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6 Automated and emerging

technologies

Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
● automated systems:
− use of sensors, microprocessors and actuators in automated systems
− advantages and disadvantages of using automated systems in a given scenario
● robotics:
− what is meant by robotics
− characteristics of a robot
− roles, advantages and disadvantages of robots
● artificial intelligence (AI):
− what is meant by AI
− the main characteristics of AI
− the basic operation and components of AI systems to emulate intelligence behaviour

6.1 Automated systems

6.1.1 Sensors, microprocessors and actuators
An automated system is a combination of hardware and software that
is designed and programmed to work automatically without the need for
any human intervention. Refer back to Section 3.2 (page 31) for more
information on the role of sensors, microprocessors and actuators in the
control of processes.

6.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of automated

systems
The Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science Second Edition Student’s
Book has a number of examples of automated systems. In this revision
book, the key examples identified in 6.1 of the Student’s Book have been
summarised in a table on pages 82 and 83 Student’s Book.
The applications covered in the following table include industrial,
transport, weather, gaming and lighting. For an example on agriculture,
refer to the high-level answer in the sample question. No examples
for science have been given here, but automated systems can control
experiments and research much more safely and accurately; they can also
lead to faster results which is very important in drug development (refer to
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the example in the Student’s Book page 228).

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

Automated Sensors used in Function of the Function of the Additional information

system the automated actuators in the microprocessor in the
system automated system automated system
Industrial
Nuclear temperature, To operate The microprocessor takes At the centre of the
power station pressure, flow water pumps/ sensor readings and checks system is a distributed
level (gas) and valves, operate against stored parameters control system (DCS), a
radiation level gas pumps/ and sends signals to actuators very powerful computer.
valves, automatic to open/close relevant valves The whole process is
shutdown of (pumps) or initiate shutdown of monitored from a control
process. process. room where a schematic of
the whole process can be
seen; the supervisor can
over-ride the computer
system if necessary.
Paracetamol temperature, To operate heating The microprocessor takes The whole process
manufacture pH, infrared and elements, open/ sensor readings and checks is monitored from a
pressure close valves to against stored parameters and central control room
allow ingredients sends signals to actuators to where a schematic of the
to be added to open/close valves, to operate process can be seen; the
reaction vessels, heating elements and give supervisor can over-ride
recognise the warnings if tablets are out of the computer system if
presence of a specification (or missing). necessary.
tablet and measure
the hardness of a
tablet.
Transport
Adaptive infrared laser To operate Sensors pulse laser beams of This can be part of an
cruise sensors, the brakes, infrared light from the front autonomous system where
control cameras accelerator and bumpers and the laser beams the vehicle requires no
steering box. are reflected back to sensors human input. Sensor
from the vehicle in front. The readings, cameras and
microprocessor calculates LiDaR all give the vehicle
time between sending and information about the
receiving these laser signals surroundings.
and then calculates the
This is a much safer
distance between the two
system as it allows more
vehicles. If distance less
cars per kilometre of road
than safe distance, then
space.
the microprocessor sends
a signal to the actuators to The downsides include
operate the brakes. If distance the over-reliance on the
greater than safe distance the technology, and dirty
microprocessor sends a signal sensors and cameras
to operate the accelerator can make the system
to bring the car up to the set malfunction.
speed.
Self-parking infrared laser To operate brakes Sensors pulse laser beams Sensors and cameras
cars sensors and and accelerator of infrared light from the give a 3D image of the
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cameras and also to operate bumpers and the laser beams surroundings, allowing the
the steering wheel. are reflected back to sensors vehicle to park safely. The
from the surroundings. The cameras also show the
microprocessor calculates driver the surroundings
the time between sending and so they can over-ride the
receiving laser signals and system if necessary.
calculates any distances. It
Cars can fit into smaller
then sends signals to operate
parking spaces and
the brakes, accelerator and
parking is safer.
steering wheel, moving the
vehicle into the parking space. However, faulty/dirty
The sensors and camera allow sensors and cameras can
the microprocessor to work cause problems, and it is
out the distance from the kerb an expensive option that

