Jee Mains and Advanced Maths Chapters Short Notes
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Raghav AgarwalJee Mains and Advanced Maths Chapters Short Notes
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MIND
MAP
CONTENT
CONTENT
CONTENT
SL. NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. Logarithm 1-6
2. Quadratic Equations 7-11
3. Trigonometry (Compound Angle) 12-16
4. Trigonometric Equations 17-19
5. Sequence And Series 20-24
6. Binomial Theorem 25-28
7. Permutation & Combination 29-32
8. Straight line 33-41
9. Ellipse 42-49
10. Parabola 50-59
11. Hyperbola 60-68
12. Circle 69-77
13. Relation and Functions 78-86
14. Matrix & Determinant 87-93
15. Complex Number 94-102
16. Limit 103-106
17. Continuity 107-111
18. Methods-of-Differentiation 112-114
19. Definite Integration 115-118
20. Indefinite Integration 119-123
21. Vector 124-128
22. 3 D Geometry 129-133
23. Statistics 134-139
24. Differential Equation 140-143
25. Area Bounded by Curve 144-147
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Logarithm
Logarithm
1. Definition 6. Antilogarithm
N = ax ....(1) log a n = m n = antilog a m
logaN = x ....(2)
ax = N loga N = X 7. Characteristic and Mantissa
Where, N > 0, a > 0, a 1 log a N = Integer Fraction ( ve)
2. Three Fundamental Identities
(i) logNN = 1 Integer part Characteristic (m)
(ii) log(1/N)N = -1 Fractional part Mantissa (n)
(iii) logal = 0
(Basic constraints on number & base must be Important Notes :
observed.) (i) The mantissa part of log of a number is always
Note :
alogaN = N is an identify for all n > 0 and a > 0, positive (0 < m < 1)
a 1 (ii) If the characteristic of log10 N be n, then the number
3. Principal Properties of Logarithm
If m, n are arbitrary positive real numbers of digits in N is (n + 1)
where a > 0 ; a 1 (iii) If the characteristic of log10 N be (- n), then there
(1) logam + logan = loga mn
will be (n - 1) zeros after decimal and before first
m
(2) logam - logan = loga significant digit in N.
n
(3) logam = x loga0m
x
Important Results from Graphs :
4. Base changing theorem (BCT)
xy if a 1
log c a log a x log a y
log ba x y if 0 a 1
log c b
I.T.F
Important Results of BCT
1. Principal Values & Domains of Inverse
1
1. logba = log b Circular Functions
a
2. (logba) . (logcb) . (logdc) = logda
3. a logb a = c log b a
1
4. logax m = logam
x
5. Graph of Logarithmic Function
Graph of y = logax
2. Graphs of all 6 Inverse Circular Functions
1
(1) sin x,| x | 1, ,
2 2
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Logarithm
More about arc sinx
1
sin-1 x is monotonical increasing in its domain. (3) tan x,| x | R ,
2 2
It is a bounded function.
It is an odd function (symmetric about origin).
It is a periodic (non - periodic).
It is continuous.
More about arc tanx
tan-1 x is monotonical decreasing in its domain.
(2) cos-1x, |x| < 1, [0, ] It is a bounded function.
It is an odd function
It is a periodic
It is continuous function.
(4) cosec-1x, |x| > 1, , {0}
2 2
More about arc cosx
cos-1 x is monotonical decreasing in its domain.
It is a bounded function.
It is neither even nor odd
It is a periodic
It is continuous.
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Logarithm
More about arc cosecx More about arc cots
It is monotonical decreasing function. It is monotonic decreasing function.
It is a periodic function It is bounded function.
It is a periodic.
It is a bounded function.
It is continuous everywhere.
It is an odd function
It is neither even nor odd.
It is continuous wherever it is defined. 3. Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Function
Property - 1
(5) sec-1x, |x| > 1, 0, , (i) y = sin (sin-1x) = x
2 2
x [-1, 1],
y [-1, 1],
y is a periodic
More about arc secx (ii) y = cos (cos-1x) = x
It is increasing wherever it is defined. x [-1, 1],
y [-1, 1],
It is a periodic. y is a periodic
It is neither even nor odd.
It is continuous, wherever
it is defined for |x| > 1.
It is bounded function.
(6) cot-1x, |x| R, (0, )
(iii) y = tan (tan-1x) = x
x R, y R
y is a periodic
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Logarithm
(iv) y = cot (cot -1x) = x Property -2
1
x R, y R (i) sin x = cosec x , where x [-1,1] - {0}
-1 -l
y is a periodic 1
(ii) cosec-l x = sin-1 x , |x| > 1
1
(iii) cos-l x = sin-1 x , where x [-1,1] - {0}
1
(iv) sec-l x = cos-1 x , |x| > 1
1 1
tan x ; x 0
(v) cos-l x = 1
tan 1 ; x 0
x
(v) y = cosec (cosec-1x) = x
Property -3
|x| > 1, |y| > 1 sin-1 (-x) = sin-1 (x); |x| < 1
y is a periodic tan-1 (-x) = tan-1 (x); x R
cos-1 (-x) = - cos-1 (x); |x| < 1
(vi) y = sec (sec-1x) = x cot-1 (-x) = - cot-1 (x); x R
|x| > 1, |y| > 1 cosec-1 (-x) = cosec--1 (x); |x| > 1
sec-1 (-x) = - sec--1 (x); |x| > 1
y is a periodic
Property - 4
(i) sin-1 x + cos-l x = , |x| < 1
2
(ii) tan-1 x + cot-l x = ,x R
2
(iii) cosec-1 x + sec-l x = , |x| > 1
2
Property - 5
If x > 0, y > 0, then
1 x y
tan 1 xy ;wherexy 1(acuteangle)
(i) tan-1x + tan-l y =
tan1 x y ;wherexy 1(obtuseangle)
1 xy
xy
(ii) tan-1x - tan-l y = tan 1
1 xy
(vii)y = sin (sin-1x) = x, x R, y ,
2 2 Remember :
periodic with period 2 (i) tan-11 + tan-12 + tan-13 =
1 1
-1 -1 =
(ii) tan (1) + tan 2 + tan 3 2
-1
tan -11 + tan -1 2 + tan -1 3
(ii) 2
cot -11 + cot -1 2 + cot -1 3
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Logarithm
4. Simplification & Transformation of Inverse
Functions by Elementary Substitution & Their
Graphs
2x
(1) y = f (x) = sin-1 2
1 x
( 2 tan 1 x); if x 1
if | x | 1
2 tan 1 x;
2 tan 1 x; if x 1
(where, I increasing & D decreasing)
2x
(3) y = f (x) = tan-1 Domain : R - {-1, 1}
1 x2
Range : ,
2 2
2 tan 1 x; if x 1
1
2 tan x; if | x | 1
2 tan 1 x ; if x 1
1 x2
(2) y = f (x) = cos-1 2
1 x
Domain : R Range : [0, )
2 tan 1 x; if x 0
1
2 tan x; if x 0
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Quadratic Equations
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Polynomial b
If are the roots then,
An expression of the type Pn(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 a
+ ..... + an is called a polynomial of degree ‘n’
c D
where all powers of x are non-negative integers and a0 an d
a |a |
which is called leading coefficient of the
Formation of a quadratic equation when
polynomial should not be equal to zero.
n = 1, P(x) = a0x + a1 linear polynomial. roots are given
n = 2, P(x) a0x2 +a1x+ a2 quadratic polynomial. Let and be the given roots of a quadratic
n = 3, p(x) a0x3 +a1x2 +a2x+a3cubic polynomial. equation, then
n = 4, P(x) =a0x4+a1x3+a2x2+a3x+a4 bi-quadratic poly.
(x ) (x ) 0 x 2 x( ) 0
Pn() means value ofthe polynomial Pn(x) at x
If Pn() = 0, then a is called as zero of the polynomial. x2 - x (sum of the roots) + Product fo the roots = 0
Remainder Theorem Nature of Roots
P(x) R where Q(x)is quotient & Consider the quadratic equation
Q(x)
xk xk R is remainder
ax 2 bx c 0
P(x) = Q(x) (x-k) + R at x = k, P(k) = R
where a, b, c R and a 0
Factor Theorem
Roots of the equation are given by
Let P(x) = (x-k) Q(x) + R
when P(k) = 0, P(x) = (x-k) Q(x). b b2 4ac b D
x
Therefore, P(x) is exactly divisible by x-k. 2a 2a
Quadratic Expression and Quadratic Equation (i) If D > 0 roots are real and distinct.
y ax bx c Quadratic Expression
2
(ii) If D = 0 roots are equal.
where a = leading coefficient & c = absolute (iii) If D < 0 roots are imaginary..
term of quadratic polynomial. Important Note
(1) If co-efficients of the quadratic equation are
ax 2 bx c 0;a 0 Quadratic Equation rational then its irrational roots always occur
Solving a equationn means remaining the values of x
in pair. If p q is one of the roots then other
for which ax2 + bx + c vanishes and these values of x
are also the roots of quadratic equation. root will be p q
Solution of quadratic equation (2) If co-efficients of the quadratic equation are
roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0; a 0; a, b, c R real then its imaginary roots always occur in
complex conjugate pair. If p + iq is one of the
b D b D
Hence and roots then other root will be p - iq.
2a 2a
Identity
where D = b2 - 4ac
Let ax2 + bx + c - 0 be a equation. Now, if this equation
Relation between roots and coefficient
has more than two distinct roots then it becomes an
ax2 + bx + c = 0; a 0; , , c R
identity and in this case a = b = c = 0.
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Quadratic Equations
Symmetric Expressions Quadratic expression and its graph
The symmetric expressions of the roots , of an Case-I : If a > 0 and D > 0
equation are those expressions in and , which do Then quadratic equation has two roots and graph cuts
not change by interchanging and . the x-axis at two distinct points.
(i) 2 2 (ii) 2 2
1 1 (i) For x
(iii) (iv)
y is negative
2 2 (ii) For x or x
(v) 2 2 (vi) y is positive
(vii) 3 3 (viii) 4 4
Case-II : If a > 0 and D = 0
Formation of Quadratic Equation Whose Roots
Both zeroes of polynomial coincides,
are Symmetric Expression of and
If , are roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 then Hence the curve touches x-axis
the equation whose roots are
(i) , (Re place x by x)
1 1 1
(ii) , (Re place x by ) y a(x ) 2 &
x
y 0, for x R
1
(iii) , ,n N (Replace x by x )
n n n
x
(iv) k, k (Re place x by ) Case-III : If a > 0 and D <0
k
(v) k , k (Re place x by (x k))
(vi) , (Re place x by kx )
k k
1 1
(viii) In this case imaginary roots
, n N(Re place x by x n )
n n
appears & y 0, for x R
Condition of common roots
Let a1x2 + b1x + c1= 0 and a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0
have a common root .
Case-IV : If a < 0 and D > 0
Hence a12 + b1 + c1= 0
The graph is downward and cuts the x-axis at two
a22 + b2 + c2 = 0 Then
distinct points.
b1c 2 b 2 c1 a 2c1 a1c 2
a 2c1 a1c 2 a1b 2 a 2 b1
Condition for both thc common roots
If both roots of the given equations are common then (a) y 0,if x
a1 b1 c1 (b) y 0, if or x
a 2 b2 c2
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Quadratic Equations
Theory of equations
Relation between roots and coefficients of polynomial
equation
For Quadratic Equation
If and are the roots of quad. eq. ax2 + bx + c = 0
b c
then, and
a a
For Cubic Equation
If , and are roots of a quad. eq. ax3 + bx2 +
cx +d = 0 then where D = b2 - 4ac
b c d P(x)
; & Range of functions expressed in the form of
a a a Q(x)
For Bi-quadratic Equation where P(x) and Q(x) are either linear or quadratic
polynomials
If , , , and are roots of a bi-quadratic equation
ax b(Linear)
ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 then TYPE - I : y
px q(Linear)
b
ax b (linear)
a y
TYPE - II :
px qx r (quadratic)
2
c
a ax 2 bx c (Quadratic)
TYPE - III : y
d px 2 qx r (Quadratic)
a ax 2 bx c (Quadratic)
TYPE - IV : y
e px 2 qx r (Quadratic)
&
a
ax 2 px c (Quadratic)
Note : Polynomial equations of odd degree with real TYPE - V : y
px 2 qx r (Quadratic)
coefficient must have at least one real root as imaginary
roots always occur in pair of conjugates, Resolving general quadratic exp. in x and y into
Maximum and Minimum values of quadratic and two linear factors
rational functions f(x, y) = ax2 + 2bxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
Now f(x, y) can be writing as product of two linear
D b
If a < 0, ymax & it occurs at x factors only when
4a 2a
abc + 2fgh - af2 - bg2 - ch2 = 0
Quadratic expression and its graph
Case-V : If a < 0 and D = 0
The graph touches the
x-axis from below
In this case y < 0 for xR
D b
If a > 0, ymin & it occurs at x
4a 2a
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Quadratic Equations
Case-VI : If a < 0 and D < 0 TYPE-III :
Exactly one root lies in the interval (d, e) when d < e.
Conditions for this are :
The graph lies completely
below the x-axis and
y < 0 for xR f (d) .f (e) < 0
An another case arises when f (d) . f (e) = 0, then
Important Note
(1) The quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c, where
a, b, c R is positive x R , if a > 0 and
D < 0 (Case-III), For f (d) = 0
(2) The quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c, where
a, b, c R is negative x R , if a < 0 and
D < 0 (Case-VI).
Location of Roots For f (e) = 0
TYPE-I :
Both roots of the quadratic equation are greater than a TYPE-IV :
specified number say (d). When both roots are confined between the number
The necessary and sufficient condition for this are: d and e (d < e). conditions for this are
b
(i) D > 0 (ii) a.f (d) > 0 (iii) a.f (e) > 0
(i) D > 0 (ii) a.f (d) > 0 (iii) >d
2a
b
(iv) d < <e
2a
TYPE-V :
One root is greater than e and the other root is less
than d. Conditions are (where d < e)
TYPE-II :
Both roots lie on either side of a fixed number say (d).
Alternatively one root is greater than d and other less
than d or d lies between the roots of the given equation. (i) a.f (d) < 0
(ii) a.f (e) < 0
a.f (d) < 0
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Trigonometry
TRIGONOMETRY
(Compound Angle)
1. Basic Trigonometric Identities 3. Reduction Formula
(1) sin2 + cos2 = 1 ; where R (i) (90 + ) Relation In all (90 o + )
(2) 1+tan2 = sec2 or sec2 - tan2 =1 Relations
(3) 1 + cot2 = cosec2 or cosec2 - cot2 =1 sin (90o + ) = cos sin changes to cos
(4) sin4 + cos4 =1 -2 sin2 .cos2 cos (90o + ) = -sin cos changes to sin
(5) sin6 + cos6 = 1 -3 sin2 .cos2 tan (90o + ) = -cot cosec changes to sec
Note That (ii) Reduction (180o - ) For (180o - )
(i) (sec - tan ) is reciprocal of (sec + tan ) and sin (180o - ) = sin sin remains sin
vice - versa. cos (180o - ) = -cos cos remains cos
(ii) (cosec - cot ) is reciprocal of (cosec + cot ) tan (180o - ) = -tan tan remains tan
and vice - versa (iii) Reduction (180o + ) In (180o + ) relations
2. Circular system sin (180 + ) = -sin sin remains sin
If length of arc of circle equal's to radius then angle cos (180 + ) = -cos cos remains cos
impose by that arc on centre of circle is called one tan (180 + ) = tan tan remains tan
radian. (iv) Reduction (360o - ) In (2 - ) relations
Otherwise r . or (2 - )
Note : sin (- ) = -sin sin remains sin
(i) Radian and Degree's cos (- ) = cos cos remains cos
180o tan (- ) = -tan tan remains tan
(ii) Length of an arc of a circle Sign of Trigonometric ratio
r
(iii) Area of sector of a circle
1 2 1
A r r
2 2
4. Graphs of 6 Trigonometric Functions
(1) y = sinx, where y [-1, 1], x R
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Trigonometry
(2) y = cosx, where y[-1, 1], x R
(6) y = secx, x (2n 1) for n I
2
4. Graphs of 6 Trigonometric Functions
(3) y = tanx, x R, y ( , ), x (2n 1)
2
for n I 5. Trigonometry of Compound Angles
(i) sin(A + B) = sinA • cosB + cosAsinB
(ii) sin(A - B) = sinA • cosB - cosA • sinB
(iii) cos(A + B) = cosA • cosB - sinA • sinB
(iv) cos(A - B) = cosA • cosB + sinA • sinB
To deduce the value of tan (A + B) and cot (A + B)
tan A tan B
(1) tan(A + B) =
1 tan A tan B
tan A tan B
(4) y = cotx, x R, y ( , ), x n for n I (2) tan(A - B) =
1 tan AtanB
cot A cot B 1
(3) cot(A + B) =
cot B cot A
cot A cot B 1
(4) cot(A - B) =
cot B cot A
Note :
1 tan A
(1) tan A
4 1 tan A
(2) cotAcotB - 1 = cot (A+B) (cotB + cotA)
6. Important identities
(5) y = cosec, y ( , 1] [1, ) , x R-n,
sin(A + B) • sin(A - B) = sin2A - sin2B
x nfor n I cos(A + B) • cos(A - B) = cos2A - sin2B
tan(A + B + C)
tan A tan B tan C tan A tan B tan C
1 tan A tan B tan B tan C tan C tan A
1
sinAsin(60o - A) sin (60o + A) = sin 3A
4
1
cosAcos(60o - A) cos (60o + A) = cos 3A
4
tanAtan(60o - A) tan (60o + A) = tan 3A
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Trigonometry
7. Transformation Formulae 9. Continued product of cosine Series
1
Transform the product into sum or difference : cosAcos2Acos4Acos8A..cos2n-1A n
2 sin A
(1) 2sinA cosB = sin (A+B) + sin (A-B)
sin (2nA)
(2) 2cosA sinB = sin (A+B)-sin (A-B)
10. Values of Trigonometric Ratio of Standard
(3) 2cosA cosB = cos (A+B)+cos (A-B)
Angles
(4) 2sinA sinB = cos (A-B) - cos (A + B)
Finding values of 15o & 75o
Transforming sum or differences into products
3 1 6 2 5
C D cos C D (1) sin15o = = cos 75o = cos
(5) sinC + sinD = 2sin 2 2 4 12
2 2
3 1 6 2
C D sin C D (2) sin75o =
4
= cos 15o = cos
12
(6) sinC - sinD = 2cos 2 2
2 2
3 1
C D cos C D (3) tan15o = 2 3 = cot 75o
(7) cosC + cosD = 2cos 3 1
2 2
C D sin C D (4) tan75o =
3 1
2 3 = cot 15o
(8) cosC - cosD = -2sin (Imp.)
2 2 3 1
8. Trigonometric Ratio's of Multiple and
5 1
submultiple angles (5) sin18o = cos 72o =
4
(2 tan A)
1. sin2A = 2sinAcosA = 5 1
1 tan 2 A
(6) cos36o = sin 54o =
2. cos 2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A = 1- 2sin 2 A 4
11. Values of standard angles
1 tan 2 A
= 2cos A-1 =
2
1 tan 2 A
2 tan A
3. tan2A =
1 tan 2 A
4. sin3A = 3sinA - 4sin3A
5. cos3A= 4cos3A - 3cosA
3 tan A tan 3 A
6. tan3A =
1 3 tan 2 A
S1 S3 S5 S7 ...
7. tan(A 1 + A2 + ....An) = 1 S S S ...
2 4 6 12. Application of Trigonometry In Maximising
Where, S1 = tanA1 + tanA2 +.....+ tanAn = Sum of and Minimising
the tangents of the separate angles, TYPE-I : Making use of range of trigonometric
S2 = tanA1 tan A2 + tanA2 tanA3 +.... = Sum of the ratios
tangents taken two at a time, TYPE-II : When argument of sine and
S3 = tan A1 tan A2 tan A3+ tanA2 tanA3 tan A4 cosine are same If y = a sinx+b cos x+C then
+ .....= Sum of the tangents taken three at a time, ymax = a 2 b 2 C; y min a 2 b 2 C
and so on.
