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A review of the global climate change impacts,
adaptation, and sustainable mitigation
measures
Review Article Published: 04 April 2022
Volume 29, pages 42539–42559, (2022) Cite this article
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Kashif Abbass,
Your privacy,Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Huaming Song
your choice , Muntasir Murshed, Haider
Mahmood & Ijaz Younis
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Abstract
transfers to third parties. Some third parties are outside of the European Economic Area, with
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See our privacy policy for more information on the use of your personal data.
Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a
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global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to
conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse
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sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6 1/69
11/23/24, 3:52 AM A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures | Environmental Science and Pollu…
concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to
irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns,
particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total
productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake
due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by
progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood
of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a
coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial
resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant
pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change
impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of
climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’
careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as
environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered
the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers,
newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change
mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the
associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary
for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and
regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore,
mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this
global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure
global sustenance.
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Introduction
Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global
warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years.
Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence
over various
transfers components
to third of the
parties. Some ecological,
third parties areenvironmental, socio-political,
outside of the European Economic and socio-
Area, with
economic
varying disciplines
standards (Adger
of data et al. 2005; Leal Filho et al. 2021; Feliciano et al. 2022). Climate
protection.
change
See involvespolicy
our privacy heightened
for moretemperatures
information on across numerous
the use worlds (Battisti
of your personal data. and
Naylor 2009; Schuurmans 2021; Weisheimer and Palmer 2005; Yadav et al. 2015). With the
onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold
(Leppänen et al. 2014). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might
increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret
the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al. 2021;
Jurgilevich et al. 2017), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the
inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et
al. 2014).
Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and

precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the
surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice
sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned
international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany 2018; Michel et
al. 2021; Murshed and Dao 2020). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including
volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO2, CH4, N2O, and H2O into the atmosphere (Murshed et
al. 2020; Hussain et al. 2020; Sovacool et al. 2021; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente
2022; Murshed 2022). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions
and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties
(COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by
bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious
measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to
assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate
fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of
climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-
Your privacy,
industrial levels andyour choice
to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et
al. 2020;
We Sharif cookies
use essential et al. 2020; Chiensureet the
to make al. 2021.
site can function. We also use optional cookies for
Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of
climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient
paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019; Anwar et al. 2021; Usman et al. 2022a). To achieve these lofty
goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new
technology framework forand expanded

further capacity
information building,
and to allowing
change your developing countries and
choices.
the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The
agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties
are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined
contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-
Lorente et al. 2020). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their
emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five
years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’
future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22,
2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it
went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55
nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and
continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully
operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define
mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al.
2021). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and
numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the
Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in
Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is
scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the
emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of
keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial
levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks
and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon
as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to
undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance
Your
betweenprivacy, your
emissions and choice
removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some
adaptation
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content, assistance
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developing nations’
adaptation.
However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for
CC (Murshed
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al. 2022). Apartinformation
for more from the industrial
on the use revolution, otherdata.
of your personal anthropogenic
activities include excessive agricultural
for further operations,
information whichyour
and to change further involve the high use of
choices.
fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels,
deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al. 2016).
Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local

and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has
mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production
in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022; Usman et al.
2022b; Abbass et al. 2021a; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya 2022).
This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by
analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that
influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of
climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture,
biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical
prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to
survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather
patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous
sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level
are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and
environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary
information.
Review methodology
Related study and its objectives
Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change
has a decisive
Your privacy, role. What
your happens
choice in one country has a massive influence on geographically
far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et
al. 2021). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate
changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al. 2021). The
purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based
on “Global
varying Climate
standards Change
of data Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by
protection.
systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the
current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research
on the same topic. Specifically, the presentand
for further information study aims: The
to change yourfirst one is, organize publications
choices.
to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an
outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous
literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly,
classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been
adopted.
Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved
the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita 2021; Tranfield et al. 2003). Moreover,
we illustrate in Fig. 1 the search method that we have started for this research. First,
finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al. 2018). Second, used numerous
research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of
Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer,
and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short
notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for
multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of
Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in
summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords
yielded a large amount of literature.
Fig. 1

Source: constructed by authors
Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.
Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have
been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database
mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to
copied from
Your a previous
privacy, your search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for
choice
inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and
sustainable
We mitigation
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requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search
on
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of data protection.
In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and
other aspects, such asforthefurther
methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies.
information and to change your choices.
Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research
opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and
research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other
affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2