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6.1 Automated systems

and the distance between any doesn’t necessarily save

other vehicles in the parking the driver any money.
space. Sensors also check
if any objects are in the way
(such as lamppost or human,
etc.)
Weather
Weather thermometer To measure The microprocessor takes the Since data is collected 24
stations (temperature), rainfall, rain is sensor readings and stores hours a day, seven days a
anemometer collected in a them in a central database. week, automated systems
(wind speed), ‘bucket’ and at the It also analyses the sensor are essential and also
hygrometer end of the day, an data and sends out weather safer in bad conditions,
(humidity actuator is used to reports on a regular basis (for which could be hazardous
sensor), operate a piston example, to a nearby airport). to human operators.
barometer to tip the water It sends signals to operate the
(air pressure in the bucket into actuator to operate the piston
sensor), a vessel where to tip the collected water in the
level sensor level sensors ‘bucket’ into a vessel where
(measure can measure the rainfall can be calculated for
rainfall) and amount of rainfall. the last 24 hours.
light sensor
(hours of
sunlight)
Gaming
Gaming and accelerometers If a simulator is The microprocessor takes Games and simulators
simulations (response to being controlled sensor readings and are much more realistic if
tilting and (for example, compares them to stored sensors are used to gather
movement of flight simulator), data (for example, sensor actual data from the user’s
input devices) readings from readings indicate that the actions.
and proximity sensors are simulated airplane is stalling)
sensors (used used by the and sounds signals to give
in smart microprocessor realism to the simulator. The
touchpads) to control the microprocessor also sends
movement of signals to actuators to move
the simulator pistons and start/stop motors
(signals are sent to give simulated motion of an
to actuators to airplane cockpit.
operate motors
In a game, the microprocessor
etc.).
takes accelerometer and
proximity sensor readings to
alter on-screen movement and
images in accordance with the
user’s inputs.
Lighting
Lighting light sensors Actuators are only The microprocessor compares Automated systems reduce
systems and infrared used if the lighting the light sensor readings. energy consumption since
sensors system is part When the lighting level lights only come on when
of a display (for in a room < stored value, necessary and this also
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example, a water the microprocessor sends increases bulb life.

and light fountain); signals to switch on lights
the actuators will automatically. If the lighting
operate pumps and system is part of a security
switches. system, the infrared sensor
detects movement and the
microprocessor takes action
if the received signal indicates
an intruder (for example,
switch on an external light).

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

The following table gives a general indication of the advantages and

disadvantages of automated systems.
Advantages of automated systems Disadvantages of automated systems
● Faster than humans taking any necessary action. ● Often expensive to set up and purchase initially.
● Safer if automated system is part of a hazardous ● There is always the possibility for a set of conditions
system. to occur which weren’t considered during the
● System is more likely to run under optimum conditions. development stage.
● Less expensive in the long run/more energy efficient. ● The constant fear of cyberattacks (hacking, viruses,
● Can be a more effective use of materials and resources. and so on).
● May increase overall productivity. ● Automated systems need enhanced maintenance to
● Results are more consistent. operate correctly; this can be very expensive.

Sample questions and answers

The irrigation (watering) of crops in large areas of Brazil is now fully
automated due to the vast areas covered by farms.
The following diagram shows how sensors, actuators and microprocessors
can be used to automatically control the irrigation system.

Automatic Wireless
weather transmitter
station

Wireless
transmitter
Wireless
Supervisor Internet Controller
receiver
Wireless
transmitter

Actuators Wireless
transmitter

Ultrasonic water
level sensors

Water pumps

a) Using the diagram, explain how sensors, actuators and a

microprocessor (controller) are used to monitor and control
this irrigation system. [5]
b) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using this
automated irrigation system. [5]
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Tips
All the information you need to answer the question is given in the
diagram supplied. Use this information, together with your knowledge
of other automated systems, to describe how the irrigation process
will work. Do not be generic with your answers and constantly make
reference to the given scenario. In part b), give at least three advantages
and three disadvantages to gain the full marks. Again, you need to be
specific and reference this application (for example, if a virus is planted
in the system causing it to crash, then whole crops could be destroyed if
the irrigation system stops working).