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Trigonometry
TYPE-III : Argument of sine and cosine are (5) tanA + tanB + tanC = tanAtanBtanC
A B C B C A
different or a quadratic in sine / cos is given then (6) tan tan tan tan tan tan 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
we make a perfect square in sine / cosine and
13. Summation Of Trigonometr c Series
interpret.
Sum of the sin series when the angles are in A.P.
TYPE-IV : Making use of reciprocal relationship
(1) sin + sin () + sin ()+ ...
between tan and cot, sin/cosec and cos/sec.
n
Note : sin
sin( n 1) 2 sin (n 1)
2
Some standard identities in triangle (A + B + C = ) :- sin
2
(1) sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4sinAsinBsinC
Sum of the cosine series when the angles are in A.P.
(2) cos2A + cos2B + cos2C = -1- 4cosAcosBcosC
(2) cos + cos () + cos ()+ ...+cos
A B C
(3) sinA + sinB + sinC = 4cos cos cos
2 2 2 n
sin
A B C ( n 1) 2 cos (n 1)
(4) cosA + cosB + cosC = 1 + 4sin sin sin 2
2 2 2 sin
2
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Trigonometric Equations
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Note :
1. Trigonometric Equation
If sin = 0 then = n
x=0 sin x = 0
If sin = 1
x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0 sin 2x - 3 sinx + 2 = 0
then 2n (4n 1) , n I
x+y+z=0 sinx + cosy + tanz = 0 2 2
A n eq u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g o n e o r m o r e
or n (1) n
trigonometric ratios of unknown angles is 2
called a trigonometric equation. If sin = -1
2. Solution Of Trigonometric Equation then 2n (4n 1) , n I
2 2
sin x + 1 = 1 sinx = 0
x 0, , 2, 3, 4,....... or n (1)n
2
, 2, 3,..........(Infinite values) The equation cosec = cosec is equivalent
to sin = sin so these two equation have
the same general solution (in their domains).
General solution of the equation sin = C
exists if -1< C < 1.
4. General Solution of cos = cos a
3
Principal solution :- The solutions of the cos cos
2 6
trigonometric equation lying in the interval [0, 2] .
Particular solution :- The solutions of the trigo.
equation lying in the given interval.
General solution x n ; n I
Principal solution x 0,
(in[0, 2 ).)
Particular solution x , 2,3, 4
(in(0, 5 ).)
3. General Solution of Some Trigo. Eqs.
General solution of the equation sin sin
is unknown angle and is assumed to be in
radians.
is known angle.
n (1)n n I
2n n R [0, ](V.Im p.)
, (V.Im p.) If cos = 0 then 2n or (2n 1)
2 2 2 2
For deciding , think of u as numerically If cos = 1 then 2n, n I
smallest angle of any sign '+' or '-' If cos =-1 then 2n or (2n 1)
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Trigonometric Equations
Note : 2 2n 2
4. General solution of cos = cos a n ;n I
• The equation sec = sec is equivalent to (Take care of domain)
cos = cos , so the general solution of these
two equations are same (in their domain).
• General solution of the equation cos = C
exists if -1< C < 1.
5. General solution of the equation tan
= tan a 7. Strategies For Solving Trigonometric
Equations
Type - 1: Solving Trigonometric Equations
by Factorisation
Type - 2: Solving Trigonometric Equation by
reducing it to a Quadratic Equation
Type - 3: Solving Trig.Eqs. of the form a
a sin + b cos = c By introducing
an Auxiliary Argument
Type - 4: Solving Trigo. Eqs. by transforming
sum of trigonometric functions into
product
, , 2 , 3 , 4 ... Type - 5: Solving Trigo Eqs. by transforming the
n ; n I product into sum
Type - 6: Solving Trigo Eqs.by change of
n n I , (V.Im p.) variable or by substitution
2 2
Type - 7: Solving Trigo Eqs. with the use of the
If cot = 0 then (2n 1) Boundness of the Functions involved
2
Type - 8 : Solution of Trigo Eq of the form of
If tan = 0 then n, n I
The equation cot = cot is equivalent to f (x) (x)
tan = tan , so these two equations have the Square both side with the condition
same general solution (in their domain).
f(x) > 0
6. General Solution of Square of the
Trigonometric Equations Type - 9: System of Trigo Equations
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Sequence And Series
Sequence And Series
1. Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) Tk Tn k 1 constant a
• General Form of an A.P.
If 'a' is the first term and 'd' is the common Property-4 : Any term of an AP (except the first &
difference, then the standard appearance of an last) is equal to half the sum of terms which are
A.P. is equidistant from it. T1, T2, T3, ...Tr-k, ...Tr, ...Tr+k, ...
Tr k Tr k T T
a a+d a+2d a+3d ..... Tr , k r for k=1, Tr r 1 r 1
2 2
• General Term of an A.P.
Property-5 : If we pick the terms of an A.P. in a
Tn = l = nth term or last term Ta a (n 1)d particular interval, then picked sequence is also an A.P.
Note : nth term or an A.P. is of the form with common difference (df ) equals to interval times
Pn + Q, i.e. a linear expression in n. the original common difference (di )
2. Summation of n terms of an A.P. d f (Interval).d i
n n Property-6 : If a1, a2, a3, ... , an are in A.P. (d1)
Sn [2a (n 1)d] or Sn [a ] and b1, b2, b3,... , are also in A.P. (d2)
2 2
Then, (a1+ b1), (a2+b2), (a3+b3),... (an + bn) are in
Frequently used summations
A.P. (c.d. = d1 + d2)
(1) Sum of first 'n' natural numbers :
(a1- b1), (a2-b2), (a3-b3),... (an - bn) are also in
n(n ) A.P. (c.d. = d1 - d2)
1 2 3 ... n
2 a1 a 2 a 3 an
(2) Sum of first 'n' odd natural numbers : But, a1b1, a2b2, a3b3,... anbn or b , b , b ,..., b
1 2 3 n
n(1 2n 1)
1 3 5 ...... (2n 1) n2 may or may not be in A.P.
2 4. Supposition of terms of an A.P.
(3) Sum of first 'n' even natural numbers : (A) If number of terms be ODD, then we take 'a' as
n(2 2n) middle term and 'd' as its common difference.
2 4 6 ...... 2n n(n 1) 3 terms in A.P. as : a - d, a, a + d
2
Points to Remember 5 terms in A.P. as : a - 2d, a - d, a, a + d, a + 2d,
(a) Sum of n terms of an A.P. is of the form (B) If number of terms be EVEN, then we take
Sn = Pn2 + Qn, i.e. quadratic expression 'a - d' & ‘a + d' as middle terms and ‘2d' as its
in n. common difference.
(b) nth term in terms of Sn : Tn = Sn- Sn-1 4 terms in A.P. as : a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d
3. Properties of an A.P. 6 terms in A.P. as : a - 5d, a - 3d, a - d, a + d,
Property-1 : If a, b, c are in AP, then a + 3d, a + 5d & so on,
NOTE : Here, ‘a’ is not the first term or an A.P.
b - a = c - b 2b = a + c
Property-2 : 2, 4, 6, 8, are in A.P. 5. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.)
Add k 2+k , 4+k, 6+k , 8+k, ..... are in A.P. All the terms inserted between two given quantities
Common Difference : d (or numbers) such that the whole sequence thus formed
2, 4, 6, 8, ..... are in A.P. shall be an A.P., then these inserted terms are known
Multiply by k 2.k , 4.k, 6.k , 8.k, ..... are in A.P. as Arithmetic Mean.
Common Difference : kd (i) Insertion of an A.M. between two no.s
2, 4, 6, 8, .... are in A.P. Let two numbers be 'a' and 'b' & a .A. b are in A.P.
Divide by k 2/k , 4/k, 6/k , 8/k, are in A.P. Where, A = Arithmetic Mean
Common Difference : d/k ab
Property-3 : In an A.P., summation of kth term from A
2
beginning and kth term from the last is always constant
which is equal to summation of first and last terms.
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Sequence And Series
(ii) Insertion of 'n' A.M.'s between two no.s New First term (A) arn-1
A1 = a + d a 1
New Common ratio (R) =
ar r
A 2 = a + 2d
ba 7. Summation of 'n' terms of a G.P.
d
n 1
A n = a + nd a(1 r n ) a(r n 1)
Sn or Sn ,r 1
1 r r 1
(iii) Summation of 'n' A.M.'s between two no.s
Sum of infinite terms of a G.P.
n
A
i 1
i nA
S
a
;| r | 1
1 r
(iv) Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) of 'n' numbe s 8. Properties of G.P.
Given any ‘n' numbers a1, a2, a3, ......, an
then their Arithmetic Mean (An) is : b c
1. If a, b, c are in G.P.. then b 2 ac
a b
a1 a 2 a 3 ...... a n 2. If a, b, c, .......... are in G.P.. then
An
n ka, kb, kc, ........... (where k 0) ... are in G.P..
6. Geometric Progression (G.P.) 3. If a, b, c, .......... are in G.P.. then
In the sequence of non-zero terms, if each term bears a b c
the same constant ratio with its immediately preceding , , ..... (where k 0) ... are in G.P..
k k k
term, then that sequence is called as Geometric
4. If a, b, c, .......... are in G.P.. then
Progression and this constant ratio is called as
ak, bk, ck, ...... are also in G.P
Common Ratio (r)
5. In a G.P product of kth term from beginning and
• General Form of a G.P.
kth term from the last is always constant which is
a ar ar2 ar3 ..... equal to the product of its first and last terms.
Tn= l = nth term or last term Tn a(r) n 1 Tk .Tn k 1 cons tan t a.
• Common Ratio of a G.P. 6. In a positive G.P„ every term (except first and
last terms) is equal to square root of product of
T2 T3 T its two terms which are equidistant from it.
r ...... n , where n > 2
T1 T2 Tn 1
Tr Tr k .Tr k , k r
Note : (a) If r > 1 G.P. is said to be increasing
(b) If r (0,1) Decreasing G.P,, 7. If the terms of a given G.P. are chosen at regular
(c) If r < 0 Consecutive terms of G.P.. intervals, then the new sequence is also a G.P.
are of opposite sign, 8. If a1, a2, a3 ......... are in G.P &b1, b2, b3 ..... are
• mth term from the END of a G.P. also in G.P with common ratios r1 and r2
respectively, then a 1b 1, a 2b 2, a 3b 3 ..... &
Tm T(n m 1)
a1 a 2 a 3
(From the End) (From the Beginning) , ,
b1 b 2 b3 ...... will also form a G.P. whose
a[r](n m 1)1 a[r]n m
r1
Short method common ratio will be r1r2 and r respectively..
G.P.1 : a, ar, ar2,.............., arn-2, arn-1 2
G.P.2 : arn-1, arn-2, .............., ar2, ar, a 9. If a, b, c is a G.P. of positive terms, then
log(a) , log(b) , log(c) ...will be in A.P.
Tm Tm
9. Supposition of terms of a G.P.
(From the (From the 1. 1f number of terms be ODD, then we take 'a’ as
End in G.P.1 ) Beginning in G.P.2 ) middle term and 'r' as its common ratio.
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Sequence And Series
a 1 1 1
3 terms in G.P. as : , a, ar 3. If a, b, c are in H.P. , , are in A.P..
r a b c
a a 2ac
5 terms in G.P. as : , ,a,ar,ar 2 b
r2 r ac
2. If number of terms be EVEN, then we take ‘a/r’ 12. Harmonic Mean (H.M.)
and ‘ar’ as middle terms and ‘r2’ as its common All the terms inserted between given numbers
ratio. such that the whole sequence thus formed shall
a a be a H.P., then these inserted terms are called as
4 terms in G.P. as : , , ar, ar 3 Harmonic Mean,
r3 r
Single H.M. between two numbers
a a a Let two numbers be a & b; a, H, b are in H.P.
6 terms in G.P. as : , , , ar, ar 3 , ar 5
r5 r3 r 1 1 1 2ab
NOTE : Here, 'a' is not the first term of G.P. , , are in A.P. H
a H b ab
10. Geometric Mean
Note : When three quantities are in H.P. then
All the terms inserted between two given number
the middle one is called the Harmonic Mean of
such that the sequence thus formed shall be a
the other two. i.e., if a, b, c are in H.P. then
G.P. then these inserted terms are called as
Geometric Means (GM), 2ac
b
(i) Single G.M. between two numbers ac
Let two positive real no.s be a & b
n - H.M.'s befiveen a and b
a,G,b are in G.P., G ab G ab 2
Let two positive numbers be ‘a’ & ‘b’
(ii) 'n' G.M's between two numbers a, H1, H2, ....., Hn, b are in H.P.
a, G1, G2,......, Gn, b are in G.P., 1 1 1 1 1
, , ,....... ,
n a H1 H 2 H n b are in A.P..
Hence G i ( ab) n Gn
1 1 n
1 n
[(n 2) 1]d &
i 1
(iii) Geometric Mean (G.M.) of 'n' numbers b a i 1 H1 H
1 Harmonic Mean of 'n' numbers
Gn = (g1. g 2 . g3 ..........g n ) n Given any 'n' positive real no.s a1, a2, a3, ....an
11. Harmonic Progression (H.P.) then, its harmonic mean (Hn) is defined by
A non-zero sequence is said to be in H.P. if the n n
reciprocals of its terms are in A.P. Hn
n
1 1 1 1 1
a1, a2, a3, .... are in H.P., if and only if a
k 1
......
a1 a 2 a 3 an
k
1 1 1
, , 13. Rel. Between A.M., G.M. & H.M.
a1 a 2 a 3 , .... are in A.P..
(a) If a and b are two positive numbers
General form of a H.P. A, G, H are their AM, GM & HM respectively,
If ‘a’ is the first non-zero term 'd' is non-zero
common difference of an A.P., then the standard ab 2ab
A G ab H
H.P. is 2 ab
1 1 1 1 G 2 A.H A, G, H are in G.P..
, , ,.........,
a a d a 2d a (n 1)d (b) If a1, a2, a3, ....anare 'n' positive no.s, in G.P.
Note : A n, G n, H n are their AM, GM & HM
1. To find general term of H.P., convert it into respectively,
corresponding A.P. and then find its nth term
then An, Gn, Hn are in G.P. G 2n A n H n
& then reciprocal it,
2. There is no general formula for finding the sum
of 'n' terms of H.P.
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Sequence And Series
(c) If a1, a2, a3, ....anare 'n' positive no.s, then n
A.M. G.M. H.M. Equality holds only when n
ar a r
a1= a2= a3= ....=an (d) b r 1
n
(d) Root Mean Square (RMS) :
r 1 r
b
r 1
r
Let two positive no be 'a' and 'b' then
Remember
a b
2 2
n n
RMS RMS AM GM HM
2 (a) k k 1 k.n
r 1 r 1
14. Arithmetico - Geometric Progression (AGP)
General Form of an A.G.P. n(n 1)
n
a.b , (a + d).br, (a + 2d).br2, ....,
(b) Sum of the 1st 'n' natural no.s
r 1 2
r
(c) Sum of the squares of the 1st 'n' natural no.s
[a (n 1)d].br n 1
n
n(n 1) (2n 1)
General Term of A.G.P.
r 1
r 2
6
Sum of Infinite Terms a dr (d) Sum of the cubes of the 1st 'n' natural no.s
S b 2
of an A.G.P. 1 r (1 r) n
n n(n 1)
2 2
15. Sigma Notations (S)
r 1
r n
3
r 1 2
n n n
(a) (a
r 1
r br ) a r br
r 1 r 1 (e) Sum of 1st 'n' odd natural no.s
n
(2r 1) n 2
r 1
n n
(f) Sum of 1st 'n' even natural no.s
(b) ka
r 1
r k ar
r 1 n
n n n
(2r) n(n 1)
(a .b ) a . b
r 1
(c) r r r r
r 1 r 1 r 1
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Binomial Theorem
Binomial Theorem
1. Binomial Theorem 3. Number of Terms in Expansion
General Expansion (a) If n is ODD, then number of terms in
(x y) n n C0 x n y0 n C1x n 1 y1 n C 2 x n 2 y 2 n 1
(x a) n (x a) n is
.... n Cn x 0 y n 2
(b) If n is EVEN, then number of terms in
General Term : n
(i) (x a) (x a) is 1
n n
n r
Tr 1 C r x
n r
y where, 0 < r < n 2
(1) The number of terms in the expansion of (x + y)n n
(ii) (x a) (x a) is
n n
2
is (n + 1) i.e. one more than the index .
4. Numerically Greatest Term in the expansion
(2) The sum of the indices of x & y in each term is n.
of (a + bx)n
(3) Power of first variable (x) decreases while of
second variable (y) increases.
n 1 n 1
1 r
(4) Binomial coefficients of the terms equidistant from I I
1 | | 1 | |
the beginning and from the end are equal. II II
(5) Binomial coefficients of the middle term is greatest. 5. Standard Binomial Expansion
(6) mth - Term from the END (1 x) n C0 x 0 C1x1 C2 x 2 ...... C n x n
Note :
Tm
Tn m 2 Binomial coefficient & Coefficient of xr are equal
6. Properties of Binomial Coefficients &
[from the end] [from the beginning] Summation of Series
2. Middle Term n n
Middle term in the expansion of (I + II) is n
r 0
n
Cr 1m ' 0(
r 0
qn
Cr 0
Tn when n is even C0 C 2 C 4 ... C1 C3 C5 ... 2n 1
2
1
Tn 1 & Tn 3 when n is odd C1+2.nC2+3.nC3+.......+
n
2 2
(n -1).nCn-1+ n.nCn= n.2n-1
In binomial expansion, middle term has greatest
(1)2.C1+ (2)2.C2+ (3)2.C3+....+
binomial coefficient and if there are 2 middle
(n)2.Cn= n(1 + n) 2n-2
terms, their coefficients will be equal.
C1 C 2 C3 C 2n 1 1
Cr will be max
n C0 .... n
2 3 4 n 1 n 1
n C1 C 2 C 1
wherer , if n is even C0 .... (1) n n
2 2 3 n 1 n 1
n 1 n 1 (2n)!
wherer or if n is odd C02 C12 C 22 C32 ..... C2n 2n C n
2 2
n!n!
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Binomial Theorem
C0 + 4C1 + 42C2 + ....+4nCn = 5n Sum of coefficients of ODD power of x can be
3C0 + 5C1 + 7C2 + ....+(2 n+3) Cn = 2n(n+3) obtained by
(Put variables 1) (Put variables 1)
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + ....+ nCn = 2n
n
2
OR
n
8. Application of Binomial Theorem
r0
n
Cr 2 n
Divisibility Problems
C0 - nC1 + nC2 - nC3- ....+ (-1)n nCn = 0
n xn - yn is always divisible by (x - y)
OR 9. Multinomial Theorem
n
Where,
(1)
n
rn
Cr 0 n!
r 0
(x y) n s!r! x y
r s n
s r
sr n
C1 + C2 + C3 + ....+ Cn = n.2
2 3 n n-1
n
n! s r t Where,
C0 C1 C 2 C 2 1 n 1 (x y z) n
r s t n s!r!t!
xyz
srt n
.... n
1 2 3 n 1 n 1
This result can be generalized in the following form
22
2 23
3 1 11 11
2C0 C1 C 2 .... C10 (x 1+x2+...+xk)n =
2 3 11 11
n
n!
C0C1 + C1C2 + C2C3 + ....+ Cn-1Cn = Cn-1 2n
r1 r2 ... rk n r1 !r2 !.........rk !
x1r1 x 2r2 ....x krk
or 2nCn+1
2n 2
where,
12 C12 2 2 C22 32 C32 .... n 2 C 2n n 2 C n 1
(i) r1 + r2 + r3 + ........+ rk = n
(3.2 1) n 32.22 1) n 33.23 1) n
C1 C C3 .....
2 22
2
23 (ii) r1 , r2 , r3 , ........ rk I w
3n.2n 1) n 23n 3n ) n
(3r.2r 1) n (iii) n I N
2n
C n
2n
OR 2r
Cr
r 1 (iv) The general term in the above expansion
S = nC0.n+2C3 + nC1.n+2C4 + nC2.n+2C5 +......+ n!
.x1r1 x 2r2 x 3r3 .......x rkk
n 1 r1 !r2 !r3 !.......rk !
