, 55.5% Fe
4 Karma 74% Ni, 20% Cr, 3% Al, 2
3% Fe
5 Armour D 70% Fe, 20%Cr, 10% Al 2
6 Platinum-Tungsten 92% Pt, 8% W 4
7 Nichrome V 80% Ni, 20% Cr 2.1
8 Semiconductor Strain gauge 130

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STRAIN GAUGES TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

Measurement are to be carried over a long period of

time therefore the gauges are subjected to changes in
ambient temperature.
This variation in temperature causes change in
resistivity and apparent strain.

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STRAIN GAUGE- PROBLEM I

A strain gauge with gauge factor of 4 has a resistance of

120 Ω when unstrained. If the strain gauge undergoes a
change in length from 0.25 mm to 0.255 mm. Find the
new resistance.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

• This module is intended to present information on the NDT

method of eddy current inspection.

• Eddy current inspection is one of several methods that

use the principal of “electromagnetism” as the basis for
conducting examinations.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

• Eddy currents are created through a process called

electromagnetic induction.

• When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such

as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around
the conductor.

• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current

rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced
to zero.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

If another electrical conductor is brought into the

proximity of this changing magnetic field, the reverse effect
will occur. Magnetic field cutting through the second
conductor will cause an “induced” current to flow in this
second conductor. Eddy currents are a form of induced
currents!

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow

in a circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that
are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path
around obstacles when conditions are right.

Eddy Currents

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

In order to generate eddy currents for an

inspection a “probe” is used. Inside the probe is a length of
electrical conductor which is formed into a coil.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

Alternating current is allowed to flow in the coil at a

frequency chosen by the technician for the type of test
involved.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

A dynamic expanding and collapsing magnetic field

forms in and around the coil as the alternating current flows
through the coil.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

When an electrically conductive material is placed in

the coil’s dynamic magnetic field electromagnetic, induction
will occur and eddy currents will be induced in the material.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate

their own “secondary” magnetic field which will oppose the
coil’s “primary” magnetic field.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR
This entire electromagnetic induction process to
produce eddy currents may occur from several hundred to
several million times each second depending upon
inspection frequency.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR- INSPECTION DATA
• There are three characteristics of the specimen that affect
the strength of the induced eddy currents.

 The electrical conductivity of the material

 The magnetic permeability of the material
 The amount of solid material in the vicinity of the test
coil.

• Information about the strength of the eddy currents

within the specimen is determined by monitoring changes
in voltage and/or current that occur in the coil.

• The strength of the eddy currents changes the electrical

impedance (Z) of the coil.
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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR- INSPECTION DATA
Impedance (Z) in an eddy current coil
is the total opposition to current flow. R Test
In a coil, Z is made up of resistance (R) ~ Coil
and inductive reactance (XL). XL

Definitions:
• Resistance - The opposition of current
flow, resulting in a change of electrical
energy into heat or another form of
energy.
• Inductive Reactance (XL) - Resistance
to AC current flow resulting from
In an AC coil, induction from
electromagnetic induction in the coil. the magnetic field of one loop
of the coil causes a secondary
• Impedance (Z) - The combined current in all other loops. The
opposition to current flow resulting from secondary current opposes the
inductive reactance and resistance. primary current.
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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR- MATERIAL THICKNESS
MEASUREMENT
• Thickness measurements are possible with eddy current
inspection within certain limitations.
• Only a certain amount of eddy currents can form in a
given volume of material.
• Therefore, thicker materials will support more eddy
currents than thinner materials.
• The strength (amount) of eddy currents can be measured
and related to the material thickness.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR- MATERIAL THICKNESS
MEASUREMENT

• Eddy current inspection is often used in the aviation

industries to detect material loss due to corrosion and
erosion.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

Eddy current sensors are non contact devices capable

of high resolution measurement of the position and changes
in position of conductive target.

High resolution and tolerance of dirty environments

make eddy current sensors indispensable in today’s modern
industrial applications.

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

The target should be non magnetic but conductive material

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR

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EDDY CURRENT SENSOR
ADVANTAGES

Tolerance in dirty environments

Less expensive than capacitive sensor
Less expensive than laser sensors
LIMITATION
Large gap between sensor and target is required

APPLICATIONS

Machine tool monitoring

Drilled hole inspection
Vibration measurements

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HALL EFFECT SENSOR

A device which converts magnetic or magnetically

encoded information into electrical signals is called as Hall
Effect Sensor

Hall effect sensors are devices which are activated by

an external magnetic field

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HALL EFFECT SENSOR
When a magnetic field is applied at right angles to the
direction of electric current an electric field is setup which is
perpendicular to both the direction of electric current and
the applied magnetic field

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HALL EFFECT SENSOR

The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the

measurement of fluid level in a container. The container
comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at
its top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is
mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the
magnet will come close to the disc and a potential difference
generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to
come inside the container

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HALL EFFECT SENSOR
ADVANTAGES
High speed operation is possible
Production of an output voltage signal independent of
the rate of the detected field

LIMITATION
This sensor is not capable of measuring a current flow
at a distance of 10cm

APPLICATIONS
Flow meters
Diaphragm pressure gauge

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TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Temperature
Sensor