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6.1 Automated systems

Sample high-level answer Teacher’s comments

a) Data from an automated weather station is received by the controller. The The first answer is a
weather station gives a forecast about future conditions; will it be dry or wet. model answer and very
Data from the ultrasonic water level sensors is used to measure the amount few students would be
of water in the irrigation channel. This sensor data is sent to the controller expected to have this
via wireless transmission, due to vast size of the area. The controller uses the level of knowledge. Full
sensor data and data from the weather station to decide whether to start marks would be given
or stop the water pumps. The water pumps are controlled by signals sent since only five points
to actuators from the controller. A supervisor can watch the whole process would be needed on both
remotely and can oversee several irrigation systems at the same time from a parts to gain full marks
single control room (which will have a schematic of each irrigation system on and this was exceeded in
computer screens). The supervisor can over-ride the controller if necessary.
the answers to both part
a) and part b).
b) Advantages:
– Reduced labour costs since system only needs a supervisor to monitor The second answer is a
vast areas. good attempt but they
– More efficient/effective control of the irrigation process. have made the common
– There is a better control of scarce resources, such as water. mistake of thinking
– Faster response than a human if anything goes wrong; there are many sensors only send data
kilometres of channels to check which would take humans a long time. when something happens.
– Safer; the temperatures could be over 40 °C in the fields and some crops Sensors constantly send
need vast amounts of water which could also pose a risk to humans. data and it is up to the
– Different crops need different conditions; it is possible to program the controller/microprocessor
controller for a specific crop to ensure optimum yield. to take the necessary
Disadvantages: actions. It was also
– Expensive system to set up initially (expensive equipment and testing the incorrect to say that
system/modelling the system is both time-consuming and expensive. sensor data is sent to the
– There are high maintenance costs associated with automated systems actuators. Marks could be
(and the need for specialist technicians). gained for mentioning the
– Increased need to maintain water channels to ensure the system works need for data conversion
effectively at all times. to binary. Part a) would
– The risk of hacking or viruses in the system; this could lead to a system gain one mark overall
failure which could cause considerable damage to crops before the system
by the student. For part
b), again this was very
was repaired.
brief but a mark could
be gained for safety
aspects (advantages)
Sample low-level answer and a mark for security
a) The sensors, actuators and controller will work together to monitor and issues (disadvantages).
control the irrigation system. When the water level changes, the sensors will The comment about being
then send data to the actuators telling them to open valves or close valves to expensive needs to be
control the water levels in the irrigation channels. The sensor data will be sent expanded a bit to get any
wirelessly due to the large distances involved. marks.
b) The advantages include: it is safer, it will stop fields becoming dry, water can be
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added faster and there is no need for any maintenance.

The disadvantages are it will be expensive and there is the risk of hackers from
foreign countries altering things to destroy the crops.

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

Exam-style questions
1 A laboratory experiment involves the use of a burette ‘A’ adding acid to
a solution in a conical flask ‘B’. As the reaction proceeds, the colour of
the solution changes from yellow to red. The colour change is picked
up by a sensor called a colorimeter.
The amount of acid to be added is measured using two level detectors;
the opening and closing of the burette tap is controlled by an actuator.
As soon as the solution in ‘B’ turns red, the whole process is stopped.
A microprocessor controls the whole process, as shown in the
diagram.

Level
‘A’ Microprocessor
detectors

Actuator

Light ‘B’ Colorimeter

source

a) Explain how sensors, actuators and a microprocessor are used to

control the experiment to ensure the final product (red colour) is
always produced. [4]
b) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using an
automated system in this experiment. [3]
2 a) Name suitable sensors for each of the following automated systems.
i) Manufacture of a new vaccine which requires the mixing of four
liquids in the ratio 1:2:3:4 as a single batch. The four liquids
must be totally mixed and the temperature must be maintained
at 35 °C (± 1 °C) which is a critical temperature.
ii) A lighting display has been set up in one room of an art gallery.
A random sequence of different coloured lights is under
microprocessor control. The display in the room only switches
on when visitors walk into the room; at the same time, the room
lights are also dimmed to give the most dramatic effect of the
light display.
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iii) A train uses automatic twin-doors. Both doors open

automatically when the train stops. Both doors close again
when no one is still boarding or leaving the train. The doors
have a safety mechanism so that a passenger cannot become
trapped between the two closing doors. The train can only move
off when every door on the train has been safely closed. [6]
b) For each application in part a), give one advantage and one
disadvantage of using automated systems. [4]

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6.2 Robotics

3 The eight statements on the left-hand side of the table are either
true or false.
Tick (✓) the appropriate box to indicate which statements are true and
which statements are false.

Statement True False

Automated systems lead to less consistent results or
less consistent products.
Automated systems are more expensive to set up than
traditional manual systems.
Automated systems would be quickly overwhelmed by
the amount of data presented to them.
Automated systems are inherently less safe than
manual systems.
Automated systems generally require enhanced
maintenance when compared to manual systems.
Automated systems allow processes to run at
optimum conditions at all times.
Software failures, due to unforeseen conditions, are
unlikely to impact on an automated system.
Automated systems will react more quickly to unusual
process conditions. [8]

6.2 Robotics
6.2.1 What is robotics?
Robotics is a branch of (computer) science that brings together the
design, construction and operation of robots.
Some examples of the uses of robots in factories include:
● welding metal parts in a factory (for example, car body panels)
● spray painting panels
● laser cutting of patterns (for example, in metal, plastic, leather) with a
high precision and very little waste
● bottling and canning in the food and drinks industry
● warehouse logistics (for example, location of items and loading onto
correct lorry).
There are also several areas where robots are used in the home, such as:
● autonomous floor sweepers
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● autonomous lawn mowers

● automatic window cleaning
● in home entertainment (‘friend’ robots).
Drones are another example of robotics, used in:
● reconnaissance (for example, aerial photography)
● parcel deliveries (particularly in busy cities)
● flying in dangerous areas where there is a danger to human life (for
example, carrying out a survey following a hazardous chemical spillage
or nuclear incident).