Tr = C r . C r 3
n n2
= 2n+2
Cn+3 OR
r 0 n k 1
(v) Number of terms = Ck 1
C0.2nC0+ nC1.2nC1 + nC2.2nC2 +......+ = 3nC2n
n
OR Tr = nCr.2nCr = nCn-r.2nCr 10. Binomial Theorem for Negative &
7. Sum of Coefficients in an Expansion Fractional Index
Sum of all the coefficients in an expansion can be n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3
(1 x) n 1 nx x x
2! 3!
obtained by putting variables = 1. ....
where,
Sum of coefficients of EVEN power of x can be
(i) n is a negative integer or a fraction
obtained by (ii) |x| < 1
General term in the expansion of (1+x)n is :
(Put variables 1) (Put variables 1)
n(n 1)(n 2).............[n (r 1)] r
2 Tr 1 x
r!
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Binomial Theorem
11. Important expansions for n Q & |x| < 1 n(n 1) 2
'b (1 x) n 1 n( x) x
n(n 1) 2 2!
' (1 x) n 1 nx x
2! n (n 1)(n 2)
( x ) 3 ........
n(n 1)(n 2) 3 3!
x ........
3! ( n)( n 1)
' c (1 - x)-n = 1 ( n)( x) ( x) 2
( n)( n 1) 2 2!
'a (1 x) n 1 ( n)x x
2! ( n)( n 1)( n 2)
( x)3 ........
( n)( n 1)( n 2) 3 3!
x ........
3!
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Permutation & Combination
Permutation & Combination
1. Notation of Factorial & its Algebra Combination/selection/collection/committee
refers to the situation where order of occurrence
The continued product of first n, natural of the event is not important.
number is called as "n factorial" and denoted Theorem :-
Number of combination/selection of 'n' distinct
by n! or n .
things taken 'r' at a time
n! = 1.2.3.4. ..... . (n -1). n 0<r<n
3! = 1.2.3 = 6 n n!
Cr C(n, r)
n
4! = 1.2.3.4 = 24 r (r)! (n r)!
Special Results Important Results
(i) nC0 = 1 Selection of None
0! = 1
(ii) nCn = 1 Selection of All
Exponent of prime number p in (n!). (iii) nCr = nCn-r
No. of selection = No. of rejection
n n n n
E p (n!) 2 3 ........ s 10C3 = 10C7
p p p p So, nCr = nCn-r
where 's' is the largest positive integer such that (iv) If nCx = nCy
x=y OR n
Cx = nCn-
ps < n < ps+1 x+y=n
2. Permutation (v) nPr = nCr .r! First select, then arrange
(vi) nCr + nCr-1 = n+1Cr
Permutation means arrangement of things in a
4. Formation of Groups & their distribution
definite order which may be alike or different Number of ways in which (m + n) different things
taken some or all at a time. can be divided into two groups containing
'm' & 'n' things.
e.g. Selecting 11 players of cricket team out of 16
and deciding their bating order.
Note :
All god made things in general are treated to be
different and all man made things are to be spelled
weather alike or different.
Theorem :-
Number of permutations of 'n' distinct things taken (m n)!
(i) m n; then number of ways =
'r' at a time m!n !
(ii) if m = n,
0<r<n
(n n)! 2n!
n! Then number of ways =
n
Pr P(n, r) A rn n!n!2! n!n!2!
(n r)!
similar, (m+n+p) different things can be divided
n
Pn P(n, n) A nn n!
into 3 unequal groups (m n p) of m, n & p
3. Combination
Combination is selection of one or more things (m n p)!
things
out of 'n' things which may be alike or different, m!n!p!
taken some or all at a time
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Permutation & Combination
5. Total Number of Combinations (c) No. of ways in which N can be resolved as a
(1) Number of ways of selection of one or more product of 2 divisors:
things out of 'n' different things Let total no. of divisors are "n"
One thing can be selected in nC1 ways
n If n is even
Two things can be selected in nC2 ways 2 ;
Three things can be selected in nC3 ways : n 1 1; If n is odd
2
'n' things can be selected in nCn ways
Total ways = nC1 + nC2 + nC3 +.....+ nCn = 2n-1 8. Permutation of Alike Objects taken all
at a Time
6. Combination of things which are NOT all
different
(1) Number of ways of selection of 'r' identical things
out of n identical things = 1
(2) The number of ways of selecting zero or more
things out of n identical things = n + 1
(3) Number of ways of selecting one or more things 9. Circular Permutation
(or at least one thing) out of n identical things = n Theorem-I :
(4) Number of ways of selecting one or more things The no. of circular permutations of n distinct
out of which objects is : (n -1) !
'p' are alike of one kind, Theorem-ll :
‘q' are alike of second kind, If anticlockwise and clockwise are considered
'r' are alike of third kind, to be same total number of circular permutation
& remaining 's' are different is are given by :
= (p +1) (q +1) 2s-1 n 1!
7. Problems Based on Number Theory 2
Number of Divisors & Their Sum If we arrange flowers or garland beads in a
(a) Number of divisors neckless then there is no distinction between
N = 2p x 3q x 5r ....... clockwise & anticlockwise direction.
The Number is divisible by 1, 2, 22, 23 ......2p Theorem-III :
Hence, (p + 1) divisors and so on ...... The no. of circular permutation of n distinct
Number of divisors of N objects taken r at a time is :
= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) ..... Cr. (r - 1)!
n
(b) Proper divisors : Note
All the divisors excluding 1 & N are called proper If we have n different things taken r at a time in
divisors. form of a garland or neckless, required no. of
= Total divisors - 2 arrangements
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Permutation & Combination
n
C r r 1 ! Type -1
2 1. Let a homogeneous expression with degree 'n' in
10. Geometric Problems 'r' variables be :
If There are n points in a plane, no three of which (x1 + x2 + x3 ......+xr)n
are collinear, then Then,
(a) Number of straight lines : No. of ways in which Number of different (dissimilar) terms in the
we can select any two points = nC2. expansion is equivalent to distribution of 'n'
(b) Number of triangles : Number of ways in which identical coins among 'r' persons = n + r - 1Cr - 1
we can select any 3 points. = nC3 Type - II
(c) Number of diagonals in polygon : No. of Let,
vertices = No. of sides nC2 = No. of sides + No. (x1 + x2 + x3 ......+xr) = n
of diagonals Then,
Distribution of Alike Objects Number of non-negative integral solutions of the
Total number of ways in which 'n' identical coins above equation is = n + r - 1Cr - 1
can be distributed among 'r' persons so that each 11. Derangement
person may get any number of coins is : If n things are arranged in such a way that none
n r 1 (n r 1)! of them occupies its original place, is called
C r 1
(r 1)!(n)! Derangement.
1 1 1 1 1
D n n! ...... ( 1)n
0! 1! 2! 3! n!
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Straight Line
Straight Line
1. Straight Line
Equation of Co-ordinate axes
Note : m = tan
1. If = 0o means line is m = 0
parallel to x-axis
2. If = 90o means line m does not exis is
parallel to y - axis.
Equation of Straight Line Parallel to Axes
3. For acute angle m is positive
Equation of a line parallel to x axis at a distance
'a' from it y = |a| Equation of a line parallel to y (0o < < 90o)
axis at a distance 'b' from it x = |b| 4. For obtuse angle m is negative
(90o < < 180o)
5. Line equally inclined to both axes
= 45o or 135o
m = tan
m = 1
2. Slope
Also called Gradient If a straight line makes an
angle ' ' with the positive direction of x-axis (in
Note :
anti clockwise direction), then the slope of the 6. Let m1 and m2 be slopes of two given lines.
line is denoted by 'm' = tan . (a) If lines are parallel
m = tan m1 = m2 and vice versa.
0o < < 180o, 90o (b) If lines are perpendicular
m1 = tan
m2 = tan(90 + ) = - cot
m1.m2 = -1 and vice versa.
7. Condition for collinearity of three points
A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3)
Slope of the line passing through
A(x1, y1 ) and B(x2,y2 )
y 2 y1 difference of y coordinates
m tan
x 2 x1 difference of x coordinates
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Straight Line
y 2 y1 y3 y2
m AB m BC m AC
x 2 x1 x 3 x 2
3. Intercept of a straight line on the coordinate
axes
OA and OB with proper sign are called the
intercepts of the line AB on x and y axis
respectively.
yc
tan m y mx c
x 0
Intercepts Form
Line making intercepts a & b on x & y-axis
Note : respectively
1. Line making equal non zero intercepts on axes
(equal intercept means equal in magnitude
and sign).
m 1
Slope Point Form
Line passing through point (x1, y1) and having
2. Line making equal non-zero length of intercept the slope = m
on axes
m 1
Two Point Form
4. Standard Forms of Equations of Straight Line passing through two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
Lines
y-y1=m(x-x 1)
Slope-intercept Form
y2 - y1
m=
x 2 - x1
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Straight Line
Line passing through two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) Parametric Form
y 2 y1 x x1 y y1
y y1 (x x1 ) | r |
x 2 x1 cos sin
x y 1
x1 y1 1
determinant form
x2 y2 1
Normal form : x cos ysin p
5. General Form of Equation
Ax + By + C = O
Reduction of the general equation to different
standard forms
p : length of the perpendicular from the origin to the
A
line Slope of the line Ax + By + C = 0 is
B
: angle which the perpendicular to the line makes
coefficient of x
with positive x axis in anticlockwise direction. i.e. coefficient of y
The normal form can be identified by checking
that (coefficient of x)2 + (coefficient of y)2 = 1 y intercept of the line = - C/B
and p > 0 6. Point and Line
Position of a Point Relative to a
Given Line
Note :
If L(P1). L(P2) > 0 (Means of same sign) :
Points P1 and P2 are on same sides of the line
0 << 2 and p is always positive L=0
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Straight Line
If L(P1). L(P2) < 0 (Means of opposite sign) : 9. The Angle Betyeen Two Straight Line
Points P1 and P2 are on opposite sides of the line m 2 m1
tan
L=0 1 m 2 m1
The straight line ax + by + c = 0 divides the line
joining the points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) in the
ax1 by1 c
ratio - ax by c
2 1
If L(x1, y1) and L (x2, y2) are of opposite sign,
then division is internal.
Note :
1. If the lines are parallel
2 1 and 0
m 2 m1
tan 0 m1 m 2
1 m1m 2
2. If the lines are perpendicular
m1m 2 1
a1x+b1y+c1= 0; a2x+b2y+c2= 0
7. Collinearity of three given points
a1 a2
Three given points A, B, C are collinear if any m1 m2
b1 b2
one of the following conditions is satisfied.
a1 b1 c1
(i) Area of triangle ABC is zero. (i) Parallel
a 2 b2 c2
(ii) Slope of AB = slope of BC = slope of AC. (ii) Perpendicular a1a2+b1b2= 0
(iii) AC = AB + BC. a1 b1 c1
(iii) Coincident
a 2 b2 c2
(iv) Equation of line AB, is satisfied by point C.
10. Eq of Lines Parallel And Perpendicular to a
8. Length of The Perpendicular From a Point given line
on a Line Eq. of line, // to the line ax + by + c = 0
ax + by + = 0
The length of the perpendicular from the point
Eq. of line, to the line ax + by +c = 0
P(x1, y1) on the line ax + by + c = 0 bx- ay + = 0
11. The Distance Between Two Parallel Lines
ax1 by1 c L1: ax + by + c1= 0 and L2: ax + by + c2= 0
a 2 b2 | c1 | | c2 |
d1 d2
a b
2 2
a 2 b2
| c1 c 2 |
d d1 d 2
a 2 b2
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Straight Line
is a parameter which an be evaluated
specifically usino giv n conditions
Conversely, Any line of the form L1 + L2= 0
passes through a fixed point which is the point of
intersection of the lines L1 = 0 and L2 = 0.
13. Concurrency of Straight Lines
The condition for Concurrency of three lines
Note : L3
a1x b1 y c1 0
The coefficients of x and y in both the equations L1
a 2 x b2 y c2 0
should be same while applying this formula
L2 a 3 x b 3 y c3 0
Area of Parallelogram
pl and p2 are the distances between the parallel a1 b1 c1
The three lines are
sides a2 b2 c2 0
concurrent if
a3 b3 c3
p1p 2
Area or p1.p 2 cos ec
sin Note :
If determinant = 0 then it is not always
necessary that lines are concurrent but may be
parallel.
14. Bisectors of The Angles Between Two
Given Lines
Angle bisector is the locus of a point which
If lines are y = m1x + c1 & y = m1x + d1 and moves in such a way so that its distance from
y = m2x + c2 & y = m2x + d2 two intersecting lines remains same.
15. Bisectors of The Angles Between
(c d )(c d 2 )
Area 1 1 2
(m1 m 2 ) Two Given Lines
Note :
If p1 = p2 then parallelogram will be a rhombus.
12. Equation of any straight line through the
point of intersection of two given straight
lines
L3
L1
L1 L 2 0 a1x b1 y c1 a 2 x b2 y c2
L2 a b
2 2
a 22 b 22
1 1
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Straight Line
AB 1 is the bisector of the acute angle
The equation of the bisector of the angle
2 2 180o between the two lines containing the point
90o (a,b)
Rewrite the equations making C1 and C2
Whether both given lines are perpendicular or positive
not, but the angle bisectors of these lines always If a1+ b1 + c1and + a2+ b2 + c2 are
be mutuaIly perpendicular of the same signs
16. Discrimination between acute / obtuse a1x b1y c1 a 2 x b2 y c2
angle bisector a b
2
1
2
1 a 22 b 22
Or of opposite signs
Method - I
a1x b1y c1 a 2 x b2 y c2
a12 b12 a 22 b 22
If
|p 1| > |p2| AB2 is obtuse angle bisector
|p1| < |p2| AB2 is acute angle bisector
|p1| = |p2| the lines are perpendicular 17. Optics
Method - II
Method - II
m1 m 2
Find tan
1 m1m 2
If tan > 1 > 45o
AB1 is the bisector of the obtuse angle and x x1 y y1 ax by c
Image Q 2 1 2 12
a b a b
AB2 will be the bisector of the acute angle
Foot of Perpendicular M
If 0 < tan < 1 < 45o
x x1 y y1 ax by c
1 2 12
a b a b
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Straight Line
OR Find Mid point of PQ The condition that these lines are
Shifting of origin without rotating (1) At right angles to each other
the axes new axes are parallel to a
m1m 2 1 a b 0
b
the original ones X=x-h Y=y-k
coefficient of x2 + coefficient of y2 = 0
New = Old - h, k
Old =New + h, k (2) Coincident
tan = 0 m1 = m2
h2- ab = 0 h2 = ab
Homogeneous equation of 2 nd degree
represents combined equation of pair of
straight lines passing through the origin.
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0
2h a
m1 m 2 m1m 2
(4) If a and b are of opposite sign b b
The Angle Between Two Lines
ab < 0 h2 - ab > 0
18. Rotation of The Axes 2 h 2 ab
tan
Rotation of The Axes, Without Changing The ab
Note :
Origin Both Systems of Co-ordinates Being
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0
Rectangular
D = 4h2 - 4ab = 4(h2-ab)
x = x' cos -y' sin , y = x' sin + y' cos These line will be
x cos sin x ' (1) Real and different if D > 0 h2 - ab > 0
y sin cos y '
(2) Real and coincident if D = 0 h2 - ab = 0
It is easy to deduce the equivalent form (3) Imaginary but with real point of intersection
x' = xcos + ysin
(0, 0) if D < 0 h2 - ab< 0
y' = ycos - xsin
Homogeneous Equation of Sccond Degree (4) If a and b are of opposite sign
ab < 0 h2 - ab > 0
Hence, lines are always real.
The condition that these lines are
(1) Equally inclined to the x axis
h=0
ax 2 2hxy by 2 0
coefficient of xy = 0
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Straight Line
Point of intersection of two lines represented
by
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Method-I
Get equation of two straight lines and solve
Method-II
Partially differentiate the equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
Angle Between Two Lines represented by
19. The combined equation of angle bisectors
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
between the lines
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 2 h 2 ab
tan
x 2 y 2 xy ab
ab h 21. (Homogenisation)
a b, h 0 Curve : ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Line : lx + my = n
The given line equation may be written a
lx my
1
n
ax2+ 2hxy + by2 + (2gx + 2fy)
2
lx my lx my
c 0
n n
20. The combined equation of angle bisectors The points P & Q satisfy the line, curve and
between the lines eqn ...(0
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 Equation (i) is homogeneous and of the 2nd
Represents a pair of straight lines in general if : degree, it represents two St. lines passing
abc 2fgh af 2 bg 2 ch 2 0 through the origin and points P & Q
a h g
h b f 0
called discriminant of equation
g f c
This is necessary but not sufficient condition
for lines to be real.
The sufficient conditions for lines to be real are
= 0 and h2 - ab > 0.
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Ellipse
Ellipse
1. General Equation of an Ellipse (ii) The entire urve is confined within the rectangle
Locus of a point P moving in such a way that bounded by the lines
ratio of its distance from a fixed point F (Focus) x = + a and y = + b
and fixed line (Directrix) is always constant.
PF1 (iii) if pl and p2 are the lengths of the perpendicular
e where, 0 e 1 from any point P on the ellipse to minor and major
PM
axis then
Focus : ()
Direction : x + mu + n =0 p12 p 22
1
a 2 b2
(x my n) 2
(x )2 (y )2 e 2
2 m2
This simplifies to
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = O
in which 0 , h2 < ab
& if (h = 0 then a b)
2. Standard Equation of Ellipse
Derived using property :
Locus of a point moving in such a way that sum
of its distances from two fixed points (called 3. Eccentricity
Focus) is always constant.
distance from centre to focus
O: Centre Fl,F2 : Focus e
i.e. |PFI| + |PF2| = 2a distance from centre to vertex
|PFI| + |PF2| >FI F2 2
b2 m
e 1 2 Hence, e2 1
2
a M
m : minor axis length
M ; major axis length
x 2 y2
1
a 2 b2
Note : In Standard Equation (a > b)
(i) It is a 2nd degree equation with powers of x
b 2 a 2 1 e2
and y both even and hence is symmetric about
both the x and y axis.
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Ellipse
Note :
Two ellipses are said to be similar if they have
the same value of eccentricity. Degree of flatness
of ellipse is defined as
Definitions & Basic Terminologies Length of Latus Rectum
2 2
x y
Standard Ellipse 2 1 a b 4b 2 (min or axis) 2
a 2
b Length of L.R.
2a major axis
Plincipal Axes
Major and minor axes together are known as Foot of Directrix
Principal Axes of the ellipse. The point of intersection of the focal axis with
Centre directrix is called the Foot of the Directrix.
Point of intersection of the major and minor axis Diameter
is called the Centre of the ellipse. Any chord or the ellipse passing through the
Vertices centre, gets bisected by it and is called the
The points of intersection of the curve with focal Diameter.
axis are called the Vertices of the ellipse.
A1(a, 0) & A2 (-a, 0)
Length of Major Axis
Distance between the two vertices i.e. 2a is the
length of the Major Axis.
Length of Minor Axis
The distance 2b i.e. B1B2 is the length of Minor
Axis.
Focal Axis Note :
The line containing the two fixed points Distance of every focus from the extremity of
(called focii) is called the focal axis. minor axis is equal to ‘a’
Focal Length F1B1 = a
The distance between F1& F2 is called the Focal 4. Directrix And Focal Directrix Property
Length (= 2ae)
Focal Chord a
(1) It is possible to define two lines, x
Any chord passing through focus is called a Focal e
Chord. corresponding to each focus, which satisfy the
Double Ordinate focal directrix property of the ellipse
Any chord perpendicular to the focal axis is called i.e. PF1 = ePM1 & PF2 = ePM2
Double Ordinate.
Latus Rectum
A particular double ordinate through focus or a
particular focal chord perpendicular to focal axis
is called its Latus Rectum.