Framework of the analysis Process.
Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic

consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years
pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et
al. 2021). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on
average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser 2014; Wiranata and Simbolon 2021). So,
according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and
share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig. 3. The number of
fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But
shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in
2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19
pandemic (Erman et al. 2021). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—
more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as
earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are.
Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure,
emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster
deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living
conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing
natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.
Fig. 3


Source EMDAT (2020)
Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.
The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri
et al. 2018; Goes et al. 2020; Mannig et al. 2018; Schuurmans 2021). Weather patterns change
due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising
mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al. 2016; Mihiretu
et al. 2021; Shaffril et al. 2018).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of
devastation (Perera et al. 2018; Phillips 2018). The temperature rises, insect disease
outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with
a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c; Hussain
et al. 2018). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive
capacity are hammering the most (IPCC 2013). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of
environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of
incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change
contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic
shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022; Gorst et
al. 2018). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as
decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary
technologies (Ali and Erenstein 2017; Ramankutty et al. 2018; Yu et al. 2021) (Table 1).
Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and
skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.
Table 1 Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level
Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse
emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate
warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al. 2021; Ortiz et al. 2021;
Thornton and Lipper 2014). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a
dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al. 2012) are significantly

impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts
(Huang 2004). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire
and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. (2010) mentioned
that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor
to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al. 2021;
Rosenzweig et al. 2014). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in
developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the
well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts 2009). According to the report published
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases, i.e., CH4, CO2, and N2O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels
over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021; Stocker et al. 2013). Climate change
is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the
second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012). It is also forecasted that the world may
experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century
(Pachauri et al. 2014). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global
temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on
crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global
agriculture is briefly described below.
Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations
in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO2. These
all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth,
weather-tempted
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Zhang, and Ludwig 2009; Asseng et al. 2013; García et al. 2015; Ortiz et al. 2021) also proved
that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse
effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999; Sadras and Slafer 2012). Hereafter, the
rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen
because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006).
Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has
happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006).
Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output
pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004). It is anticipated that the
increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield
(Hatfield et al. 2011; Lobell and Gourdji 2012). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al.
(2007) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti
the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down
the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015; R.
Ortiz 2008). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical
regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009).
Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain
output/m2, however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain
quantity (Araus et al. 2008; Gambín and Borrás 2010). In the times of grain set, yield
resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight
and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010)
beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006). In addition to this, the
maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage
(Edreira and Otegui 2013). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient
acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-
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silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998).
The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and
seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood,
Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis
period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006). Antagonistic effect of
higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed
set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures
40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001).
The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous
studies (Semenov 2009; Stone and Nicolas 1994). High temperatures fast-track the
arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001), diminution photosynthetic process
(Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004), and also considerably affect the reproductive
operations (Farooq et al. 2011).
The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops
(Chaudhary et al. 2011), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of
betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001), giving them a somehow reddish appearance,
squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012), as well as root rot of pineapple, have
reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC,
several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time
(Fig. 4). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011; Patz et al. 2005; Pautasso et al.
2012) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield
better adaptability towards CC.
Fig. 4
Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the
appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.
Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause
of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are
considerably
Your associated
privacy, your withchoice
diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988; Manes et al.
2021; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the
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Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous
ways, such
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dispersal constraints.forHence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt,
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move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010). So, the best performer species have a better
survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive
where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014). An important aspect here is the
inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the
exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon
sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the
range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014).
Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the
seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish
populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the
conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et
al. 2016; Wernberg et al. 2016). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone
species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat
(Zarnetske et al. 2012). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific
populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may
deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013). Among the
typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial
productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria
bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015).
The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019;
Urban 2015), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful
(Abbass et al. 2019; Pereira et al. 2013). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not
be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However,
the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing
topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012). For example, a study indicated that the
American
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records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at
species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021; Testa et al. 2018).
Nonetheless, the availability of information