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

6.2.2 Characteristics of a robot

The following three characteristics are used to evaluate if a machine can
be termed a robot.
Ability to sense their surroundings
● Use sensors and cameras as input to the robot.
● Use sensors to recognise the immediate environment by building up a
3D picture to determine the size, shape and weight of an object, for
example.
● All sensor data is sent to a microprocessor or computer.
Have a degree of movement
● Use of wheels, cogs, pistons, gears and so on, to carry out functions
such as turning, twisting, moving backwards/forwards and gripping or
lifting.
● Mechanical structures made up of motors, hydraulic pipes, actuators
and circuit boards.
● Contain many electrical components.
● Able to use end-effectors – different attachments to carry out a
number of tasks.
Must be programmable
● Have a controller that determines the actions that need to be taken to
carry out a task automatically.
● Controllers are programmable so that the robot can be ‘trained’ to do
various tasks.
Many robots don’t possess artificial intelligence (AI) since they are
often used to do repetitive tasks rather than requiring adaptive human
characteristics.
All of the above notes refer to physical robots; but there are also
software robots in existence, such as search engine bots or web crawlers
and chatbots (web crawlers roam the internet scanning websites and
categorising them so that they can be recognised by a search engine;
chatbots are programs that pop up on websites and seem to have a
conversation with the web user).
Neither web crawlers nor chatbots are true robots, since they don’t meet
all of the three characteristics necessary to be defined as a robot.
Physical robots can be classified as independent or dependent.
Independent robots Dependent robots
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Have no direct human control Have a human interfacing with the

(autonomous). robot (for example, a control panel).
Can replace human activity totally. Can supplement, rather than replace,
the need for human activity.

6.2.3 The role of robots and their advantages and

disadvantages
The Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science Second Edition Student’s
Book has a number of detailed examples of applications that use robots
(pages 232–239). In this revision book, the key parts of each system have
been summarised in the following table.

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6.2 Robotics

Application Advantages of using robots in the Disadvantages of using robots in the

application application
Industry
Welding car bodies and Robots can work in conditions that may It can be difficult to get the robot to
spray painting body panels. be hazardous to humans (noisy, dusty, handle ‘non-standard’ tasks without
chemicals and so on). some human intervention.
Manufacturing microchips
or electrical goods. Robots can work 24/7 with no breaks except Using robots can lead to higher
for occasional maintenance. unemployment.
Makes use of end-effectors
to do many different tasks. Using robots is less expensive in the long Risk of deskilling since the robots take
run. over tasks previously done by humans.
Used in many
production facilities (car Robots are usually more productive than Factories can be moved overseas
manufacturing, bottling/ humans. (advantage to company but a
canning, testing circuit disadvantage to the workforce); it is
In manufacturing, using robotics usually
boards and so on). relatively easy to dismantle robots and
produces a more consistent product.
reassemble them in another country.
Robots are better suited to boring and
Robots are expensive to buy and set up
repetitive tasks.
initially.
Transport
Autonomous cars, vans, Safer since human error is removed when Very expensive to set up in the first
buses, trams and trains. operating vehicles. place (high technology requirements).
Better for the environment since vehicles Needs constant maintenance to
will operate more efficiently and energy work effectively, securely and safely
consumption is minimised. (cleaning of sensors and cameras).
Leads to less traffic congestion as Ensuring the good behaviour of
autonomous road vehicles can move more passengers (especially at peak times)
efficiently in cities and on motorways at busy can lead to problems (for example,
times (due to increased lane capacity). jamming doors, too many people trying
to board at once and so on).
Stress-free environment for drivers and
passengers. Need a good, reliable control system
(for example, CCTV); this can be
Improves punctuality and frequency of public
expensive to maintain.
transport, such as buses, trams and trains.
Emergency situations may be difficult
Reduction in running costs (due to more
to deal with.
efficient operation).
Driver and passenger reluctance to
Easier to alter the bus, tram or train schedule
use the new technology.
at short notice (if some event makes this
necessary).
Agriculture
Harvesting. More accurate and less likely to damage Expensive systems to set up initially
crops/fruit. and to maintain.
Weed control (AI can
distinguish between weed Potentially higher yields since seeding, Risk of cybercriminal activity (such as
and crop). fertiliser application and so on is more hacking, viruses and so on).
efficient; leads to optimum conditions for
Phenotyping – observing Risk of deskilling, since key farming
growth and health.
plant growth/health. skills could be lost (over-reliance on
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Less labour needed (for example, automatic technology).