Ends of Latus Rectum
b2
ae, 2
a
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Ellipse
Note : BB’ = Major axis = 2b
The length of the Latus Rectum can alternatively
x 2 y2
be expressed as = 1 (a < b)
L1L2 = 2e (F1N1) a 2 b2
i.e. 2e times the distance between focus and a2
corresponding foot of the directrix Eccentricity e 1
b2
a2 = b2 (1 - e2)
Focus = (O, ± be)
Ends of the latus rectum
a2 a2
L , be , L ' , be
b b
a 2
a 2
L1 , be , L1 ' , be
(2) The sum of the focal radii of any point on the b b
ellipse is equal to the length of the major axis.
PF1 + PF2 = 2a Length of LR = LL' = L1L1'
Note : 2
a2 a2 2a 2
( ) (be be) 2
b b b
b
Equation of directrix y
e
5. Shifted Ellipse
If center is shifted to (, ) and axes being
parallel to coordinate axes & a > b
Ellipse With Vertical Major Axis
x 2 y2
1, (a b)
a 2 b2
x 2 y2
AA’ = Minor axis = 2a = 1 (a < b)
a 2 b2
Equation of Ellipse :
(x ) 2 (y ) 2
1
a2 b2
6. Auxiliary Circle And Eccentric Angle
Circle described on the major axis of an ellipse
as diameter is called the Auxiliary Circle.
Equation of the auxiliary circle is
x 2 y2 a 2
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Ellipse
Now,
For focal chord passing through (-ae, 0)
e 1
tan tan ....(2)
2 2 e 1
Multiplying (1) &(2) we get,
tan tan tan tan 1
2 2 2 2
i
tan 1
Q acos , asin i 2
P (acos , bsin ) 0 < < 2 8. Position of A Point w.r.t. Ellipse
P and Q are called corresponding points.
Let P (x1 , y1 )
is called the eccentric angle or the point
Note : x 2 y2 x12 y12
S 1 S1 1
1. P(acos , bsin ) are called the parametric a 2 b2 a 2 b2
coordinates of a point on the ellipse. Point Plies on the Ellipse. If S1 = 0
2. Parametric Equation of Ellipse : Point P lies inside the Ellipse. If S1 < 0
x a cos & y b sin Point P lies outside the Ellipse. If S1 > 0
9. Tangent to Ellipse
PN b sin b Line and Ellipse
3.
PQ a sin b sin a b = constant Intersection of Line and Ellipse
7. Equation or Chord In Parametric Form
x 2 y2
Ellipse : 2 2 1
a b
Points :
P( ) (a cos , b sin )
Q() (a cos , b sin )
x ( ) y ( ) ( )
cos sin cos
a 2 b 2 2 10. Tangent to Ellipse in Slope Form
x 2 y2
Ellipse : =1 ..... (1)
a 2 b2
Line : y = mx + c ....(2)
solving (1) and (2)
b2x2 + a2 (mx + c)2 = a2b2
(a2m2 + b2)x2 + 2a2cmx + a2(c2 - b2) = 0
D = 4a4m2c2 - 4a2(c2 - b2) (b2 + a2m2)
For chord passing through (d, 0)
da
tan
tan
2 2 da
& For focal chord passing through
e 1
tan tan ....(1)
2 2 e 1
Condition of Tangency : D = 0
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Ellipse
10. Tangent to Ellipse in Slope Form Note :
c2 = a2m2 + b2 If a right triangle ABC, right angled at A
Hence, equation of tangent circumscribes an ellipse,
Then, locus or the point A is the director circle of
y mx a 2 m 2 b 2 (m R) the ellipse.
Note :
There are two parallel tangents for a given value
of m.
11. Tangents from external point
Passing through a given point there can be
maximum of two tangents.
2kh
m1 m 2
h a2 2
Also : k 2 b2 Tangent to Ellipse in Cartesian Form
& m1m 2 2
h a2 x 2 y2
Ellipse : -1=0; S = 0
a 2 b2
Point : (x1, y1)
Equation of Tangent ; T = 0
xx1 yy1
2 1 0
a2 b
12. Director Circle
x 2 y2
Ellipse : =1
a 2 b2
Tangents : y = mx ± a 2 m 2 b 2
If = 90o then,
Tangent to Ellipse in Parametric Form
x y a b
2 2 2 2
x 2 y2
Which is the eq. of the Director Circle Ellipse : =1
a 2 b2
Point : (a.cos , b. sin )
x cos y sin
1
a b
Note :
Hence the tangents are parallel
Hence Director Circle of an ellipse is a circle
whose center is the center of ellipse and whose
radius is a 2 b2
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Ellipse
The eccentric angles of point of contact of two
parallel tangents differ by .
Point of intersection of the tangents at the
points a & b
cos 2 sin
2
P a , b
cos cos
2 2
13. Normals to Ellipse
Cartesian Form Pair of tangents
x 2 y2
Ellipse : 2 2 = 1
a b
Point : P (x1, y1)
Chord of contact AB: T = 0
xx1 yy1
Eq. of Normal at point P : 2 1
a2 b
a 2 x b2 y Chord with given Mid Point
a 2 b 2 a 2e 2
x1 y1 x 2 y2
Ellipse : 2 2 = 1
a b
Parametric Form
Mid Point: (h, k)
x 2 y2 Equation of Chord with mid point (h, k)
Ellipse : 2 2 = 1
a b
T S1
Point : (a.cos , b. sin )
Where,
Equation of Normal at point P :
xh yk
ax sec by cos ec (a 2 b 2 ) T 1
a 2 b2
14. Pair of tangents & Chord of Contact
h2 k2
x 2
y 2 S1 1
Ellipse : 2 =1 a 2 b2
2
a b
Point : P (x1, y1)
Pair of tangents:SS1 T 2
Where ,
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Ellipse
Diameter
The locus of the middle points of a system of b2
Hence y x is the diameter of ellipse
parallel chords with slope 'm' of an ellipse is a a2m
straight line passing through the center of the
ellipse, called its 'Diameter'.
Equation of diameter : Note :
Equation of Chord with mid point (h, k) The tangents at the extremities of system of
parallel chords intersect on the extended
T S1 Diameter.
hx ky h 2 k 2
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
h 2 b2
m 2
a k
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Parabola
PARABOLA
1. Equation of Standard Parabola
2. Parabola at a Glance
3. Four Standard Parabolas 4. Shifted Parabola
Case (a)
When vertex of the parabola is not origin but
shifted to (h, k) and its axis is parallel to x-axis.
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Parabola
Case (b)
General Parabola : Focus (p, q) and
directrix : x my n 0
A Parabola is the locus of a point having equal
distances from Focus and Directrix.
(x my n) 2
(x p) 2 (y q) 2
2 m2
Remarks :
(i) Length of the chord :
a | t1 t 2 | (t1 t 2 )2 4
(ii) If chord is Focal Chord (V. Imp.)
(OR t1, t2, (a, 0) are collinear)
Chord passing through (a, 0)
1
t1t 2 1 t 2
t1
5. Position of a Point Relative To a Parabola
Hence, if one end of the focal chord is 't' the
1
other end is
t
Coordinates of focal chord can be taken as
a 2a
(at 2 , 2at)and 2 ,
t t
(Note : Only one variable)
(iii) Length of the focal chord
2
1
f a(t1 t 2 )2 a t
t
P (x1 , y1 ) S y 2 4ax 0 S1 y12 4ax1
If S1 < 0 Point P lies inside the parabola. (v) If 1 , 2 are the length segments of a focal chord
If S1= 0 Point P lies on the parabola. made by focus then length of its latus recturn is
If S1 > 0 Point P lies outside the parabola.
41 2
6. Parametric C ordinates
1 2 i.e. = 4a.
1 = at2 + a (use focal distance property)
a
2 a
t2
7. Chord Joining Two Points t1 & t2
Parametric equation of a chord joining two
points 't1' and 't2' of the parabola y2 = 4ax is
2x y(t1 t 2 ) 2at1t 2 0
For memory x — y(A. M.) + a(G. M.)2 = 0
(vi) If the
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No. : 0522-4954072 51
', 't2', 't3' and 't4' passes
Parabola
through a point (c, 0) on the axis, then Remarks :
c
t1t 2 t 3 t 4
a
Length of Chord of Parabola Intercepted on
Parabola : y2 = 4ax Line Parabola: y2 =4ax & Line: y = mx + c
Line y = mx + c 4
Solving them together (mn +c)2 - 4ax = 0 2
a(1 m 2 )(a cm)
m
m2x2 + 2mcx + c2 - 4ax = 0
(vii) If the chord subtends 90o angle at the vertex of
parabola then (t 1t2 = - 4) and it passes through 8. Line and Parabola
a fixed point (4a, 0) on the axis. Intersection of Line and Parabola
2 2
m1 m2 m1m2 1
t1 t2
t 1 t 2 4
D = 4(mc - 2a)2 - 4m2c2 D = 16a(a - mc)
(2x - y(t1 + t2) + 2 a t1 t2 = 0
(viii) If t2 approaches to t1(t2 t1) chords tangent
at t
ty x at 2
equation of tangent at the point 't' of the
parabola y2 = 4ax.
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Parabola
9. Tangents to The Parabola Slope Form Parametric Form
Tangent to The Parabola x2 = 4ay Parabola : y2 = 4ax
Point : (at2, 2at)
Equation of tangent at the point (at2, 2at) :
y2 at = 2a(x + at2)
yt x at 2
Note Slope m = 1/t
12. Point of intersection of two tangents at
t1 & t2
(at1t2, a(t1 + t2))
(Tip for Point of contact : Interchange x y (G.M. of at12 and at 22 ) (A.M. of 2at1 and 2at2)
and m 1/m)
10. Equation of tangents from any point outside 13. Equation of the pair of tangents
the parabola Parabola : y2 = 4ax
a Point : (x1, y1) (Outside)
Equation of Tangent : y = mx + (Point :(h, k))
m
Combined Equation of pair of
a
k = mh + m2h - mk + a = 0 tangents from the point (x1, y1)
m
k a
m1 + m2 = & m1m2 =
h h
These relations can be used to compute the locus
of a point from which pairs of tangents are drawn.
SS1 T 2
Where,
11. Tangents to The Parabola
Cartesian Form
Important Points
(1) Point of intersection of normals at t1 & t2
{a(t12 t 22 t1t 2 2), at1t 2 (t1 t 2 )}
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Parabola
A(t1)
x
P(x1 , x 2 )
B(t2 )
(i) t1t2 = 2
(ii) t3 = - (t1 + t2) and
(2) If the normals to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the (iii) The line joining t1 & t2 passes through a fixed
point t1, meets the parabola again at the point t2, point (-2a, 0).
2
then t 2 t1 t
1
16. Director Circle
The locus of point of intersection of pair of
perpendicular tangents is Director Circle.
OR
(3) If the normals to parabola y2 = 4ax at the points
The locus of the points from which two
t1 & t2 intersect again on the parabola at the point
perpendicular tangents can be drawn on the
‘t3‘ then
parabola.
14. Chord of Contact
Director circle of the parabola is
Equation of the chord of contact of pair of
x+a=0
tangents from (x1, y1)
i.e. parabola's own directrix.
T=0
17. Normals To The Parabola
yy1 = 2a (x + x1)
A line perpendicular to the tangent at a given point
P is called Normal at point P
1
Slope of Normal = Slope of tan gent
1
15. Area of The Triangle PAB dy
(y12 4ax1 )3/2 (S1 )3/ 2 dx
Area
2a 2a
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Parabola
Cartesian Form (i) m1+ m2 + m3 = 0
Parabola : y2 = 4ax 2a h
Equation of Normal at at the point (x1,y1) m1m2 + m2m3 + m3m1 =
a
y1 k
y y1 (x x1 )
2a m1m2m3 = -
a
Parametric Form (ii) Foot of the normals of three concurrent normals
Parabola: y2 = 4ax are called conormals points. At the most three
Point : (at2, 2at) normals can be drawn. Atleast one real normal
can be drawn.
y tx 2at at 3 at (at2, 2)
Analysis :
With slope m = - t (iii) P (am12 , 2am1 ) Q (am 22 , 2am 2 )
Note
Product of ordinates at t1 and t2 : R (am 32 , 2am 3 )
2at 1 x 2at2 = 4a2.t1t2 = 8a2 (iv) m1+ m2 + m3 = 0, Algebric sum of the slopes
Product of abscissa : of three con current normals is zero
at12 .at 22 4a 2 -2am1- 2am2- 2am3 = 0
Slope Form Sum of ordinates of the three conormal points
Parabola : y2=4ax Point : (at2, 2at) on the parabola is zero.
Equation of normal at (at2, 2at) (v) m1+ m2 + m3 = 0
y = -tx + 2at + at3 Slope m = - t Centroid of the triangle PQR
Replace t by (-m) am12 2a m1 am12
, ,0
y mx 2am am 3 At point (am2, -2am) 3 3 3
18. Equation of Normal From a Point And Its Centroid lies on the axis of parabola.
Analysis
Parabola : y2 = 4ax Point: (h, k)
Method :
(i) Take the equation of normal in slope form
y = mx - 2am - am3
(ii) Put the given point (h, k)
(iii) Form cubic in m
am3 + (2a - h)m + k = 0
(iv) Solve for m and find the equation of normals.
19. Equation of chord with a given Mid Point
Parabola : y2 = 4ax Mid Point: (h, k)
Equation of Chord with mid point (h, k)
T S1 ky 2a(x h) k 2 4ah
20. Diameter
The locus of the middle points of a system of
parallel chords of a Parabola is called its Diameter.
2a
Eq. of the diameter is y =
m
Analysis : Line parallel to the axis of the parabola
am3 + (2a - h)m + k = 0
Let m1, m2 & m3 are the slopes of the three
concurrent normal, then
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Parabola
Important Highlights of Parabola
The tangent at a point P on the parabola is the
a 2a internal angle bisector of the angle between the
Q: 2 ,
m m focal radius SP & the perpendicular from P on
And chord at Q the
becomes tan gent directrix. STP SPT TPM
to parabola 4.
Important Highlights of Parabola
1.
If the tangent & normal at any point 'P' of the
parabola intersect the axis at T & G, then The normal at a point P on the parabola is the
ST = SG = SP where 'S' is the focus. external angle bisector of the angle between the
2. focal radius SP & the perpendicular from P on
the directrix.
5.
Circle circumscribing the triangle TGP formed
by any tangent, normal and x-axis, has its centre
at focus. Reflection Property
3. All rays emanating from S will become parallel
to the axis of the parabola after reflection.
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Parabola
6. 9.
All rays coming parallel to the axis will pass
through focus after reflection from parabola
7.
The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord
intersect at right angles on the directrix
10.
The portion ofa tangeut to a parabola cut off
between the directrix & the curve subtends a right
angle at the focus.
KSP 90o
8. SPK MPK
SP PM KP KP
PMK PSK 90o
1
m1m 2 1
t 1t 2
Also x coordinate of point P :
x = at1t2 = - a
Chord of contact oftangents drawn from any point
on directrix of parabola will be its focal chord
and tangents will be at right angle.
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Parabola
11. 12.
Any tangent to a parabola & the perpendicular
on it from the focus meet on the tangent at the
vertex Locus of the feet of the drawn from
focus upon a variable tangent is the tangent drawn
to the parabola at it vertex.
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Hyperbola
Hyperbola
1. General Equation of Hyperbola 3. Eccentricity
PF1
e
PM
where
e 1
Locus of a point P moving in such a way that Defines the curvature of the hyperbola
ratio of its distance from a fixed point F (Focus) Distance from centre to focus
e
and fixed line (Directrix) is always constant. Distance from centre to vertex
Focus : (, ) OF1 c
c ae(e 1)
Directrix : x + my + n = O OA1 a
(PF1)2 = e2(PM)2 Hence, the foci are (ae, 0) & (-ae, 0)
(x my n) 2 Remember :
(x )2 (y )2 e 2
2 m2 • a2e2 = a2 + b2
this simplifies to • b2 = a2 (e2-1)
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
• Two hyperbolas are said to be similar if they have
in which 0 , h2 > ab
2. Standard Equation of Hyperbola the same value of eccentricity.
x 2 y2
• Equation of hyperbola 1 in
a 2 b2
terms of eccentricity can be written as
x 2 y2
1 x2 y2
a 2 b2 1
a 2 a 2 (e 2 1)
4. Latus Rectum
Note :
• This is same as the standard eq. of ellipse except
b2 which has been replaced by ‘-b2’
• This is a 2nd degree eq. in which the powers of x Hyperbola :
and y are even, henc the curve is symmetric about x 2 y2
1
both the axes. a 2 b2
b 2
• y= x a2
a
x ( , a] [a, ) b2
Substituting x = ae, x = + ae, y = +
a
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Hyperbola
Coordinates of the ends of Latus Rectum
7. Conjugate Hyperbola
b2
ae,
a
Latus Rectum L1L2
2b 2
2a(e 2 1)
a
(Conjugate Axis) 2
Transverse Axis
5. Directrix
Corresponding to each focus, there are 2 lines
a For the Hyperbola,
x
e
x 2 y2
which are known as Directrices. 1 ....(1)
a 2 b2
with eccentricity : e1
Conjugate Hyperbola is,
x 2 y2
1 ....(2)
a 2 b2
with eccentricity : e2
Also
b2 a 2 b 2
e12 1
a2 a2
Note :
a 2 a 2 b2
1. The difference of the focal radii of any point on e22 1
the hyperbola is equal to th length of its transverse b2 b2
axis. Hence, |PF1 - PF2| = 2a 1 1
2. Foot of the directrix (N1 and N2). And, e 2 e 2 1
1 2
( a / e, 0) (a / e, 0)
6. Hyperbola at a Glance Note :The focii of a hyperbola & its conjugate are
concyclic & form the vertices of a square.
F1F3F2F4 is a square
8. Shifted Hyperbola
If center is shifted to (, ) and axes being
parallel to coordinate axes
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Hyperbola
QON eccentric angle of point 'P'
Eq. of Hyperbola : QON PON
(X) 2 (Y)2 (x ) 2 (y ) 2 3
1 1 0 2, ,
a2 b2 a2 b2 2 2
9. Generalized Version 11. Parametric Coordinates of Hyperbola
Eq. of transverse axis x + my + n = 0 x 2 y2
Hyperbola : 2 2 1
Eq. of conjugate axis mx - y + p = 0 a b
Length of transverse axis = 2a Parametric Coordinates :
Length of conjugate axis = 2b P (a sec , b tan ) where is a parameter
2 2
(X) (Y)
Equation of the Hyperbola : 2 1
a2 b
2 2
mx y p x my n
2 m2 2 m2
1
a2 b2
10. Auxiliary Circle
Circle described on the transverse axis as
diameter is called the Auxiliary Circle of the
hyperbola
x 2 y2
Hyperbola : 1 12. Position of a Point w.r.t. Hyperbola
a 2 b2
Auxiliary Circle : x 2 y 2 a 2
Point P lies on the Hyperbola.
Point P lies inside the Hyperbola.
Note : P & Q are known as corresponding points
of each other . Point P lies outside the Hyperbola.