for further such long-term
and todata records
change yourischoices.
rare; hence, attempts are
needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other
associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest
species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton
communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic
producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation
in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential
contributor to CO2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods
(Kohfeld et al. 2005).
Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al.
2009). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per
year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-
induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery
et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021; Meierrieks 2021; UNEP 2017). Here, some of the emerging
health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.
Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et
al. 2019; Lemery et al. 2021). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due
to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has
been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016). A massive amount of
antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic
microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended
how strongly
Your privacy,this aspect
your canchoice
shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP
2017). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular
region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018). This
plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-
susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being
resistant(WHO
varying standards2018). Undesirably,
of data protection. if this statement would become a factuality, there might
emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint
replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018). Presently, the amplification of
drug resistance casesfor hasfurther
madeinformation
common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections,
and to change your choices.
HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO
2018). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can
be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries
(Berendonk et al. 2015). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of
antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more
expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods
whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021; Pärnänen et al. 2019). This scenario has
also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the
Southern part (WHO 2018). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts,
it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of
antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic
burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to
susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation,
transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics,
metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5

Source:
See our privacy policy for more information on the use of yourElsayed et al.data.
personal (2021); Karkman et al. (2018)
A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.
Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical
hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene
transfer (Fig. 5). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic
resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have
particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on
human health (Ashbolt 2015). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant
genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al.
2013), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part
of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019; D. Wu et al. 2019). This problem has been
reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019), where wastewater as a
means of irrigated water is quite common.
Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an
ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated
temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation,
which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns.
Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand,
this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the
other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it
was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al.
2000). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of
microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate
Your privacy,environmental
warming-induced your choice changes (Table 2).
Table 2 Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases
in humans

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing
pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021; Song et al. 2021). The
large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular
(livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting
that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by
Climate change (Ogden 2018; Santos et al. 2021).
Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain
epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on
health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable
societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various
countries around the world (Pal 2021). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made
healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common
colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such
situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually
makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).
CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop
various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic
catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their
ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction.
Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level
(Association 2020). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in
extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced
destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these
communities (Ogden 2018). For instance, Ogden (2018) comprehensively denoted that
Katrina’s
We Hurricane
use essential augmented
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site can issuesWeinalso
function. the victim communities.
use optional cookies for
Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018) and have an indispensable
roleour
See in regulating global
privacy policy for carbon and nitrogen
more information cycles
on the use (Rehman et al. 2021;
of your personal data. Reichstein and
Carvalhais 2019). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates
(Ellison et al. 2017). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and
productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation
patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of
ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several
devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018), and last
but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency
and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-
being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017), which is further projected to increase soon
(Hartmann et al. 2018; Lehner et al. 2017; Rehman et al. 2021). Hence, CC induces storms,
with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests
(Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018), significantly since their influences are augmented during
higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of
trees (Brázdil et al. 2018). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual
precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests
(Allen et al. 2010; Flannigan et al. 2013), letting them encounter severe stress and
disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016; Millar and
Stephenson 2015; Rehman et al. 2021).
Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of
them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008). Agro-
forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people
solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005). For
example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest
resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and
Ahmad 2004). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic
disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014). On the one hand, forest
communities
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smallholder
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to change your temperature
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changed rainfall patterns.
Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly
vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been
comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more
devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the
Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and
other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species,
particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et
al. 2008). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent
mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012). In addition, the pace of other
waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal
complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of
Bangladesh (Cell 2009; Gunter et al. 2008).
Pest outbreak
Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation
times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al.
2013; Schoene and Bernier 2012) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new
environments (Jactel et al. 2019). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due
to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more
susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier,
i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest
interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et
al. 2019). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree
Your
defensesprivacy,
and pressuresyour choice(Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016). As climate greatly
of predation
influences
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Table 3 Essential considerations while mitigating