Seed planting and fertiliser
weeding, fruit picking and so on).
spraying using drones.
Plant health monitored better, and problems
Automatic fruit picking,
can be identified earlier and rectified.
grass mowing, pruning.
Less waste of seeds, fertilisers and so on.

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

Medicine
Surgical procedures. Operations can be quicker and safer to carry Robotic surgery is very expensive to
out (fewer errors will be made). set up and maintain.
Monitoring patients.
Leaves doctors/surgeons available to do Difficult to make sure robots are fully
Disinfecting rooms and
more complex surgery and leaves nurses to disinfected before doing surgical work.
operating theatres.
do more skilled work.
Risk of cybercriminal activity (for
Taking blood samples.
Taking blood samples is less painful to the example, hacking and viruses).
Micro bots used in target patient; nurses and doctors are not subjected
Reluctance by the general population
therapy. to potentially hazardous blood samples (for
to robotic surgery.
example, some viruses are very contagious).
Prosthetic limbs are mini-
The all-important human factor is
robots. Target therapy causes less damage to
missing.
surrounding tissues.
Prosthetic limbs can now mimic human limb
movement more precisely.
Domestic robots
Autonomous vacuum Leave people free to do other (more Expensive devices to buy initially
cleaners. interesting) tasks. and require regular expert servicing
(sensors and cameras need specialist
Autonomous grass cutters. More than one task can be completed at the
technicians).
same time. Multitasking
Personal assistants.
Unable to deal with unusual
Can be programmed to work at a specific
circumstances as well as a human
time of the day.
(for example, a tree has fallen on the
Can be operated remotely (for example, using grass).
mobile phone app).
Battery life can be short.
Can automatically empty the dust bag/grass
Sometimes can’t reach into corners
bag and automatically park and connect
where dust/long grass accumulates
to the mains supply to recharge internal
and requires human action.
batteries.
Takes much longer to do the tasks
Allow linking together of several devices
(up to three times longer than doing
in the home and can also carry out certain
hoovering or grass cutting manually).
useful tasks (for example, get flight
information or weather forecasts for the next Personal assistants could make
day). people lazy rather than looking up for
information themselves.
Can be programmed to turn on lights
at random times at night if a house is Personal assistants can be annoying if
unoccupied thus helping with security (there used frequently.
are many such tasks).
Digital assistants can be hacked into
remotely; this can result in a breach of
the user’s privacy.
Digital assistants can collect and
process user’s personal data without
their knowledge.
Entertainment
Theme parks and arenas/ Greater realism to theme park characters, Very expensive system to set up
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large venues (robotic increasing entertainment factor. initially and to maintain.

characters are used to
Music festivals can be more immersive Risk of deskilling since many of the
interact with visitors).
(robot-controlled lighting and animation); tasks done by skilled humans are now
Film and TV industry effects can be synchronised with music. done by robots (for example, camera
(operate cameras, stunt work).
Control of cameras leads to better results
actions, special effects).
(smoother action and always correctly
focused).
Better and more realistic animation and
more effective cross-over with animation and
actual actors.

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6.2 Robotics

6.2.4 Using sensors, actuators and microprocessors

together
Example 1: Spraying car body with paint
The above table considers the role of robots in a number of different areas.
The following is an example of the use of robots in industry. It considers
the interaction between a robot arm, sensors, actuators and controller/
microprocessor. The robot arm has the task of spraying a car body with
paint.
● When a car body arrives, sensors detect it is in the correct position
ready for spraying.
● The sensor data is constantly fed back to a controller/microprocessor in
the body of the robot arm.
● The controller/microprocessor sends signals to actuators in the robot
arms to move the arms in the correct programmed sequence to ensure
the whole car body is painted.
● The sensors are used to make sure spraying cannot occur if there is no
car body present or it is wrongly orientated.
Example 2: Control of opening/closing doors on a train
The following example shows how sensors, actuators and a microprocessor
are used in the automatic opening and closing of train doors.