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Hyperbola
13. Line and Hyperbola
2kh k 2 b2
m1 m 2 m m
1 2
h2 a2 h2 a2
15. Director Circle
The locus of point of intersectio of pair of
tangents is called director circle.
x 2 y2 a 2 b2
x 2 y2
Hyperbola : 1
a 2 b2
Line : y = mx + c
Solving them together we get a Quadratic
Equation where, Note :
x2 + y2 = a2 - b2 > 0, < 0, = 0 (not possible)
If (TA) > (CA) i.e. a > b
Director Circle is real with finite radius
If (TA) > (CA) i.e. a = b
Director Circle is a point circle
14. Tangent - Slope Form If (TA) > (CA) i.e. a < b
No real circle
x 2 y2 16. Tangent - Cartesian Form
Hyperbola : 2 2 1 Line : y = mx + c
a b
x 2 y2
Condition of tangency : c2 = a2m2-b2 (m R) Hyperbola : 1
a 2 b2
Eq. of Tangent : y mx a 2 m 2 b 2 Point : (x1, y1)
Tangent from an External Point xx1 yy1
If tangent passes through (h, k) then Eq. of Tangent : 2 1
a2 b
k mh a 2 m 2 b 2 17. Tangent - Parametric form
On simplifying we get a quad. Eq. in 'm'.
x 2 y2
Hence, passing through an external point there Hyperbola : 2 2 1
can be max. 2 tangents. a b
Point : (a.sec, b.tan)
Eq. of Tangent in Parametric form
x sec y tan
1
a b
18. Chord of Hyperbola - Parametric
x 2 y2
Hyperbola : 1
a 2 b2
Point :
P() (a sec , b tan )
Q() (a sec , b tan )
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Hyperbola
Equation of Normal at point P :
a 2 x b2 y
a 2 b 2 a 2 e2
x1 y1
Parametric Form Point : P (asec, btan)
ax by
a 2 b 2 a 2e2
sec tan
Rectangular Hyperbola : x2 - y2= a2
Equation of the chord PQ :
x y
x ( ) y ( ) ( ) Cartesian form : x y 2
cos sin cos 1 1
a 2 b 2 2
Note : If this particular chord passes through (d, 0) x y
Parametric Form : 2a
sec tan
a d
tan tan 21. Pair of Tangents & Chord of Contact
2 2 ad
x 2 y2
19. Point of Intersection of Tangents Hyperbola : 1
a 2 b2
Point : (x1, y1)
x 2 y2
Hyperbola : 2 2 1
a b
Outside
Point of intersection of tangents at A() & B():
Pair of tan gents:SS1 T 2 where,
cos sin
x1 a 2 ,y b 2 x 2 y2
1 S 2 2 1
cos cos a b
2 2
x12 y12
20. Normal to Hyperbola S1 1
a 2 b2
x 2 y2
Hyperbola : 1 xx1 yy1
a 2 b2 T 2 1
a2 b
Cartesian Form Point : (x1, y1)
xx1 yy1
Chord of co ntact : T 0
2 1
a2 b
22. Chord with given Mid-Point
Eq. of Chord with mid point (h, k)
T S1
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Hyperbola
The bisectors of the angles between the
asymptotes are the axes of the hyperbola.
Hyperbola & Conjugate hyperbola both have the
same asymptotes.
For rectangular hyperbola Asymptotes are at
right angles. That is why a hyperbola with -
23. Asymptotes asymptotes is called rectangular or equilateral
If the length of the let fall from points on a hyperbola.
hyperbola to a st. line tends to 0 as the point on x 2 y2
If Hyperbola : 1 (H)
a 2 b2
the hyperbola move to along the hyperbola,
x 2 y2
then the st. line is called the Asymptote of the Asymptotes : 0 (A)
a 2 b2
Hyperbola. x 2 y2
Conjugate Hyperbola : 1 (CH)
a 2 b2
Then, A H CH A
If the angle between the asymptotes of the
Hyperbola is 2 then,
e sec
Geometrical construction of asymptotes
The asymptotes of a hyperbola are the diagonals
Eq. of asymptote are:
b of the rectangle formed by the lines drawn
y x
a through the extremities of each axis parallel to
x y x y the other axis.
0 & 0
a b a b
Combined eq. of the asymptotes :
x 2 y2
0
a 2 b2
Highlights of Asymptotes
The asymptotes pass through the centre of the
hyperbola.
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Hyperbola
If the axes of rectangular Hyperbola are rotated
by an angle or about the same origin
4 4
then, Asymptotes are coordinates axes : xy = 0
Equation of the Rectangular Hyperbola is
a2 a2
reduced to xy = k = or xy
2 2
i.e. xy = c2 or xy = -c2
Eccentricity = 2
A hyperbola is said to be rectangular hyperbola Asymptotes: x = 0; y = 0
if its transverse axis is equal to its conjugate axis. Transverse axis : y = x
i.e. b = a e 2 Conjugate Axis : y = -x
24. Rectangular Hyperbola Vertex : (c, c) and (-c, -c)
Equation of Rectangular Hyperbola : Foci : (c 2, c 2) & ( c 2, c 2)
x 2 y2 Length of Latus Rectum : 2 2c
1 x 2 y2 a 2
a2 a2
Eq. of Auxiliary Circle : x2 + y2 = 2c2
Note : In rectangular hyperbola asymptotes are
Eq. of Director Circle : x2 + y2 = a2 - b2 = 0
to each other & their equations are
Equation of Directrices
y x
c c
Eq. of D1 : y 1 x
Equilateral Hyperbola 2 2
Rectangular Hyperbola x y 2c
If a Hyperbola is equilateral then its Conjugate Eq. of D2 : x + y = 2c
c
Hyperbola is also equilateral. Parametric Coordinates x ct, y
t
25. Rectangular Hyperbola (xy = c2) where, t R {0}
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Hyperbola
26. Analysis of Rectangular Hyperbola Parametric Form :
Rectangular Hyperbola : xy = c2 x 1
ty 2c Slope 2
t t
c
Parametric Coordinates : x = ct, y = (iii) Normal - Parametric Form :
t
(i) Chord Joining Two Points P(t1) & Q(t2) Eq. of the normal : xt3 - yt = c (t4 - 1)
x + t1t2 y = c (t1 + t2) Note : If P(t1), Q(t2), R(t3) & S(t4) are
Where, Slope m = - 1/(t1t2) four co-normal points the t1. t2. t3. t4 = -1
(ii) Tangents - (iv) Chord with given Mid Point
x y Mid Point : (h, k)
Cartesian Form : x y 2
1 1 Eq. of Chord : T = S1 kx + hy = 2hk
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Circle-2
Circle-2
1. Circle
(ii) Centre lies on y-axis and radius r
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a
C (0, b) x2 + (y - b)2 = r2
plane in such a way that it's distance from a fixed
(iii) Point circle (r = 0)
point remains constant.
(x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = 0
Fixed Point C: centre
3. General Eq. of Circle
Distance r: radius
The general eq. of the 2nd degree
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Represent a circle if,
r
(i) Coefficient of x2 = Coefficient of y2
C (ii) There is no xy term
x 2 y 2 2gx 2fy c 0
2. Eq. of the Circle In Various Forms Radius g 2 f 2 c
C (a, b)
(i) If g2 + f2 - c > 0 equation represents a real
2 2
Cp =r P (x, y) circle
(ii) If g2 + f2 - c = 0 equation represents a point
circle
(iii) If g2 + f 2 - c < 0 equation represents an imaginary
circle real centre
(iv) If c is negative, circle is always real because
g2 + f2 - c > 0
SPECIAL CASES :
Circle Touching Circle Touching
General eq. of the circle :
x2+y2+2gx +2fy+c=0
If centre C (0,0) & radius r
x 2 y2 r 2
SPECIAL CASES :
y
(x + g)2 + (y + f)2 = f 2
( x + g)2 + (y + f)2 = g2
x Circle Touching Both Axes
O (a,0)
(i) Centre lies on x-axis and radius r
C (a,0) (x-a)2 + y2 = r2 Radius r
Centre
y ( r, r)
(0, b) (x r)2 (y r) 2 r 2
O
x Circle Passing Through the Origin
x 2 y 2 2hx 2ky 0
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Circle-2
Y Y
x = h + acos
Q y = k + asin
(0,2k)
h
C (h,k) C (h, k) (h,k) asin
acos
k h
r h2 k2 k
X k
O h P X
(2h,0)
O h P
(2h,0)
intercept cut on x-axis, OP =2h
intercept cut on y-axis, OQ = 2k Circumcentre : (0,0)
4. Intercept made by the circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 Centroid :
cos , sin
1 1
on x axis 3 3
on y axis
Orthocentre : cos 1 ; sin 1
2 g c 2
2 f c 2
7. Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle
(iii) If g2 < c Outside the circle
Y (ii) If g2 = c
2
(i) If g - c > 0 S x 2 y 2 2gx 2fy c 0 P(h, k)
X
A B (x1, x 2)
(x1 , 0) (x2 , 0) Circle Inside the
Circle cuts the touches
circle On the
x-axis at 2 the x-axis
distinct points circle
Circle lies completely
above or below the x-axis
5. Diameter Form
P(x,y) S x 2 y 2 2gx 2fy c 0 P(h, k)
(x - x 1) (x - x 2 ) + S1(P) = h2 + k2 + 2gh + 2fk + c
(y - y 1) (y - y 2 ) = 0
(i) S1(P) = 0 Point lies on the circle
A B (ii) S1(P) < 0 Point lies inside the circle
(x1 , y1 ) C (x2 , y2)
(iii) S1(P) > 0 Point lies outside the circle
Number of Tangents
(x - x1) (x - x2) + (y - y1) (y - y2) = 0 P
is the circle of smallest radius passing through P
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2). P
6. Parametric Form
Circle : x2 +y2 = a2
2, 1 or No Tangents can be drawn from a point
Y
(acos
lying outside, on or inside the circle respectively.
asin ) 8. Power of A Point w.r.t. a Circle
a asin S x 2 y 2 2gx 2fy c 0
X
O acos Point : P (x1, y1)
S1 x12 y12 2gx1 2fy1 c
x = acos , y = asin
S1 is called power of point P (x1, y1)
w.r.t. the circle S
Where, is a parameter (0 < < 2 )
9. Position of a Line w.r.t. a Circle
The point (acos , a.sin ) is also referred to as
the point ‘ ’
C r : Radius
is the angle which the line joining the point to p p : Length of the
the centre of the circle makes with the x-axis. r from the centre on
Circle: (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = a2 the line
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Circle-2
(i) p < r The line intersects the circle in two Step - 2 : Equate p = r
distinct points Step - 3 : Square both sides & solv quad. in ‘m'
(ii) p = r The line touches the circle whose roots are m1 & m2
(iii) p > r The line passes outside the circle Step - 4 : Equation or tangent will e
(iv) p =0 the line passes through the centre y - y1 = m1 (x - x1) & y - y1 = m2 (x - x1)
10. Equation of Tangent Method-II
Step-1 : Assume equation of tangent as
Circle:x 2 y 2 r 2 y mx r 1 m 2
Po int:(x1 , y1 ) xx1 yy1 r 2 Step-2 : Passes from (x1 , y1)
Step-3 : Solve quadratic in 'm' whose roots are
Circle:x 2 y 2 2gx 2fy c 0
m1 & m2
Po int:(x1 , y1 ) Step-4 : Equation of tangent will be
xx1 yy1 g(x x1 ) f (y y1 ) c 0 y - y1 = m1 (x - x1) & y - y1 = m2 (x - x1)
12. Chord of contact
Parametric form The chord AB joining the points of contact A and
B of the tangents from P is called the Chord of
Circle:x 2 y 2 a 2 x cos y sin a Contact of P(x1 , y1) with respect to the circle. It
Po int :(a cos , a sin ) is to the line joining P to the centre of the circle.
Slope Form Eq. of Chord of Contact:
xx1 + yy1 = r2
Circle:x 2 y 2 r 2
Line: y mx c
C(0,0)
rp
Note :
Tangent
(i) The eq, has the same appearance as the eq. of
Condition of tangency the tangent for which the point of contact is
(x1 , y1), i.e. T = 0
c r (1 m 2 ) (ii) For circle in general form (x 1 ,y1 ) P
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Eq. of Tangent : y mx r 1 m 2 Chord of Contact will be
Note : xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0
D = 4 (mc)2 - 4 (1+m2 ) (c2 -r2 ) = 0 (iii) If chord of contact is given & corresponding point
is to be found then
(i) D > 0 (Secant)
1. Assume point (x1, y1)
(ii) D = 0 (Tangent)
2. Find chord of contact for this point
(iii) D < 0 line will not intersect the circle in any
3. Now compare the coefficients of eq. with given
point.
chord equation.
11. Equations of Tangents From an External
13. Some Important Points
Point to a Circle
(i) Length of Tangent from an external point
P (x1, y1)
S =x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
L x12 y12 2gx1 2fy1 c S1
(a) Formula is applicable when coefficient of
Method-I x2 & y2 is unity.
Step - 1 : Assume equation of tang nt as
y - y1 = m (x - x1)
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Circle-2
(b) The lengths of both tangents drawn from point (ii) S x y 2gx 2fy c
2 2
P are equal, i.e. PA = PB
(ii) Area of Quad. PAOB (Formed by pair of S1 x12 y12 2gx1 2fy1 c
tangents & pair of radii) T xx1 yy1 g(x x1 ) f (y y1 ) c
2.POA
1
2. R.L
2
R.L R S1
15. Eq. of the Chord With Given Mid
Length of chord 2RL Point M (x1, y1)
(iii) AB
of contact AB R 2 L2
(iv) Area of PAB ( formed by pair of tangent
& corresponding C.O.C.)
T S1
RL3
Area of PAB 2
R L2
(v) Angle between the pair of tangents Note:
Of all the chords which passes through a given
2RL point M(a, b) inside the circle, the shortest chord
2 tan 1 2 2
L R is one whose middle point is (a, b).
16. Director Circle
(vi) Eq. of the circle circumscribing the PAB or
Locus of the point of intersection of 2 mutually
quadrilateral PAOB (cyclic)
Circle described on OP as diameter tangents to a given curve is called the director
circle of the given curve.
(x x1 )(x g) (y y1 )(y f ) 0
13. Some Important Points
(vii) Power of point
Square of the length of the tangent from thc point
P is called power ot the point P w.r.t. a given
circle
PT 2 = S1 = L2
S1 x12 y12 2gx1 2fy1 c
Eq.of Director Circle x 2 y 2 2r 2
Power of a point remains constant w.r.t. a circle.
PA.PB = PA1 . PB1 = PA2 . PB2 .....= PT2 = S1 17. Condition for a given Line to cut a Circle
14. Pair of Tangents SS1 = T2 AB: Chord of the circle
Combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn Condition: p < r
from an external point 'P' to a given circle.
18. Length of the Chord Intercepted by a Line
on the Circle
S x 2 y 2 a 2 S1 x12 y12 a 2 Length of the chord = AB
(i)
T xx1 yy1 a 2
2AD 2 r 2 p 2
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Circle-2
Two Circles :
S1 x 2 y 2 2g1x 2f1 y c1 0
PA=PB
S2 x 2 y 2 2g 2 x 2f 2 y c2 0
Note:
To get the eq. of the radical axis, first make the
coefficient of x2 and y2 in both circles = 1
Properties of Radical Axis
19. Eq. of a Chord of a Circle in Parametric Form
If circles touch each other, then radical axis is the
Circle x2 + y2 = a2
common tangent to both the circles.
Joining Points : (acos, asin) ;
When the two circles intersect on real points, then
(acos, asin)
extension of common chord is the radical axis of
the two circles.
x cos y a cos If one circle is contained in other circle
2 2 2
(not concentric), then radical axis lies outside of
20. Point of intersection of tangents at the points
both circles.
(acos, asin) ; (acos, asin)
a cos 2 a sin
T , 2
cos
cos
2 2
21. Normal to the Circle
Circle: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Pt. lying on the circle: P (x1, y1) If circles are concentric then the radical axis does
Eq. of the Normal at P : not alwavs exist but if circles are not concentric
then radical axis always exists.
The radical axis of the 2 circles is to the line
joining the centre of two circles.
y1 f
y y1 (x x1 ) Radical axis (if exist) bisects common tangent of
x1 g two circles.
Every normal passes Length of tangents from radical axis are equal.
y1 f y y1
through the centre of
x1 g x x 1
the circle.
22. Radical Axis
23. Radical Centre
The common point of intersection of the radical
S1 S2 0 axes of 3 circles is called the Radical Centre of
3 circles.
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Circle-2
S1 L 0 R
Converse is also true.
Type-3 : The equation of a family of circles
passing through two given points
A(x1, y1) & B (x2, y2)
(x x1 )(x x 2 ) (y y1 )(y y 2 )
y y
A circle can be drawn with centre as radical centre (y y1 ) 2 1 (x x1 ) 0
and radius equal to the length of tangent from x 2 x1
radical centre to any of the circle, will cut the Type-4 : The equation of a family of circles touching
three circles orthogonally. a fixed line y - y1 = m (x - x1) at the fixed
24. Coaxial System of Circles point P (x1, y1) lying on it
Treat P as point circle.
(x x1 ) 2 (y y1 )2
y y1 m (x x1 ) 0
A system of circles, every two of which have the
same radical axis is called Coaxial System of
circles. 26. Angle of Intersection of 2 Circles
25. Family of Circles The angle b/w the tangents of 2 circles at the
Type-1 : The eq. of the family of circles passing point of intersection of the 2 circles is called angle
through the points of intersection of 2 of intersection of 2 circles. And, angle between
circles Circles: tangents is equivalent angle between
S1 = 0 & S2 = 0 radii (normals).
Family:S1 S2 0; ( 1) 2g1g 2 2f1f 2 c1 c2
cos
2 g12 f12 c1 g 22 f 22 c 2
27. Orthogonality of 2 Cittles
Type-2 : The equation of the family of circles passing
through the point of intersection of a circle
S = 0 & a line L = 0.
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Circle-2
Two curves are said to be orthogonal if they
i ntersect each other at 90o wherever they
intersect.
Condition for Orthogonality of 2 Circles
2g1g 2 2f1f 2 c1 c 2
cos 0
2 g12 f12 c1 g 22 f 22 c2
The centre of both the circles lie on the opposite
2g1g 2 2f1f 2 c1 c 2 side of the tangent line
Tangents intersect the line joining the centres
Circle orthogonal to 3 given circles 31. Position of The Circles & Number of
Let the equation of circle be x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy Common Tangents
+ c = 0 orthogonal to S1 = 0; S2 = 0; S3 = 0 (1) If 2 circles are separated, then d > r1 + r2
Get 3 relations in g, f, c and solve
2 D.C.T.
28. Common Chord of 2 Intersecting Circles 4 common tangents
2 T.C.T.
(2) If 2 circles touch externally, then d = r1 + r2
2 D.C.T.
S1 S2 0 3 common tangents
1 T.C.T.
At their point of contact
Provided that the coefficients of x2 and y2
are 1 in both S1 and S2. Length of the common
chord : PQ
PQ 2PM C2 P 2 C2 M 2
29. Direct Common Tangent (D.C.T)
External common tanaent
(3) If both the circles touch each other
internally, then d =|r1-r2|
1 common tangent 1 DC.T..
The centre of both the circles lie on the same At their point of contact
side of the tangent line Tangents do not intersect
the line joining the centres
30. Transverse Common Tangent
(T.C.T)
Internal common tangent
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Circle-2
31. Position of The Circles & Number of Equation of D.C.T / T.C.T.
Common Tangents C 1, C2, P lie in a same line
(4) If two circles intersect each other, then PC1 r1 r r r r
|r1 - r2| < d < r1 + r2 sin 1 2 1 2
PC 2 r2 c1c 2 d
2 D.C.T.
2 common tangents
0 T.C.T.
Direct Common Tangent
(D.C.T.) meet at a point which
PC1 r1 divides the line joining the
PC 2 r2 centre of circles externally in
(5) If one circle is contained in other, then the ratio of their radii.
d < |r1 + r2|
No common tangent
C1Q r1
C 2Q r2
Transverse Common Tangent (T.C.T.) meets
at a point which divides the line joining the
centre of circles internally in the ratio of their
32. Length of common tangents radii.
PC1 r1 C1Q r1
C1 , Q, C2 , P
PC 2 r2 C 2Q r2
constitute a harmonic range
i.e. C1Q, C1C2, C1 are in H.P.
L ext d 2 (r1 r2 )2
Lint d 2 (r1 r2 ) 2
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Relation and Functions
Relation and Functions-Part-1
1. Cartesian Product of two sets 5. Inverse of a Function
Let A and B be any two non empty sets.The set of If R is a relation defined from A B then R-1 is a
all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a A and b B relation defined from B A as
is called as cartesian product of sets A and B and R 1 {(b, a):(a, b) R}
is denoted by A x B. i.e. Doman of R = Range of R-l
2. Relation Range of R = Domain of R-1
Every non-zero subset of A x B defines a relation N is a set of first 10 natural no.
from set A to set B. aRb a + 2b = 10
3. Total Number of Relation from A to B N = {1,2,3, ......,10} & a,b N
Let A contain 'n' elements and B contain 'n' R = {(2,4), (4, 3), (6,2), (8, 1)}
elements. Inverse relation is R-1 {(1,8), (2,6), (3,4), (4,2)}
Number of elements in A x B
9mxn
Number of non void subsets
mn C1 mn C 2 ........... mn C mn 2mn 1
4. Domain & Range of Relation
If R be a relation from a set A to set B. Then set of
all first components or coordinates of ordered pairs
is called the domain of R. While the set of all second
components or coordinates of the ordered pairs is
called as range of relation. 6. Types of Relation
R = {(3,2), (5,2), (5,4), (7,2), (7,4), (7,6)} (i) Identity Relation
Domain = {3, 5, 7} A relation defined on a set A is said to be an Identity
Range = {2, 4, 6} relation if every element of A is related to itself and
only to itself.