Thermo
resistive Thermoelectric(Thermocouple)
Sensor contact sensors

Resistance Silicon
Temperature Resistive Thermistors
detector Sensor

Self-Heating
NTC PTC
effect in NTC
Thermistors Termistors
Thermistors

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TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Temperature conveys the state of a

mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of
solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of
conductors, semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs.
Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips,
thermocouples, thermistors are widely used in monitoring of
manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal
cutting etc

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BIMETALLIC STRIPS

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BIMETALLIC STRIPS

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BIMETALLIC STRIPS

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch

in controlling the temperature or heat in a manufacturing
process or system. It contains two different metal strips
bonded together. The metals have different coefficients of
expansion.
On heating the strips bend into curved
strips with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on
the outside of the curve. Figure shows a typical arrangement
of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet.

As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in

closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches.
Then the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm
 SENSORS
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

RTDs work on the principle that the electric

resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance
increases and follows a linear relationship
Rt = R0 (1 + αT)

Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T

(⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α is the constant
for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of
resistance. The sensor is usually made to have a resistance
of 100 Ω at 0 °C

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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

It has a resistor element connected to a

Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads
are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small amount
of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the
temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes
which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge
 SENSORS
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound

or coil. They are generally made of metals such as
platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire
held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a ceramic
tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal
furnace.
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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR
Advantages and Limitations
• Linear over wide operating range
• Wide temperature operating range
• High temperature operating range
• Interchangeability over wide range
• Good stability at high temperature
• Low sensitivity
• Higher cost than thermocouples
• No point sensing
• Affected by shock and vibration
• Requires three or four-wire
operation
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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR
APPLICATIONS
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and
tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

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THERMISTOR

• Thermistor is a construction of a term “thermal

resistors”.
• Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor
materials.
• Although positive temperature coefficient of units are
available, most thermistors have a negative coefficient of
temperature resistance i.e, their resistance decreases with
increase in temperature.
• Resistance decrease as much as 5 percent for each 10 C
rise in temperature.
• Thermistors are widely used in applications which
involve measurements in the range of -600 to 1500C.

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THERMISTOR

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease

in resistance with increasing temperature. The material used
in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a
sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium,
cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline
ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other
compounds. As the temperature of semiconductor material
increases the number of electrons able to move about
increases which results in more current in the material and
reduced resistance. Thermistors are rugged and small in
dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.

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THERMISTOR
Thermistors are available in the form of a bead
(pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure shows the construction
of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension
from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or glass
material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit
through two leads. To protect from the environment, the
leads are contained in a stainless steel tube

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THERMISTOR

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THERMISTOR
• The mathematical expression for the relationship
between the resistance of a thermistor and absolute
temperature of thermistor is:

• Where,
R is the resistance of thermistor at the
temperature T (in K).
R0 is the resistance at given temperature T0 (in K).
Β is the material specific-constant
(3500 to 4500 in K)

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THERMISTOR

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APPLICATIONS OF THERMISTOR

• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil

temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while
charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling
and processing industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such
as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair
dryers, etc.

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THERMOCOUPLE

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a

junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces an
electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas
Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed of
dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, then there is a continuous current which
flows in the thermoelectric circuit.

ΔVAB = α ΔT

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THERMOCOUPLE
Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium)–
Alumel (95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2% aluminium and 1%
silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple

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THERMOCOUPLE

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THERMOCOUPLE

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THERMOCOUPLE

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APPLICATIONS OF THERMOCOUPLE

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the

steel making process
• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g.
chemical production and petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine
exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production
and smelting process in the steel, iron and aluminum
industry

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TEMPERATURE SENSOR COMPARISON

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LIGHT SENSORS

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light.

There are different types of light sensors such as
photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in
manufacturing and other industrial applications.
Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor
(LDR). It has a resistor whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high
resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS).

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LIGHT SENSORS-PHOTO RESISTOR

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LIGHT SENSORS-PHOTO RESISTOR

Applications of photo resistor

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient
light sensors to automatically control the brightness of a
screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light
sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of
vehicles and robots. The light sensor enables a robot to detect
light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific reaction if
a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control

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LIGHT SENSORS-PHOTO DIODES

• Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident

light into an electric current. It is made of Silicon. It consists
of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n
configuration.

When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of

silicon) fall on the device, they are absorbed and electron-
hole pairs are created. The depth at which the photons are
absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the energy of
the photons, the deeper they are absorbed.

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LIGHT SENSORS-PHOTO DIODES

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LIGHT SENSORS-PHOTO DIODES

Figure shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is

constructed from single crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n
junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and
formed by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping
material such as boron. Depletion region is narrow and is
sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon.
Light irradiates at front surface, anode, while the back surface
is cathode. The incidence of light on anode generates a flow
of electron across the p-n junction which is the measure of
light intensity.
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LIGHT SENSORS-PHOTO DIODE

Applications of photo diode

• Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-
focus, Photographic Flash Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Blood Particle
Analyzers
Industry:
• Bar Code Scanners
• Light Pens
• Brightness Controls
• Encoders
• Position Sensors
• Optical Remote Control

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