Door sensors

Door motors Microprocessor

and actuators

Pressure sensor

● Sensors above the doors detect the presence of passengers waiting

to enter or leave the train; a pressure sensor is also used to detect
passengers standing between the doors (to prevent the doors closing if
a passenger is ‘in the way’).
● The sensor data is constantly sent back to a microprocessor in a central
location.
● The microprocessor determines if it is safe to open or close doors by
checking sensor data; the whole system is automatic.
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● Data is sent to actuators to operate the motors closing and opening the
doors.

Sample questions and answers

a) Describe the three characteristics that must be shown by a device
for it to be regarded as a robot. [6]
b) Explain the difference between dependent and independent
robots. [2]
c) Describe briefly two examples of software robots. [2]

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

High-level sample answer Tips

a) Robots must have the ability to sense their surroundings. They need to use a In part a) it is necessary
number of different sensors and various types of camera to gain a 3D image of to give as many examples
their immediate surroundings, enabling the ability to determine shape, size or as possible to enable
a full description of all
weight of any object within sensor range.
three characteristics.
Robots must have a high degree of movement. They can use wheels, cogs,
Part b) is a comparison; it
pistons, gears (and so on) to carry out movement such as turning, twisting/ is necessary to give clear
rotating, move backward/forward, gripping an object (without breaking it or differences between
dropping it) or lifting an object. the two types of robot.
Robots must be programmable. The robot uses a controller (a microprocessor Part c) asks for brief
system) to determine its action and how to perfectly perform a task. descriptions; so only give
Controllers must be programmable (this can be done either remotely or by a very short mention of
connecting to a device such as a memory stick) the key features of typical
b) Independent robots are autonomous and don’t need any human interaction. software robots.
Dependent robots need a human to interface and can therefore supplement,
rather than replace, the need for a human operator.
c) Two examples of software robots are web crawlers and chatbots. Web crawlers Teacher’s comments
roam the internet scanning websites characterising them so that they can be The first answer gives a
recognised by a search engine. Chatbots pop-up on websites and provide some full description of the
form of ‘intelligent’ conversation with the web user. three characteristics that
define a robot. They have
also correctly explained
Sample low-level answer what is meant by an
a) Robots must be made from metal and be able to move on their own. They should independent robot and
understand verbal commands and have in-built routines not to harm humans. a dependent robot – the
difference is very clear. In
Most robots carry out tasks that humans don’t want to do.
part c), the student has
b) Independent robots can work on their own whilst dependent robots need
correctly recognised two
some help.
of the most common types
c) One type of software robot is the type used when doing online chatting.
of software robot.

The whole of the second

Exam-style questions answer is very vague and
very sci-fi influenced and
4 Use the following words to complete the paragraph that follows. worth no marks. In part
b), there is not enough
actuators end-effectors microprocessor repetitive
for any marks; none of
adaptive environment physical sensors it is incorrect, it is not
controller intelligence programs system enough. The last part
will gain a mark for its
Robots can collect data from their surroundings by using ‹ ……………. ›. reference to chatbots.
The data is then sent to a ‹ …………………… › to allow the robot to build up
an image of its ‹ ………………….. ›.
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Robots can do various tasks by using different ‹ ……………………. ›.

The ‘brain’ of the robot is often called a ‹ …………………… ›, which
contains ‹ ……………………… › to allow it carry out various tasks
automatically.
Many robots are not (artificially) intelligent, since they only do
‹ ………………………. › tasks rather than requiring ‹ ……………….. ›
human characteristics. [4]

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6.3 Artificial intelligence

5 Autonomous robots are used in space exploration and in undersea

exploration. These robots have to either work in the near vacuum of
space or the very high pressures under the oceans. They need to be
equipped with many sensors and cameras to carry out their remote
tasks.
a) The undersea robots are being used to investigate shipwrecks.
Describe how the sensors and cameras could be used to
photograph the shipwrecks. Also describe the role of the
microprocessor and actuators in taking photographs and any
samples needed from the shipwreck for further investigation. [3]
b) A space exploration robot has been sent on a mission to Mars.
The robot needs to move around the surface of the planet safely,
taking photographs and taking soil/rock samples for later analysis.
i) Describe how sensors, actuators and a microprocessor can be
used to take samples from the planet’s surface.
ii) Describe three uses of the cameras on this autonomous
robot. [5]
c) Describe the advantages of using autonomous robots in both
undersea and outer space exploration. [3]
d) Give two other examples of where autonomous robots could
be used. [2]
6 Autonomous buses, trams and trains are being introduced to
many cities around the world.
a) Explain what is meant by the term autonomous. [1]
b) Autonomous trains make use of many sensors to enable functions,
such as closing and opening doors, to be done automatically.
Describe three sensors that might be used by the train to control
the opening and closing of doors. In your description, explain the
function of the sensors and how they would interact with
actuators and a central microprocessor. [5]
c) Give two advantages and two disadvantages of using autonomous
buses in a city centre. [4]

6.3 Artificial intelligence

6.3.1 Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science dealing with
the simulation of intelligent human behaviour by a computer. This is often
referred to as cognitive functions of the human brain. All these cognitive
functions can be replicated in AI and can be measured against human
benchmarks such as reasoning, speech and the senses (such as sound,
sight, touch and smell).