(ii) Reflexive Relation
A relation defined on a set A is said to be an reflexive
relation if each & every element of A is related to
itself.
Note :
Every identity relation is a reflexive relation but every
reflexive relation need not be an identity.
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Relation and Functions
(iii)Symmetric Relation (ii) Y = f (- x) : Draw the graph of f(x) in its entire
A relation defined on a set is said to be symmetric domain. Reflect the graph w.r.t. y-axis.
if aRb bRa Let f(x) = ex then y = f(-x) = e-x
Note : If R is symmetric then
(i) R = R-1
(ii) Range of R = Domain of R
(iv) Transitive Relation
A relation on set A is said to be transitive if
(a,b) R & (b,c) R (a,c) R and (a, b, c)
need not be distinct.
(v) Equivalence Relation
(iii)Y = |If (x) | : Draw the entire graph of f(x), reflect
If a relation is Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive
the portion of graph which lies below x-axis w.r.t.
then it is said to be an equivalence relation.
x-axis
(vi)Antisymmetric Relation
Let f(x) = ln x then
A relation R is said to be antisymmetric if (a,b) R
y = |f(x)| = |lnx|
and (b,a) R then a must be equal to b.
7. Partial Order Relation
Definition
A relation R on a set P is called partial order relation
if it is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. That
means that for all x, y and z in P we have:
x R x if x R y and y R z, then x = y
if x R y and y R z, then x R z
Relation and Functions-Part-2
17. Transformation of Graph (vi)Y = f (x) + a :
(i) y = - f (x) : Draw the entire graph of f (x), then by keeping
Draw the graph of f(x) in its entire domain, then axis fix; shift the graph along y-axis in upward
take its mirror image w.r.t. x-axis. direction by 'a' units. (a > 0)
Let f(x) = ex then y = - f(x) = - ex Let f(x) = ex then draw y = ex + 2
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Relation and Functions
(vii) Y = f (x) - a :
Draw the entire graph of f (x), then by keeping
axis fix; shift the graph along y-axis in downward
direction by 'a' units.
Let f(x) = ex then draw
y = ex + 2
(xiii) Y = |f (x)| :
Draw the graph of f(x) entirely.
(i) Remove all those branches which are below the
x-axis.
(ii) Reflect all those branches w.r.t. x-axis which are
(xi) Y = f (x + a) : above the x-axis.
Draw the entire graph of f (x), then by keeping Let f(x) = ex then y = f(x) = ± ex
coordinate axis fix shift the graph by 'a' units
leftward along x-axis.
Let f(x) = ex then draw
y = f(x + 2) = ex+2
Properties of greatest integer function
(a) x-1 < [x] < x 0 < x - [x] < 1
(xii) Y = f (x - a) : (b) [x+m] = [x] + m, if m is an integer
Draw the entire graph of f (x), then by keeping 0if x is an integer
(c) [x] [ x]
coordinate axis fix shift the graph by 'a' units -1 otherwise
rightward along x-axis. (ix)Fractional Part Function
Let f(x) = ex then draw y = f(x-2) = ex-2 It is defined as : f (x) = {x} = x- [x]
The period of this function is 1
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Relation and Functions
For f (x) = {x}, domain is R and range is [0, 1)
PART-2
2. Range
Range of y = f(x) is the collection of all outputs
corresponding to each real number of the domain.
To find the range of function
3. Equal or Identical Function
Properties of fractional part
(a) 0 < {x} < 1 Two functions f & g are said to be equal if
(b) {x+n}={x}, n I (i) The domain of f = the domain of g.
0, x I (ii) The range of f = the range of g and
(c) {x}+{-x} =
1, x I (iii) f(x) = g(x) , for every x belonging to their common
(x) Identity Function domain.
The function f : A A defined by f (x) = x x Note :
A is called the identity of A and is denoted by Functions are also equal if their graphs are same
IA. It is easy to observe that identity function defined 4. Classification of Functions
on R is a bijection. One-One Function (Injective mapping)
f : R R, f (x) x A function f : A B is said to be a one-one
function or injective mapping if different elements
of A have different f images in B. Thus for x1, x2 A
& f(x1), f(x2) B
If f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) x1 x2 or x1 x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 )
Note :
(i) A continuous function which is always increasing
or decreasing in whole domain, then f(x) is one-
(xi)Constant Function
A function f: A B is said to be a constant function one.
if every element of A has the same f image in B.
(ii) A function is one to one if and only if a horizontal
Thus f: A B; f(x) = c, x A , c B is a
line intersects its graph at most once.
constant function. Note that the range of a constant
function is a singleton Diagramatically an injective mapping can be
shown as
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Relation and Functions
5. Many-onc function (not injective)
Note :
A function f: A B is said to be a many one
(i) If a function is onto, it cannot be into and vice versa.
function if two or more elements of A have the same
f image in B. Thus f: A B is many one if for; A polynomial Of degree even define from R R
x1 , x 2 A, f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) but x1 x 2 will always be into & a polynomial of degree odd
Note :
defined from R R will always be onto.
(i) Any continuous function which has atleast one local
maximum or local minimum in its domain, then f(x) (ii) If f is both injective & surjective, then it is called a
is many-one. In other words, if a line parallel to
Bijective mapping. The bijective functions are also
x-axis cuts the graph of the function atleast at two
points, then f is many-one. named as invertible, non singular or biuniform
(ii) If a function is one-one, it cannot be many-one
and vice versa. One One + Many One = Total functions,
number of mappings. Some important points to remember
Diagramatically a many one mapping can be
shown as If x, y are independent variables, then :
(i) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) f(x) = k/n x or f(x) = 0.
(ii) f(xy) = f(x) • f(y) f(x) = xn, n R
(iii) f(x+ y) = f(x) • f(y) f(x) = akx f (x) = Ax, A > 0
(iv) f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) f(x) = kx, where k is a
constant.
7. Composite Function
Note : Let f : A B & g : B C be two functions. Then
If range = co-domain, then f (x) is onto. Any the function gof : A C defined by
polynomial of degree odd , f : R R is onto. (gof) (x) = g (f(x)) x A is called the composite
Diagramatically surjective mapping can be shown
as of the two functions f & g, Diagramatically
X
[f ]
f (x )
[g] g(f (x))
6. Into function
If f : A B is such that there exists atleast one
element in co-domain which is not the image of
any element in domain, then f(x) is into.
Diagramatically into function can be shown as
Note :
gof in general not equal to fog.
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Relation and Functions
8. Properties of Composite Functions 1
For eg. the equation y defines y as an
(i) The composite of functions is not commutative x 1
2
Explicit function.
i.e. gof fog .
12. Odd & Even Functions
(ii) The composite of functions is associative i.e.
A function f (x) defined on the symmetric interval
if f, g, h are three functions such that
(-a, a)
fo (goh) & (fog) oh are defined, then If f (-x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of 'f' then f is
fo (goh) = (fog) oh. said to be an even function.
8. Properties of Composite Functions If f (-x) = -f (x) for all x in the domain of 'f' then f is
Associativety : f : (N) I0 f (x) 2x said to be an odd function.
1 1 Note :
g : I0 Q g(x) h : Q R h(x) e
x x Odd functions (Symmetric about origin)
(hog)of = ho(gof) = e2x
(iii) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e.
if f and g are two bijections such that g of is defined,
then g of is also a bijection.
9. Homogeneous Functions
A function is said to be homogeneous with respect Even functions (Symmetric about y-axis)
to any set of variables when each of its terms is of
the same degree with respect to those variables.
Note :
f (x, y) is a homogeneous function if f (tx , ty) = tn
f(x,y)
10. Bounded Function
A function is said to be bounded if |f(x)| < M , (a) f (x) -f (-x) = 0 = > f (x) is even & f (x) + f (-x)
where M is a finite quantity. = 0 = > f (x) is odd .
11. Implicit & Explicit Function (b) A function may neither be odd nor even .
A function defined by an equation not solved for (c) Inverse of an even function is not defined and an
the dependent variable is called an Implicit Function. even function can not be strictly monotonic
For eg. the equation x2 y + y = 1 defines y as an (d) Every function can be expressed as the sum of an
implicit function. even & an odd function.
If y has been expressed in terms of x alone then it f (x) f ( x) f (x) f ( x)
f (x)
2 2
is called an Explicit Function . EVEN ODD
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Relation and Functions
(f) The only function which is defined on the entire Step-3: To express f -1 as a function of x,
number line & is even and odd at the same time is interchange x and y.
f(x) = 0. Any non zero constant is even. 14. Properties of inverse of a function
(g) If f and g both are even or both are odd then the (i) The inverse of Bijection is unique.
function f.g will be even but if any one of them is (ii) The inverse of Bijection is also bijection.
odd then f.g will be odd . (iii) If f : A B is Bijection & g : B A is inverse of
f, then fog = IB & gof = IA , where IA, IB are the
identical function on the set A and B respectively
(iv) If f : A B and g : B Care two bijections, then
gof : A C is bijections and (gof)-l = f-1og-1 .
(v) The graphs of f & g are the mirror images of each
13. Inverse of A Function other in the line y = x.
Let f : A B be a one-one & onto function, then
there exists a unique function g : B A such that
f(x) = y g(y) = x, x A & y B. Then g is
said to be inverse of f.
Thus g = f'-1 : B A = {(f(x), x) (x, f(x)) f}.
15. Periodic Function
Domain of f = {a1, a2, a3} = Range of f-1
A function f (x) is called periodic if there exists a
Range of f = {b1, b2, b3}= Domain of f -1
positive number T(T > 0) called the period of the
function such that f (x + T) = f (x), for all values of
x within the domain of x.
Graphically
If the graph repeats at fixed interval then function
is said to be periodic and its period is the width of
that interval,
Note :
(a) Only one-one onto functions (i.e., Bijections) are
invertible.
(b) To find the inverse
Step-I: write y = f (x)
Step-2: solve this equation for x in terms of y
(if possible)
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Relation and Functions
16. Properties of periodic function e.g. f(x) = |sin x| + |cos x|; sin4x + cos4x has
(i) f (T) = f (0) = f (-T), where 'T' is the period.
fundamental period equal to
(ii) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist. 2
(vii) If f (x) and g (x) are periodic then f (x) + g (x)
(iii) Every constant function is always periodic, with
need not be periodic.
no fundamental period.
17. Transformation of Graph
1
(iv) If f(x) has a period p, then and f (x) Let f(x) = ex
f (x)
also has a period p.
(v) if f(x) has a period T then f(ax + b) has a
T
period
|a|
(vi) If f (x) has a period T & g (x) also has a period
T then it does not mean that f (x) + g (x) must
have a period T.
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Matrix & Determinant
Matrix & Determinant
1. Matrix Singleton Matrix
Arrangement of m × n elements into m - rows A matrix having only one element is known as
and n - columns is called matrix singleton matrix.
Square Matrix (Order n)
a11 a12 ...... a1n a11 a12 ...... a1n a11 a12 ...... a1n
a
21 a22 ...... a2n a21 a22 ...... a2n a21 a22 ...... a2n If number of rows = number of columns
The matrix is known as square matrix.
am1 am2 ...... amn am1 am2 ...... amn am1 am2 ...... amn
Note :
2. Types of Matrices
a11 a12 a13
A a 21 a 22 a 23
Row Matrix (Row Vector)
A matrix having only one row is called a row a 31 a 32 a 33
matrix. Order : (1 × n)
1. The elements a11, a22, a33, ........... ann are called
Column Matrix (Column Vector)
Diagonal Elements.
a11 The line along which the diagonal elements lie is
a
21 A matrix having only one called "Principal or Leading" diagonal.
a
A 31 column is called a column 2. In a square matrix the pair of elements aij & aji
matrix.
are called Conjugate Elements.
Order : (n×1) a12 a 21 a13 a 31 a 23 a 32
a n1
3. Determinant of matrix exist only when it is square
Zero or Null Matrix (A = Omxn)
matrix.
(Denoted by ‘O’)
Diagonal Matrix
A m × n matrix whose all entries are zero is known
d1 0 0
as a zero or null matrix.
A 0 d 2 0 a 0
ij if i j
Horizontal Matrix 0 0 d3
A matrix of order m×n is a horizontal matrix
In a square matrix if all the elements except
1 2 3 4
if n > m 2 5 1 1 diagonal elements are zero it is called Diagonal
24
Matrix.
Vertical Matrix
Scalar Matrix
A matrix of order m×n is a vertical matrix
a 0 0
3 4 A 0 a 0 If d1 d 2 d3 a
1 2
0 0 a
if m > n 2 5
1 1 42
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Matrix & Determinant
In a diagonal matrix, if all the elements of principal a b k l
A B
diagonal are equal it is known as Scalar Matrix. c d m n
Unit or Identity Matrix The matrices A & B are equal if :
a k c m
(Denoted by 'I') A [a ij ] B [bij ]
b l d n
1 0 0 (i) both have the same order.
A 0 1 0 If a 1
(ii) aij = bij for each pair of i & j.
0 0 1
Addition of Matrices
Det (I) = | I | = 1
a b k l
Triangular Matrix A B m n
c d
(a) Upper Triangular Matrix
A=[aij]m×n B = [bij]m×n
Then,
a k b l
AB
c m d n
Where, A & B are of the same order
A + B = [aij + bij]
(b) Lower Triangular Matrix
Properties of Addition
Additive Inverse
If A + B = O = B + A
& both A and B have the same order
Then, A and B are said to be the additive inverse
3. Trace of a Matrix of each other.
a11 a12 a13 Where, O is the null matrix of the same order as
A a 21 a 22 a 23 that of A and B.
a 31 a 32 a 33
A + (-A) = O
tr(A) a ii a11 a 22 a 33 Existence of Additive Identity
Sum of principal diagonal elements of a square matrix A+ O = O +A=A
is known as Trace of a Matrix. The zero matrix plays the same role in matrix
Properties of tr(A) addition as the number zero does in addition of
1. tr. ( A) = tr (A) numbers.
2. tr (A + B) = tr (A) + tr(B) Cancellation Law
3. tr(AB) = tr(BA) If, A + B = A + C B = C
4. Algebra of Matrices (Left cancellation)
Equality of Matrices If, B + A = C + A B = C
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Matrix & Determinant
(Right cancellation) Corresponding determinants of square
Cancellation laws hold good. matrices
Property of Trace of a Matrix For square matrices A & B,
tr (A + B) = tr (A) + tr(B) i) |AB| = |A| |B|
Where, A and B are square matrices of the same In general |Ak| = |A|k, k N
order ii) |KA| = Kn |A| Where, n is order of A
5. Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar 6. Multiplication of matrices
a b c ka kb kc If, A = [aij]m×n B = [bij]x×p
If A b c a Then, kA kb kc ka
Then AB exists only if,
c a b kc ka kb No. of columns in pre multiplier (A) x=n
Note : = No. of rows in post multiplier (B)
If A is a square matrix then, Note :
1. tr (kA) = k[tr(A)] 2. |kA | = k n|A| A = [aij]m×n B = [bij]x×p
Where, n is order of matrix A. 1. In the product of matrices, AB exists, but BA
Properties of Multiplication may or may not exist.
n
Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix
2. (AB)ij a ir .b rj
For a square matrix A, A.A = A2 r 1
A.A.A = (A.A).A = A2. A = A3 A matrix of order m×p.
(i) AmAn = Am+n Properties of Matrix Multiplication
(ii) (Am)n=Amn (for m, n N) 1. Matrix Multiplication is not Commutative
Note (A + B)2 = (A + B) (A + B) (In General)
AB BA (in general)
Note :
If A and B are two non - zero matrices such that
(ie.AB BA) (ie.AB BA) AB = 0 then,
A 2AB B
2 2
A B 2 2
(a)
A = 0 or B = 0
In general (A + B) A + B + 2AB
2 2 2
(b) also AB = 0
BA = 0
In general
A and B are called the divisors of zero
(A+B)n = nC0.An +nC1.An-1.B +...+nCn.Bn
If AB = AC
B=C
(n N) (if A & B commute each other)
However, If B = C then, AB = AC
A2 -B2 = (A + B) (A - B)
tr (AB) = tr (BA) (If exists)
if A and B commute.
If A is a square matrix then,
If A = dia [d1 d2 d3]
I.A = A. I = A
Then, An = dia [d1n d2 n d3n]
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Matrix & Determinant
Properties of Matrix Multiplication Properties of Transpose
2. Matrix Multiplication is Associative Matrices : A and B Transpose : AT & BT
If A, B & C are conformable for the product 1. (AT)T = A
AB & BC, Matrices : A and B
Then, (AB) C = A (BC) Transpose : AT & BT
3. Distributivity 2. (A + B)T = A T+ BT
Matrix multiplication is distributive over addition. (A & B have the same order)
Then, A(B + C) = AB + AC 3. (KA)T = KAT
(A + B) C = AC + BC K be any scalar (real or complex)
7. Matrix Polynomial 4. (A B)T = BT AT
Introduction Provided, A & B are conformable for matrix
If f (x) = a0xn + a1xn-1+a2xn-2 + ...+an product AB
f (A) = a0An + a1An-1+a2An-2 + ...+ an In Hence, generally :
Where, A = Square matrix (A1.A 2 . ....A n ) T A Tn . .....A 2T .A1T
If f (A) = Null matrix, then A is called zero or (reversal law for transpose)
root of the polynomial f (A). 5. (An)T = (AT)n
Characteristic Equation 6. tr(AT ) = tr(A)
(Hamilton's Rule) 7. |AT| = |A|
Let A be a square matrix. Then, Orthogonal Matrices
|A - xI| (characteristic poly of A) A square matrix is said to be orthogonal
|A - xI| = 0 (characteristic eq. of A) matrix, if
Note : For a square matrix A. AAT = ATA = I
tr(A) = sum of the roots of the characteristic 9. Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix
equation Symmetric Matrix
det(A) = product of the roots of the characteristic In matrix A [a ij ]if , a ij a ji i & j
equation Then, the matrix is said to be symmetric matrix.
Hence, Characteristic Equation : & A AT A AT 0
A2 - [tr(A)] A + det (A) I = 0 Skew Symmetric Matrix
8. Transpose of A Matrix A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew
Transpose of a Matrix is obtained by changing symmetric if,
its rows into columns and columns into rows. a ij a ji i & j & a ii 0
A = [aij]m × n
Then, AT [a ji ] A 'n m
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Matrix & Determinant
0 a b Properties of Adjoint
A AT
A a 0 c A = [aij]
e.g. A AT 0
b c 0 Square Matrix
Note : 1. A (adj. A) = (adj. A).A = |A| In.
For a skew symmetric matrix A of A = [aij]n
Non - Singular Matrix
order (2p -1) i.e. odd, |A| = 0.
2. |adj. A| = |A| In-1
Properties of Symmetric & Skew Symmetric
A = [aij]n
Matrix
3. adj (KA) = Kn-1 adj (A)
1. If A be a square matrix then,
A = [aij]n B = [bij]n
a) A + A is a symmetric matrix
T
non - singular Matrices
b) A- A is a skew symmetric matrix
T
4. adj AB = (adj B) (adj A)
c) AAT and AT A are symmetric matrices. A = [aij]n
2. Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed Invertible Matrix
as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric 5. adj AT = (adj A)T
matrix. A = [aij]n
Non - Singular Matrix
6. (a) adj (adj A) =|A|n-2 A
2
(b) |adj (adj A)| = |A|(n-1)
11. Inverse of a Matrix
10. Adjoint of a Square Matrix A square matrix 'A' is said to be invertible
If, A = [aij] And, C = [Cij] (non singular) if there exist a matrix B such that :
Then, AB = I = BA
adj A= Transpose of the matrix of cofactors B = A-1 (Inverse of A)
of elements of A in det(A) (adjA)
Thus, A-1 = B AB = I = BA A 1
Note : |A|
p q Note :
1. If A =
r s 1. For a Square matrix A to be invertible.
s q |A| 0
Then, adj A =
r p 2. Let, A = dia (k1 k2 k3 ...... kn)
2. The adjoint of a scalar matrix is also a scalar (Non Singular)
matrix.