for further information the climate
and to change change impacts on the
your choices.
forestry sector
Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool
with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign
exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for
entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018;
Scott 2021). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct
victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012; Hall et al. 2015) as the climate is among the
essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations.
Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the
countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns.
Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually
lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and
national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a
considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and
the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.
Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015; Scott et al. 2004) indicated that
various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts,
will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of
administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism
industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to
numerous
Your destinations
privacy, your to withstand
choiceagainst it (Füssel and Hildén 2014). Similarly, in the
partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the
high-demanding
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supporting
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cookies, assessment
you consent to thefactors (Füssel
processing and personal
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data - It is obvious
including
corporality
varying that sectors
standards of data such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure,
protection.
water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the
sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark
in determining the composite
for furthervulnerability
information and of climate
to changewarming (Ionescu et al. 2009).
your choices.
Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate
health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic
biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also
makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015). Some significant
non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and
functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem
stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the
ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et
al. 2013).
Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its
increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the
major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al.
2020; Gleditsch 2021; Abbass et al. 2021b; Lamperti et al. 2021). The adverse effects of CC on
the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for
understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive
climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its
effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the
agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various
agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to
respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020; Gleditsch
2021; Mosavi
Your et al. 2020).
privacy, your choice
With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started
increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation
in
By the countries.
accepting The
optional agricultural
cookies, development
you consent of many
to the processing countries has been
of your personal reliant,
data delicate,
- including
and susceptible
varying standardsto ofCC forprotection.
data a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor
productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021;
Wu 2020).
Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major
climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned.
The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the
economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which
is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large
population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and
disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an
economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely
affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018).
Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes
Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et
al. 2020). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand,
adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces
or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically
and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021; Jahanzad et al. 2020; Kongsager 2018; Smit et al.
2000; Vale et al. 2021; Usman et al. 2021; Verheyen 2005).
Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in
sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use
are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020; Waheed et al.
2021). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and
international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last
decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development.
To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the
international level (Hussain et al. 2020). Figure 6 depicts the list of current studies on
sectoral
We impactscookies
use essential of CC with adaptation
to make sure the and
site mitigation
can function.measures globally.
We also use optional cookies for
Fig. 6
Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.
Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of
psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous
Your
impacts.privacy, your choice
Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences
human
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policy for morehowever, appropriate
information on the usemitigation and adaptation
of your personal data. measures can
aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts.
Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly,
adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster
changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma
calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to
international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the
most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of
climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;
1. Seasonal variations and cultivation practices

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and
arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields
(Pfadenhauer 2020; Bonacci 2019). Extending the planting season may allow additional
crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical
thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-
period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The
capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the
harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the
year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al.
2017).
2. New varieties of crops
The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi
fruit for a few. Ali et al. (2017) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes
(also stated in Mall et al. 2017). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt
tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be
Youradvantageous
privacy, (Akkari 2016). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater
your choice
spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed,
particularly
advertising, in the early
personalisation forecasts
of content, owing
usage to theand
analysis, complexity in ensuring features are
social media.
expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic
profitability,
transfers and regulatory
to third parties. Some third impediments (Wirehn
parties are outside of the2018; Davidson
European et al.Area,
Economic 2016).
with
3. Changes in management and other input factors
To get the full benefit of the CO2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other
fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater,
discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large
doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have
been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation,
grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies
(Barua et al. 2018).
4. The technological and socio-economic adaptation
The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy,
biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from
international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a
few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy
industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the
global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies
to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings,
fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result,
their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food
imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value
chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food
products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade
terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil
exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil
prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable
energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both
world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.
IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts
toward
We decarbonizing
use essential cookiesthe energy
to make future
sure willcanbenefit
the site economic
function. We alsoactivity, jobs cookies
use optional (outweighing
for
losses in thepersonalisation
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of content, welfare. Countries
analysis, withmedia.
and social weak domestic supply chains
andaccepting
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optionalon fossil you
cookies, fuelconsent
income,tointheparticular,
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data - including
capitalize
transfers toon the
third opportunities
parties. Some third
inherent
parties in
arethe energy
outside transition.
of the EuropeanGovernments
Economic Area,continue
with to
give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct
infrastructure
See our privacy expenditures,
policy for moreexemptions
information from
on theenvironmental regulations,
use of your personal data. and other
measures. The majority of majorinformation

for further oil and gasandproducing
to changecountries intend to increase output.
your choices.
Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While
some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable
transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing
countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and
assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap.
Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their
climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.
It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without
undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020; Zhao et al.
2022). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of
investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various
policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is
more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also
a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other
traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can
foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry.
These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming
networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to
reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy
system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government
commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing
nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.
Availability of data and material
Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.
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Authors and Affiliations
School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology,
Nanjing, 210094, People’s Republic of China
Kashif Abbass, Huaming Song & Ijaz Younis
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of
Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and
Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094, People’s Republic of China
Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim
School privacy,
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Muntasir Murshed
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Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz

University, 173, Alkharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
Haider Mahmood
Contributions
KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal
analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the
original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS:
Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation,
Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing
review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review
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Abbass, K., Qasim, M.Z., Song, H. et al. A review of the global climate change impacts,
adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 42539–42559
(2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6
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Keywords
Climate change COVID-19 Antimicrobial resistance Biodiversity
Mitigation measures


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