6.3.2 Characteristics of AI
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AI is a collection of rules and data, together with the ability to reason,

learn and adapt to external stimuli. There are three categories of AI:
narrow AI, general AI and strong AI.
● Narrow AI: a machine has superior performance to a human in one
specific task.
● General AI: a machine is similar, but not superior, in its performance in
doing one specific task.
● Strong AI: a machine has superior performance to humans in many tasks.
Reasoning is the ability to draw reasoned conclusions based on given data.
Deductive reasoning is where a number of correct facts are built up to

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

form a set of rules that can be applied to other problems. For example, if
AI has been ‘trained’ to make a cup of tea, the rules can then be applied
to making a cup of coffee or hot chocolate, by modifying the existing
rules as necessary.
Examples of AI include:
● news generation based on live news feeds
● smart home devices/assistants (such as Amazon Alexa or Apple Siri)
● use of chatbots that interact through instant messaging
● autonomous vehicles
● facial expression recognition.

6.3.3 AI systems
There are two types of AI system that need to be considered at IGCSE:
expert systems and machine learning.
Expert systems
Expert systems are a form of AI developed to mimic human knowledge
and experience. They use knowledge and inference to solve problems by
analysing responses to a series of questions thus mimicking a human
expert.
An expert system consists of a number of components, as shown in the
diagram below.

Where the expert system interacts with the user. This informs the user how the expert
It uses dialogue boxes and command prompts. system arrived at its conclusions.

A set of
inference
rules.
Explanation Inference
system
rules are
User interface

Rules base
used by the
inference
engine
Inference to draw
engine
Knowledge conclusions
base using
logical
‘thinking’.
Expert system shell
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The main processing element of the expert system, it acts A repository of facts; it stores all
like a search engine examining the knowledge base for the knowledge about a given
information that matches the queries. It gathers data by asking subject. It is a collection of objects
the user a series of questions and applying responses. The and attributes.
inference engine is the problem solving part of the expert
system, making use of inference rules in the rules base.

There are many applications of expert systems.

● Oil and mineral prospecting.
● Diagnosis of a patient’s illness.
● Fault diagnostics in mechanical and electrical equipment.

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6.3 Artificial intelligence

● Tax and financial calculations.

● Strategy games (for example, chess).
● Logistics (for example, most efficient parcel deliveries).
● Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds.
This table summarises the advantages and disadvantages of expert
systems.
Advantages of expert systems Disadvantages of expert systems
● High level of expertise and very accurate. ● Users need training to operate them correctly.
● Give consistent results. ● Set up and maintenance is costly and time-
● Can store vast amounts of information. consuming (it takes time to populate the knowledge
● People can be trained to use the systems even if they base, for example).
are not experts in a particular field. ● Tend to give ‘cold’ responses that may not be
● Can make traceable logical solutions/diagnostics. appropriate in certain circumstances (for example,
● Can have multiple expertise. when diagnosing a patient’s illness).
● Very fast response time. ● Only as good as the information entered into the
● Unbiased reporting. knowledge base.
● Give the probability of the solution or suggestion ● Users sometimes make the dangerous assumption
being correct. that expert systems are infallible.

Setting up an expert system

● Information needs to be gathered from human experts or from written
sources such as textbooks, research papers or the internet.
● Information gathered is used to populate the knowledge base which
needs to be first created.
● A rules base needs to be created; this is made up of a series of
inference rules so that the inference engine can draw conclusions.
● The inference engine itself needs to be set up; it is a complex system
since it is the main processing element making reasoned conclusions
from data in the knowledge base.
● The user interface needs to be developed to allow user and expert
system to communicate.
● Once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested; this is done
by running the system with known outcomes so that results can be
compared and any changes to the expert system made.
Machine learning
Machine learning is a subset of AI where algorithms are ‘trained’ and learn
from their past experiences. Machine learning can make predictions or take
decisions based on previous scenarios. They can offer fast and accurate
outcomes due to very powerful processing capabilities. A key factor is the
ability to manage and analyse considerable volumes of complex data that
could take humans years to complete without the help of machine learning
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technology.
The differences between artificial intelligence and machine learning can
be summarised as follows.
AI Machine learning
Represents simulated intelligence in machines. The practice of getting machines to make decisions
without being programmed to do so.
Aim is to build machines which are capable of thinking Aim is to make machines that learn through data
like humans. acquisition, so that they can solve new problems.