Then,
Adjoint of a diagonal matrix
3. Triangular matrix
Adjoint of a triangular matrix A-1 = dia (k1-1, k2-1, k3-1, ....., kn-1)
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Matrix & Determinant
Some Important Theorems Note :
The value of determinant of nilpotent matrix is 0.
1. Every invertible matrix posses a unique inverse.
Periodic Matrix
2. If, A Invertible & Square
A square matrix Which satisfies the relation
Then,
AK+1 = A, for some positive integer K is known
AT nvertible & (AT )-1 = (A-1)T
to be a periodic matrix with period K.
3. If A Non - Singular Period of an idempotent matrix is 1.
1 1 1 Involuntary Matrix
Then, | A | | A | i.e.| A 1 |
|A| If A2 = I, the matrix is said to be an involuntary
4. If A & B are Invertible Matrices matrix. In other words square root of unit matrix
Then, (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1 is called involuntary matrix.
5. If, A Invertible 13. Rank of a Matrix
Then, (a) (A-1)-1 = A Rank (r) of a matrix is the order of the highest
(b) (Ak)-1 = (A-1)k = A-k order non - singular square submatrix that can
12. Special Matrices be obtained from it.
Idempotent Matrix Note :
A square matrix is to be idempotent matrix if, 1. The rank of a null matrix = 0
A2 = A 2. The rank of every non - null matrix > 1
For an idempotent matrix A, 3. Rank of identity matrix of order n = n.
14. App. of Matrices & Determinants
A n = A n > 2, n N
Sol. of System of Linear Equations
Note :
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 .... (i)
1. For idempotent matrices |A|2 = |A|
|A| = 0 OR |A| = 1 a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 .... (ii)
2. The only invertible idempotent matrix is I. a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 ....(iii)
Nilpotent Matrix
A square matrix is said to be nilpotent matrix of a1 b1 c1 x d1
index p, (p N), A a 2 b2 c 2 X y B d 2
If AP = 0, Ap-1 0 a 3 b3 c3 z d 3
Where,
p is the least positive integer for which AP = O
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Complex Number
Complex Number
1. Real & Imaginary Numbers
In general, Complex, z = x + iy
where, i = 1
x the real part of z [Re(z)]
y the imaginary part of z [Im(z)]
2. Iota (i)
‘i’ is an imaginary number i = 1
Infact i4n = 1, n I,
i4n+1 = i4n.i = 1.i = i
5. Algebra of Complex Numbers
i4n+2 = i4n.i2 = (1)(-1) = -1 Addition
i4n+3 = i4n.i3 = 1.(-i) = -i
i4n+4 = i4n.i4 = (1)(1) = 1
Subtraction
3. Representation of Complex No.s
Every complex number ‘z’ can be written as :
z = x + iy where x, y R & i = 1
Multiplication
Every complex number can be represented as a
set of ordered pair (x,y).
Classification
Every complex can be classified as : Division Rationalization
a ib a ib c id
.
c id c id c id
ac iad ibc i 2bd
c 2 icd idc i 2 d 2
0+0i is both a purely real as well as purely
ac bd bc ad
imaginary but not imaginary. i
c2 d 2 c 2 d 2
4. Argand Plane Equality
Argand plane is divided in 4 quadrants by two Let z1 = x1 + iy1
z2 = x2 + iy2 For Equality,
axes. (i) Real axis (ii) Imaginary axis
All complex no. lying on the real axis were called
as purely real.
And those lying on imaginary axis as purely
imaginary. a + ib > c + id has to be meaningful if,
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Complex Number
Note :-
b=d=0 a>c
If z is purely real Im (z) = 0
We can compare real numbers, But cannot
z z zz 0
compare imaginary no.s
If z is purely imaginary Re (z) = 0
6. Conjugate of Complex No.
z z z z 0
Denoted by z . Note :-
If z = x + iy z = x - iy If x + iy = f (a + ib) then,
z is the image of z in the real axis x- iy = f (a- ib)
Further; g(x + iy) = f (a + ib)
g(x - iy) = f (a - ib)
8. Modulus of Complex No.
7. Properties of Conjugate
If z = x + iy
1. z z
2. z1 z 2 z1 z 2 Similarly,,
z1 z 2 ...... z n z1 z 2 ... z n z = x + iy
Denoted by |z|
3. z1 z 2 z1 z 2 Similarly,,
| z | x 2 y 2 Re 2 (z) Im 2 (z)
z1 z 2 ...... z n z1 z 2 ... z n
It denotes the shortest distance from the origin.
4. z1z 2 z1 z 2 Similarly,,
Properties of Modulus z = x + iy
z1 z 2 ...... z n z1 z 2 ... z n
1. | z | | z | | z | | z |
z1 z1 2. |z| 0
5. ; z2 0
z2 z2 If | z | = 0 z is origin
6. z z ( x iy ) ( x iy ) 3. | z1z 2 | | z1 | | z 2 | Similarly,,
2x 2 Re(z) | z1z 2 z3 ....z n | | z1 | . | z 2 | .| z3 |.... | z n |
zz If z1 = z2 = z3 = .... = zn = z
Re(z)
2 then, | zn | = | z |n
7. z z ( x iy ) ( x iy ) z1 | z1 |
, z2 0
4. z2 | z2 |
2iy 2i Im( z )
zz 5. z .z | z |2
Im( z )
2i
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Complex Number
1 where proper value of ‘k’ must be chosen so
Note : If | z | = 1, then z. z = 12 =1 z
z that R.H.S. lies in (-,].
6. | z1 z 2 | | z1 | | z 2 | 2 Re (z1z 2 )
2 2 2
4. amp (z) = - amp (z)
7. |z1+z2|2 + |z1-z2|2 = 2[|z1|2 + |z2|2]
9. Argument of Complex No.
Arg. of complex no. is inclination of directed line
segment represented by a complex no. (z)
with +ve real axis.
(I) General Values of Argument
y
2n , n N. tan 1
x
(II) Least Positive Argument
Note :
'' is called least positive argument when it lies
amp (iz) = amp (i) + amp (z) = + amp (z)
between (0, 2]. 2
(0, 2]
amp (-iz) = amp (-i) + amp(z) = + amp (z)
2
(III) Amplitude () 10. Cartesian Form / Algebraic Form
Also known as Principal value of argument of Z.
(, ]
Important Properties of Amplitude
1. amp (z1.z2) = amp z1 + amp z2
+ 2k; k I
z1
2. amp z (z1.z2) = amp z1 - amp z2
2
+ 2k; k I z = x + iy
3. amp (z.z.z......z) n times = | z | x 2 y2
amp(z) + amp(z) + .....+ amp(z) n times
z x iy
+ 2k; k I
amp (z) =
amp(z ) = n amp(z)
n
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Complex Number
11. Vectorial Representation
13. Exponential / Euler Form
ei = cos + isin z = r . ei
z = r (cos + isin) z = | z |. ei
14. De — Moivre's Theorem
If z = (cos + i sin) then,
zn = (cos + i sin)n
if n I z n (cos n i sin n )
p n
if n q z (cos n i sin n )
Complex no. z corresponding to point A can be ( p & q I & arecoprime )
treated as the position vector of point A. It is oneof the valueof z n
arg (z2 - z1) =
Basic Steps to determine the roots of a
Note :
Complex Number
1. Write the complex no. whose roots are to be
determined in polar form.
2. Add 2k to the argument.
3. Apply De - Moivre's Theorem.
4. Put k = 0, 1, 2,3, ..., (n -1) to get all 'n' roots.
15. Cube Roots of Unity
By using parallelogram law of vector addition,
z = (1)1/3 Cubing both sides
Resultant = diagonal, i.e., = z1 z 2
z3 = 1
12. Trigonometric / Polar Form
z3 - 13 = 0 Applying ldentity:
z = x + iy (x,y)
(z-1) (z2 + z + 1) = 0
z-1=0 OR z2 + z + 1 = 0
1 i 3
z=1 z
2
Note :
a. The cube roots of unity are
1 i 3 1 i 3
1, , ( 1, , 2 )
2 2
b. Product of Roots = 1
x = r cos y = r sin z3 = 1 z3 -13 = 0 OR
r= x 2 y2 = | z | 1 3 1 3
1. i . i 1
z = x + iy = r (cos + i sin) 2 2 2 2
where | z | = r ; amp (z) = 1. .2 1 3 1
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Complex Number
1 2 3n1 2m
2 m
i
3 2 z cis e n
eim
3n2 2 n
1
3
2
z1 c is( 0 ) e0 e0 1
c. Sum of Roots = 0
z2 cis( 2 / n ) i
2
ei
z = 1 z -1 = 0
3 3 3
OR e n
z3 cis( 4 / n ) 4
i ei 2 2
1++ =0
e n
1 z4 cis( 6 / n ) 6
ei 2 3
3 1 3 e
i
n
1 i i 0
2 2 2 2
In general, 2( n 1 ) i( 2( n1 )n ) i( n1 ) ( n1 )
zn cis e e
n
0 when r 3
1 r 2r
3 when r 3
d. |1| = = = 1
i.e.,e0 ,ei ,ei 2 ,ei 4 ,ei 6 .......ei( n1 )
2
where
n
n roots 1, , ........, n-1 are in G.P..
Note :
If any complex number 'z' is multiplied by then The points represented by 'n' roots of unity are
located at the vertices of a regular polygon of 'n’
'z' rotates in ACW direction by an angle of 120o.
sides.
When plotted on the argand plane, these roots This polygon inscribed in a unit circle
constitute the vertices of an eq. . (radius = 1) having centre at the origin.
This lie on a circle of radius 1units. One vertex of this polygon being on the positive
real axis.
16. ‘n’ Roots of Unity
z = (1)1/n = (cos 0 + isin 0)1/n
= [cos(2m) + isin (2m)]1/n
2m 2m 2m
cos i sin cis
n n n
2 m
i
e n
eim m = 0, 1, 2, ....., (n-1)
& = 2/n
(a) Sum
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Contact of (1)/1/n
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Complex Number
z1 + z2 + ...+ zn = 1 + + 2 + ...n-1 z1 z 2 z 3
(i)Centroid G =
The sum of n roots of unity is zero 3
az1 bz 2 cz 3
(b) Products of Roots : (ii) Incentre I =
abc
z1 . z2 . z3 ... zn = 1 . . 2 .3 ...n-1 (iii) Orthocenter O
z1 . z2 . z3 ... zn = z1.tan A z 2 . tan B z3 .tan C
z0
1, n is odd (n - 1) is even tan A
OR
-1, n is odd (n - 1) is odd
z1. tan A z 2 . tan B z3 . tan C
(c) 1k_k + 2k + 3k + ....+ (n-1)k=
tan A
kn (iv) Circumcenter C'
i 2n
1 e z1 sin 2A z 2 sin 2B z 3 sin 2C
1 kn 1 ( e )i 2 k z c'
k
k sin 2A
1 1 k i2
1 ( e ) n
Note :
1 {cos( 2k ) i sin( 2k )} In a triangle, orthocenter (O), centroid (G) &
2 k 2k
1 cos i sin circumcenter (C') are collinear & G divides OC'
n n
in the ratio 2 : 1.
18. Rotation
Let the point P represents the complex number
z1 then,
17. Geometry of Complex Number OP z1 r.ei
= Angle of rotation
(iii) Area of Triangle:
OQ z2 r.ei( )
x1 y1 1 r.ei .ei z1 .ei
1
x2 y2 1 z2 z1 .ei
2
x3 y3 1
Note : z2 z1 .ei
(i) If OP and OQ are of unequal magnitude, then
For collinearity of 3 points : 0
(iv) Centroid, Incentre, Orthocenter & OP
OQ ei
Circumcenter of a triangle on a Complex z2 z
1 ei
| z2 | | z1 |
Plane
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Complex Number
(ii) RP
RQ ei A
Ax + By + C = 0 m
B
z 3 z1 z z1 i (z z) i( z z )
2 e A. + B. +C=0
| z 3 z1 | | z 2 z1 | 2 2
z 3 z1 z z1 i z (A - iB) + z (A + iB) + 2C = 0
3 e
z 2 z1 z 2 z1
z z r 0
where, = A + iB angle between lines :
z3 z1 + arg (z1 - z2) - arg (z3 - z4)
where = arg
z 2 z1 z1 z 2
= arg
z 4 z3 z z z3 z 4
(iii) 2 1 ei
| z4 z3 | | z2 z1 |
Condition for lines to be parallel :
z z
19. Equation of Straight Line m1 m 2 arg 1 2 k
z3 z 4
Equation of a straight line through z1 and z2
z1 z 2
If a variable complex number z(x, y) moves in
z 3 z 4 is purely real
such a waythat z, & z1 are z2 collinear, then locus
z1 z 2 z1 z 2
of 'z' describes a line through z1 & z2 .
z3 z 4 z3 z 4
PA & PB are always collinear, i.e.
arg (z - z1) - arg (z - z2) = 0 or z1 z 2 z1 z 2
z z1 z3 z 4 z3 z 4
or arg z z = 0 or z z z z
2 1 2 3 4
z1 z 2 z 3 z 4
z z1
i.e. z z is purely real w1 w 2
2
Condition for lines to be perendicular :
m1.m 2 1
z1 z 2
arg (2n 1)
z3 z 4 2
z1 z 2
z 3 z 4 is purely real
General Equation of Straight Line
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Complex Number
z1 z 2 z1 z 2
z3 z 4 z3 z 4
z1 z 2 z 3 z 4
0
z1 z 2 z3 z 4
w1 w 2 0
21. Triangle Inequality
Parametric equation of a Line:
| | z1 | - | z2 | | < | z1 + z2 | < | z1 | + | z2 |
OP OA AP z z1 (z 2 z1 )
| | z1 | - | z2 | | < | z1 - z2 | < | z1 | + | z2 |
where R
| | z1 | - | z2 | | < | z1 + z2 | < | z1 | + | z2 |
20. Circle
Centre - Radius Form
Centre: z0= (a + ib) Point: z = (x + iy)
Radius:r | z z 0 | r
Note :
A point P(z) moves in argand plane in such a
way that its distances from two fixed points
A(z1) & B(z2) are such that
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Limit
Limit
1. Meaning of x a 4. Left Hand Limit (L.H.L.)
We denote it by x a (x is not equal to a) If x When x a from the values of x < a or from
approaches to a from right side (then we denote left side of a, then corresponding limit is called
it by x a+ ) If x approaches to a from left L-H.L. & is written as
side (then we denote it by x a- ) Lim f (x) or Lim f (a h)
x a h 0
2. Limit f (a - 0) or f (a-)
Let a function f(x), at any value of x = a, is either
not defined or is indeterminate
But is defined and finite at left and/or right
neighbourhood points very-very close to x = a
Then the value of the function at the
neighbourhood points is called Limiting value of
function.
Or the function tends to approach its limit as x
tends to a.
5. Existence of Limit
x a 2 2
0 If R.H.L. = L.H.L. = Finite quantity i.e. both
f (x) = is indeterminate at x = a limits exist, equal and finite.
xa 0
Then, limiting value is : Lim f (x) Lim f (x) = Finite quantity
x a x a
x a
2 2
Lim f (x) Lim
x a x a x a
is called limit of f(x) when x a (x tends to a
or x approaches a)
3. Right Hand Limit (R.H.L.)
When x a from the values of x > a or from
right side of a, then corresponding limit is called
R-H.L. & is written as
Lim f (x) or Lim f (a h) 6. Fundamental Theorems of Limits
x a h 0
f (a + 0) or f (a+) 1. Constant Multiple Rule : Lim K.f (x) KL
x c
2. Sum Rule : Lim (f (x) g(x)) L M
x c
3. Difference Rule : Lim (f (x) g(x)) L M
x c
4. Product Rule : Lim (f (x).g(x)) L.M
x c
f (x) L
5. Quotient Rule : Lim &M 0
x c g(x) M
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Limit
Note : 9. Sandwich / Squeeze Play Theorem
Let f(x), g(x) & h(x) be 3 functions such that :
1. Lim (log f (x)) og Lim f (x) og(L) f (x) < g (x) < h (x)
x a x a
provided L > 0 For all values of x in some neighborhood
of x = c
2. Lim n
f (x ) n
Lim f (x ) n
L
xa x0 Then, Lim f (x) Lim g(x) Lim h(x)
x c x c x c
3. Lim f (x)where, f (x) C Lim f (x) C
x a x a And if, Lim f (x) Lim h(x) L
x c x c
4. Lim| f (x) || Lim f (x) | | L |
x a x a Then, Lim g(x) L
x c
L
Limg( x)
x a
5. Lim(f (x))g(x ) Lim f (x) M
x a x a
6. Lim f (g(x)) f Lim g(x) f (M)
x a x a
If f is continuous at g(x) = M
7. Indeterminate Forms
0
1. 2. 3.
0
4. 0x 5. 1 6. 00 10. Limits of Trigonometric Functions
7. 0
sin x
8. Methods to Evaluate Limit 1. Lim 1
(i) Fractorization Method :
x 0 x
f (x) sin(x a)
2. Lim 1
Consider lim x 0 (x a)
x a g(x)
f (x) tan(x a)
3. Lim 1
If by substituting x = a, reduces to the form x 0 (x a)
g(x)
0 sin 1 x
then (x-+a) is a factor of both f(x) and g(x). 4. Lim 1
0 x 0 x
So, we first factorize f(x) and g(x) and then cancel tan 1 x
out the common factor to evaluate the limit. 5. Lim 1
Standardization
x 0 x
1 cos x 1
xn an 6. Lim
Result Lim na n 1 x 0 x2 2
x a x a
Note :
(ii) Rationalization Method :
Let [.] denotes greatest integer function
This is particularly used when either the
numerator or the denominator or both involve sin x sin x
Lim 0 Lim 1
expression consists of squares roots and on x 0
x x 0 x
substituting the value or x the rational expression
tan x sin 1 x
0 Lim 1 Lim 1
takes the form
0
x 0
x x 0
x
Algebraic limit Using Some Standard limits:
sin 1 x
x 0 x 1
Lim
n (n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3
(1 x ) n 1 nx x x .....
2! 3!
where |x| < 1
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Limit
11. Limit of Exponentiali Logarithmic Functions
x 2 x3 x 4
3. n(1 x) x ........
ex 1 2 3 4
1. Lim 1
x 0 x for - 1 < x < 1
a x 1 x2 x3 x4
2. Lim na (a 0) n(1 x) x ........
x 0 x 2 3 4
n(1 x) x3 x5 x7
3. Lim 1 4. sin x - x ........
x 0 x 3! 5! 7!
12 00 & 0 Forms x2 x4 x6
5. cosx = 1 ........
f (x)
g(x )
Limits of the form Lim 2! 4! 6!
x a
(x))g(x) x 3 2x 5
Let L = lim(f
x a
6. tanx = x ........
3 15
log c L log c lim(f (x))g(x) x3 x5 x7
x a 7. tan-1 x = x ........
3 5 7
lim g(x) log c f (x)
x a
12 3 12.32 5 12.32.52 7
13. (1) Form 8. sin-1 x = x x x x ........
3! 5! 7!
Result 1. Lim(1 x)1/ x e
x 0 x 3 9x 5
x ........
1
x 3! 5!
2. Lim 1 e
x
x x 2 5x 4 61x 6
9. sec x = 1
-1 ......
Generalized Formula for (1) 2! 4! 6!
Lim g(x )[f (x ) 1]
Lim{f (x)}g (x ) e xa n(n 1)
x a 10. (1+x)n = 1 + nx + x2 ......n Q
2!
14. Limit Using Series Expansion
15. L'Hospita1 Rule
2 3
x x x If Lim f (x) 0 or & Lim g(x) 0 or
1. ex 1 ........ x a x a
1! 2! 3!
Where, f(x) & g(x) both are differentiable
x x 2 x3 functions at x a.
e x 1 ......
1! 2! 3! f (x) 0
xna
Then Lim are of or Forms
2. a e
x x log e a
e x a g(x)
0
xna x 2n 2a x 3n 3a can be solved by differentiating both Nr & Dr
ax 1 ........a 0 separately.