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

Examples of machine learning include the following.

● In search engines where machine learning is used to improve on the
search engine’s ability to select relevant websites based on the search
criteria. Web crawlers are used to ‘train’ the software/algorithms so
that the search engine ‘hits’ are all listed on the first page of the
search results.
● Categorising emails as spam by analysing ‘cleaned’ emails after stop
words like ‘the’, ‘and’ and ‘a’ have been removed. Certain key words
and phrases are used to determine if emails could be spam. A machine
learning model is built and a ‘training data set’ is used to ‘train’ the
model so it can learn from previous emails which were known to be spam.
● Recognising a user’s buying history on the internet; this makes use
of collaborative filtering. It is a process of comparing a customer’s
shopping behaviour to a new customer who has similar shopping
behaviour, which allows the system to recommend products to the new
customer; this system is also used to generate music playlists based on
a user’s criteria.
● Detection of fraudulent internet activity uses web scraping (this is
information about a customer’s shopping habits used to predict credit/
debit card activity) to identify any unusual spending patterns and thus
spot potentially fraudulent activity.

Sample questions and answers

The following table contains ten descriptions. Complete the table by
writing the computer term being described in the right-hand column.
Description Computer term
Attachment to a robot arm that allows it to carry out a specific task, such as welding a
car body.
A type of search engine used in an expert system that examines the knowledge base
for information that matches the queries.
General name of any robotic device that can operate independently without any need
for human input.
A subset of AI in which algorithms are ‘trained’ and learn from past experiences.
A combination of software and hardware designed and programmed to work
automatically without the need for any human intervention.
A collection of rules and data that leads to the ability to reason, learn and adapt to
external stimuli.
Pop-up robots found on websites that appear to enter into a meaningful conversation
with the website user.
The mental process of the human brain whereby it acquires knowledge and
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understanding through thought, experience and the senses.

Something that defines the objects stored in the knowledge base of an expert system.

Repository of facts, in an expert system, that is a collection of objects and attributes.

[10]

Sample high-level answer

(Table filled with following terms, from top to bottom):
end-effector; inference engine; independent or autonomous robot; machine
learning; automated system; artificial intelligence; chatbot; cognitive; attribute;
knowledge base

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6.3 Artificial intelligence

Sample low-level answer Tips

(Table filled with following terms, from top to bottom): It is necessary to be very
careful when answering
extension; Google; independent; expert system; autonomous; rules base; chatbot; questions of this type.
thought; table; memory Many descriptions can be
very similar and you need
to pick out key words/
Exam-style questions phrases to ensure you
pick the correct term
7 a) Describe the term machine learning. [2]
being described. Also
b) Explain how machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI)
be very careful with the
differ. [3]
spelling of the term.
(c) Describe how a search engine might use machine learning to
determine the most appropriate results based on a user’s
search criteria. [2]
8 a) Explain each of the following terms used in machine learning. Teacher’s comments
i) Stop words
ii) Collaborative filtering The first student has
iii) Web crawlers clearly revised all of the
iv) Web scraping [4] definitions since they
b) Describe how machine learning can help to categorise an scored the maximum mark
email as spam. [2] here.
9 Six statements are shown on the left, and nine computer terms
are shown on the right. The second student has
By drawing lines, connect each statement to its correct term. clearly made a number of
Not all computer terms will be used. [6] guesses and manged to
get two marks overall.
Rules base It is very important
that definitions are well
revised before going
Search engine into the exam, since a
Branch of computer science where cognitive
percentage of all marks
behaviour of the human brain is studied.
are based on recalling
Strong AI
facts (you are advised to
When a machine shows superior performance to a check the breakdown of
human in many tasks. how marks are allocated
by reading the syllabus
Artificial intelligence
to see how many of
Application that uses knowledge and inference to
solve problems that would require human expertise. the marks are just for
recollection and so on).
Machine learning

Repository of facts that is a collection of objects and

their attributes.
Robotics

Contains the inference rules used to determine any

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matches between input data and stored data.

Expert system

Subset of AI in which the algorithms are ‘trained’

and learn from past experiences and examples.
Knowledge base

User interface

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6 Automated and emerging technologies

10 This diagram shows a schematic of an expert system.

a) Name each of the components, 1–4. [4]

Explanation
system

User 1

b) Describe the steps taken when setting up an expert system

for the first time. [4]

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