1! 2! 3!
f (x) 0
Thus, Lim or Forms
x a g(x) 0
f '(x) f "(x)
Lim Lim ......
x a g '(x) x a g"(x)
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Continuity
Continuity
1. Concept of Continuity
The graph of a function is said to be continuous
at x = a if while travelling along the graph of the
function through the point at x = a either from left
to right or from right to left, one does not have to
lift his pen.
3. Reasons of Discontinuity
A function can be discontinuous due to the
following reasons :
(i) Lim f (x) does not exist
x a
Lim f (a h) Lim f (a h)
In case, if one has to lift his pen assing through h 0 h 0
point x = a, the graph of the function is said to (f (a) may or may not be defined)
have a break or discontinuous at x = a Called Non - removable discontinuity.
2. Formulative Definition of Continuity
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a,
If Lim f (x) exists and is equal to (a)
x a
If , Lim f (a h) Lim f (a h) = f (a)
h 0 h 0
= finite quantity
LHL|x=a = RHL|x=a = value of f (x)|x=a
= finite quantity
Continuity of a function is discussed
(i) At a point (ii) In its domain (iii) In an interval
(ii) Lim f (x) exist but is not equal to
x a
Example f (x) = logx
f(a) (defined)
f(x) = logx is discontinuous at x = 0
Continuous in the domain but not in x R. Lim f (a h) Lim f (a h) f (a)
h 0 h 0
Note : Continuity at x = a Called removable discontinuity
Existence of limit at x = a
(Isolated point).
But, Existence of limit at x = a
Continuity at x = a
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Continuity
Note : (1) All polynomials, trigonometric, exponential
& logarithmic functions are continuous in
their domains.
(2) If f(x) & g(x) are two functions that are
continuous at x = c, then the function
defined by :
F1(x) = f(x) + g(x)
F2(x) = K f (x), where K is any real number
(iii) Limit exist but f(a) is not defined. F3(x) = f (x). g(x) are also continuous at x = c.
Further, if g(c) is not zero, then
f (x)
F4(x) = is also continuous at x = c.
g(x)
(b) Isolated point discontinuity
Where lim f (x) exists & f(a) also exists but;
x a
lim f (x) f (a)
x a
Type - II: Non removable discontinuity
Lim f (a h) Lim f (a h)
h 0 h 0 Here, Lim f (x) does not exists & therefore, it
x a
But, f(a) not defined.
is not possible to redefine the function in any
Removable discontinuity
manner to make it continuous.
(missing point).
4. Types of Discontinuities
Type - I : (a) Removable discontinuity
Here, Lim f (x) necessarily exists.
x a
Therefore, it is possible to redefine the function
in such a manner that : Lim f (x) f (a)
x a
Thus, making the function continuous.
Non-removable discontinuities can be further
classified as
(a) Finite type
both the limits are finite hut not equal.
Note :
In this case non negative difference betueen the
two limits is called the Jump of discontinuity.
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Continuity
7. Intermediate Value Theorem (IMVT)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) f(b)
Then for every value c between (a) and f(b)
(b) Infinite type :
(including both), there is at least one number x0
At least one of two limit is infinite.
in [a, b] for which f(x0) = c.
Note:
(1) If f(x) is continuous in [a,b] f(a).f(b) < 0 and
A function having a finite number of jumps in a
{f(a) & f(b) posses opposite signs}
given interval I is called a Piece Wise Continuous
Then there exists at least one root of the equation
or Sectionally Continuous function in this interval.
f(x) = 0 in (a, b).
5. Continuity In An Interval
(a) A function f (x) is said to be continuous
(a, b) if f (x) is continuous at each every
point (a, b).
(b) A function f(x) is said to be continuous in a
closed interval [a, b] if
(i) f (x) is continuous in the open interval (a, b)
f (x 0 ) 0 x 0 (a, b)
(ii) f (x) is right continuous at 'a'
Note :
i.e. Lim f (x) f (a) = finite quantity
x a
Continuity through the interval [a, b] is essential
(iii) f(x) is left continuous at 'b'
for the validity of this IMVT theorem.
i.e. Lim f (x) f (b) = finite quantity
x b
8. Important Points
6. Continuity of Composite Functions
(1) If f (x) & g(x) are continuous functions at
If f (x) is continuous at x = a & g(x) is continuous
x = a, then
at x = f (a), then the composite g[f(x)] is
f(x) + g(x), f(x). g(x) are continuous at x = a
continuous at x = a
Also, if g(a) 0
Similarly, if f(x) is continuous at x R & g(x) is
f (x)
continuous at x = f( x R), then the composite ; is continuous at x = a.
g(x)
is continuous at x R.
(2) If f(x) is continuous at x = a & g(x) is
Note :
While checking points of discontinuity of gof(x), discontinuous at x = a, then,
always include points of discontinuity of f(x) (a) f(x) + g(x) must be discontinuous at x = a
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Continuity
f (x) (4) Point functions are to be treated as continuous,
(b) f(x) . g(x) or ; if g(x) 0 will not necessarily
g(x) i.e., if the domain of f(x) is a singleton, f(x) is a
be discontinuous at x = a continuous function.
(3) If f(x) and g (x) both are discontinous at x = a (5) (a) If a function f (x) is continuou in a closed
then, interval [a, b], then it is bound
f (x) (b) A continuous function whose domain is
f(x) + g(x), f(x) . g(x) or ; if g(x) 0
g(x) some closed interval, must have its range
will not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a also in closed interval,
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Methods-of-Differentiation
Methods-of-Differentiation
1. Derivative By First Principle 3. Sum/Difference Rule
Derivative by first principle/ by delta method/by d d
ab-initio method : (kf (x)) k. f (x) kf '(x)
dx dx
f (x h) f (x) (where k is any constant)
f '(x) L im
h 0 h
d
Finding the value of the limit is called finding the (f (x) g(x)) f '(x) g '(x)
dx
derivative by first principle.
2. Derivative of standard functions 4. Product Rule
d
(f (x)).g(x)) f (x).g '(x) g(x) / f '(x)
dx
f (x) f '(x)
x n
nx n 1 = (I Function x Diff. of II)
1 1 + (II Function x Diff. of I)
2
x x
1 Note :
x
2 x D(f(x) . g(x) . h(x)) = f’(x) . g(x) . h(x)
x
e ex
+f (x) . g’(x) . h(x) + f (x) . g(x) . h’(x)
ax a x na, a 0
n x, log e x 1/ x Differentiate one function at a time & keep
log a x (1/ x) log a e, a 0, a 1 repeating as it is & complete the process for all
sin x cos x
functions one by one.
cos x sin x
tan x sec2 x This result can be generalised upto the product of
sec x sec x tan x 'n' functions.
cos ecx cos ecx.cot x
5. Quotient Rule
cot x cos ec 2 x
constant 0 f (x) dy f (x) g(x).f '(x) f (x).g '(x)
y ; D
g(x) dx g(x) (g 2 (x))
6. Chain Rule
Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
dy
(f (g(x))) f '(g(x)).g '(x)
dx
f (x) f '(x)
7. Logarithmic Differentiation
sin 1 x 1
, 1 x 1
1 x2 A function which is product or quotient of a number
cos 1 x 1 of functions.
, 1 x 1
1 x 2
1
A function of the form [f (x)]g(x) where f & g
tan x 1
,xR
1 x2 derivable functions.
1
cos ec x 1
,| x | 1 8. Parametric Differentiation
| x | x2 1
dx
cot 1 x 1 If x = f (t) & y = g(t), f '(t)
,xR dt
1 x2
sec 1 x 1
,| x | 1
| x | x2 1
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Methods-of-Differentiation
dy For terms of the form x2 - a2 or x2 a2 ,
dy g '(t)
dy dt Put x = a sec OR a cosec .
& =g’(t)Then, dx dx f '(t)
dt
dt For terms of the form a2 + x2 or a 2 x 2 ,
9. Derivative of f(x) w.r.t. g(x) Put x = a sin OR a cos .
If u = f (x) & v = g(x) If both a x , a x are present, then put
Then, derivative of f (x) w.r.t. g(x) is given by x = a cos2 .
du xa
For the type (x a) (b x) or put
du dx f '(x) bx
dv dv g '(x) x = a cos2 + bin sin2 .
dx
xa
10. Derivative of Implicit Functions For the type (x a) (x b) or put
xb
(x, y) 0 x = a sec2 - b tan2 .
To find dy /dx of implicit functions, we differentiate 14. Successive Differentiation
each term w.r.t. x regarding y as a function of x. Important Result :
11. Derivative of Homogeneous Eq.
d dx d 1
A homogeneous equation of degree n represents
d x d dx dx dy dx dy / dx
2
'n' straight lines passing through the origin. dy 2 dy dy dy dy
dx dx
dy y d2 y
y = mx; = m = constant Hence, 2 0
dx x dx 1
d2 y
2
. 2
12. Derivative of Inverse Functions dy dx d 2 y
d2 x
dx 2
If the inverse functions f & g are defined by 2 dx 3
dy dy dy
y = f(x) & x = g(y) g(x) = f-1(x) f(g(x)) = x dx
dx
Differentiate w.r.t. s f’(g(x)) . g’ (x) = 1
15. Derivative of Determinants
1
f '(g(x))
g '(x) f g h
13. Derivatives of Inverse Trigo Functions F(x) u v w
m n
For terms of the form x2 + a2 or x2 a2 ,
f ' g' h' f g h f g h
Put x = a tan OR a cot . F '(x) u v w u ' v ' w ' u v w
m n m n ' m' n'
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Definite Integration
Definite Integration
1. Geometrical Interpretation of Definite Note :
Integral 1. If f(x) > 0 x [a, b] then,
Introduction
b
b
I f (x) dx f (x) dx is always > 0 (when a < b)
a
a
If f(x) < 0 x [a, b] then,
Respresents algebraic sum of the areas of the
b
figure bounded by :
Curve y = f(x) f (x) dx is always < 0 (when a < b)
a
x - axis
Lines x = a and x = b b
2. If f (x) dx = 0
a
then the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one root
lying in (a, b) provided it is a continuous function
in (a, b) while the converse is not true.
2. Evaluating Definite Integrals by Finding
Antiderivatives
b
Integration Using Substitution
I f (x) dx
2
a
Areas above x - axis enter into this sum with (+ ) I f (x) dx
1
sign below x - axis enter with ( - ) sign
Make substitutions at f(x), dx, 1 , 2 and
If,
c1 proceed further
f (x) dx A
a
1 0 Property - 1
b b
c2
f (x) dx f (t) dt
f (x) dx A
c1
2 0 a a
c3 (Change of variable does not change value of
f (x) dx A
c2
3 0 integral)
b Property - 2
f (x) dx A 4 0 b a
f (x) dx f (x) dx
c3
b
f (x) dx A
a b
1 A 2 A3 A 4
a
Property - 3
b c b
f (x) dx f (x) dx f (x) dx
a a c
Note :
1. This property is useful when f(x) is not continuous
in [a, b].
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Definite Integration
Because we can break up the integral into several 0 if f (2a x) f (x)
a
integrals at the points of discontinuity so that the
2 f (x) dx if f (2a x) f (x)
function is continuous in the sub interval. 0
4. Walli's Theorem
This property is also known as Queen's Property.
/ 2 / 2
sin x dx cos n x dx
n
1. 8. Properties of Definite Integrals
0 0
Property - 7
(n 1)(n 3).......(1 or 2)
K Let f(x) be periodic function with period ' T '
n(n 2).......(1or 2)
i.e. f(T+ x) = f(x)
if n is even
Then,
where K 2
1 if n is odd nT T
/ 2
1. f (x) dx n f (x) dx (n I)
0 0
sin
n m
2. x.cos x dx T a T
f (t) dt f (t) dt and will be independent
0
2.
[(n 1)(n 3)(n 5)....1or2][(m 1)(m 3)....1or2] 0 0
K of a
(m n)(m n 2)(m n 4)...1or2
a nT nT T
if both m&n areeven (m, n N)
3. f (x) dx f (x) dx n f (x) dx
WhereK 2 a 0 0
1 otherwise b nT b
d
Property - 4
4.
a nT
f (x) dx f (x) dx where, (n I)
a
dx
a a nT T
f (x) dx [f (x) f ( x)]dx
a 0
5. f (x) dx (n m) f (x) dx
mT 0
0 if f (x)is odd where (n, m I)
a Property - 8
if f (x)is even
2 f (x) dx Let f -l (x) is inverse function of f(x), x (a, b)
0 b f (b)
6. Properties of Definite Integrals f (x) dx f 1 (x) dx bf (b) af (a)
Property - 5 a f (a )
b b
9. Derivative of Antiderivatives (Newton-
1. f (x) dx f (a b x) dx
a a Leibnitz Formula)
a a
Derivative of Antiderivatives (Newton -
2. f (x) dx f (a x) dx
0 0 Leibnitz Formula)
If h(x) & g(x) are differentiable functions of x
This property is known as King's Property .
7. Properties of Definite Integrals and f(x) is a continuous function then,
Property - 6 h (x )
2a a a
f (t) dt f (h(x)).h '(x) f (g(x)).g '(x)
f (x) dx f (x) dx f (2a x) dx
0 0 0
g(x )
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Definite Integration
10. Sum of Series using Definite Integration Where, (nh = 1)
Introduction Hence we have,
b 1
1 n 1 r
f (x)dx f (x)dx Lim n
f
n r 0 n
a 0
11. Some Particular Cases
Lim{h[f (a) f (a h) f (a 2h) ..... f (a n 1h)]}
h 0 n
1 r
Lim f
n
OR 1.
r 1 n n
n
n 1 b OR
Lim h f (a rh) f (x)dx 1
h 0 n
1 r
Lim f f (x)dx
n r 0 a
r 0 n n
n
Where, (b - a = nh) 0
n 1 b
pn
Lim h f (a rh) f (x)dx 1 r
h 0 2. Lim f f (x)dx
r 1 n n
r 0 a n
n
If a = 0 & b =1 then, r r
n 1 1 Where, Lim 0 Lim p
n n n n
Lim h f (rh) f (x)dx
h 0
n r 0 a
(as r = 1) (as r = pn)
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Indefinite Integration
Indefinite Integration
1
1. Elementary Integrals
If f and g are functions of x such that
(c) sin(ax b)dx a cos(ax b) C
d 1
dx
(g(x) c) f (x) f (x)dx g(x) c (d) cos(ax b)dx a sin(ax b) C
2. Properties of Integration
sec xdx tan x C
2
5. (a)
1. (f (x) f (x))dx f (x)dx f
1 2 1 2 (x)dx
(b) cosec xdx cot x C
2
2. af (x)dx a f (x)dx 1
sec (ax b)dx a tan(ax b) C
2
(c)
3. If , f (x)dx g(x) c
1
1 cosec (ax b)dx a cot(ax b) C
2
f (ax b)dx g(ax b) c (d)
a
6. (a) sec x tan xdx sec x C
4.
d
dx
f (x)dx f (x)
(b) cosec x cot x dx cosec x C
d
5. dx f (x) dx f (x) c (c) sec (ax b).tan(ax b)
3. Important Formulae 1
dx sec(ax b) C
x n 1 a
1. (a) x dx C(n 1, n R)
n
n 1 (d) cosec (ax b).cot(ax b)
(ax b)n 1 1
(b) (ax b) dx C
n
dx cosec(ax b) C
a(n 1) a
(n 1, n R) dx
1
7. (a) 1 x 2
sin 1 x C
2. (a) x dx n | x | c dx
dx n | ax b | (b) 1 x 2
cos 1 x C
(b) C
ax b a
dx
3. (a) e dx e C
x x (c) 1 x 2
tan 1 x C
ax dx
(b) a dx C (a 0)
x (d) 1 x 2
cot 1x C
na
dx
d x
(a ) a na
x
(e) |x| x 12
sec 1 x C
dx
eax b dx
(c) e
ax b
dx C (f) | x | x 1
2
cosec 1x C
a
4. Integration by Substitution
1 a px q
a
px q
(d) dx C(a 0)
p na If , f (x)dx (x) f (g(x))g '(x)dx ?
Let, g(x) = t g'(x)dx = dt
4. (a) sin xdx cos x c
Eq. (i) becomes, f (t)dt (t) C
(b) cos xdx sin x c
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Indefinite Integration
NOTE : Substitution is appropriate if the integrand Some Standard Formulae
in (i) is a loving one. dx 1 x
Direct Substitution 1. a 2
x 2
tan 1 c
a a
f '(x)
I [f (x)]n f '(x)dx or [f (x)] n
dx
2.
dx
sin 1
x
c
a x2 2 a
Put, f(x) = t f’ (x) dx = dt
dx
t n 1 3. n x x 2 a 2 c
I t n dt C x a2 2
n 1
dx
1
[f (x)]n 1 C 4. n x x 2 a 2 c
x a2 2
n 1
Special Case dx 1 xa
5. a n c
f '(x) 2
x 2
2a xa
For, I = dx n | f (x) | C
f (x)
dx 1 xa
6. x n c
(1) cot dx n | sin x | C a
2 2
2a xa
5. Integration By Parts
(2) tan xdx n | sec x | C
Let, I = f (x).g(x)dx
(3) sec xdx n | sec x tan x | C I II
x
or n tan C
4 2
f (x). g(x)dx f '(x) g(x)dx dx
(4) cosecxdx n | cot x cosecx | C
x
or n tan C
2
Standard Substitution
1. (a) x 2 a 2 or x 2 a 2
put x = a tan or a cot
(b) x 2 a 2 or x 2 a 2
put x = a sec or a cosec
(c) a 2 x 2 or a 2 x 2
put x = a sin or a cos
d
I. IIdx (I) (II)dx dx
dx
2. If both a x , a x are present, then Some Important Formulae
put x = a cos 2 x 2 a2
1. a 2 x 2 dx a x 2 n
x a 2 2
1. (a) (x a)(b x) or
put x = a cos 2 + b sin 2
bx
x
x2 a2 C
x 2 a2
xa 2. x 2 a 2 dx x a 2 n
(b) (x a)(x b) or 2 2
xb
put x = a sec2 + b tan2 x
x2 a2 C
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Indefinite Integration
x 2 a2 x Case -II Both m, n Even Integers
a 2 x 2 dx sin 1 C
2
3. a x
2 2 a 1 cos 2x 1 cos 2x
Two Classic Integrands cos2 x sin 2 x
2 2
1. (f (x) x.f '(x))dx xf (x) C Case - III If m + n is a negative integer
e (f (x) f '(x))dx e f (x) C Put (tanx) = t
x x
2.
Integrals of the Type 7. Integration of Rational Functions
eax Polynomial N(x)
1. e sinbx dx (a sin bx b cos bx) C Rational Func f(x) = Polynomial D(x)
ax
a 2 b2
eax Split the rational functions into partial fractions
2. e cosbx dx (a cos bx b sin bx) C
ax
a 2 b2 according to the factors of D(x).
6. Integration of Trigonometric Functions
Case - I Degree [N(x)] < Degree [D(x)]
dx dx
a b sin 2
x a b cos 2
x
(A) When denominator D(x) has non-repeating linear
Type - I dx factors.
a sin 2 x b cos 2 x csin x cos x d D(x) = (x - a1) (x - a2) ..... (x - an)
Divide Nr and Dr by sin2x or cos2x N(x) A1 A2 An
......
D(x) x a1 x a 2 x an
OR Multiply by sec2x
Then put tanx = t & sec2x dx = dt where A1, A2 ..... An are constants to be find Take
LCM of RHS and equate the numerators of
1 1
a sin x b cos x c dx a sin x b cos x c dx RHS & LHS
OR
Type - II (B) When denominator D(x) has some repeating
1 1
a b sin x dx a b cos x dx linear factors.
a sin x b cos x c D(x) = (x - a) k (x - a1) (x - a2) ..... (x - an)
Type - III sin x m cos x n
N(x) A A2 Ak
Type - IV Put Nr. = A(Dr.) + B(Dr.)' + C 1 ......
D(x) x a x a 2
x a
k
1. Den : a + sin2x or b sin 2x
Num : cosx - sinx or cosx + sinx B1 An
......
x a1 x an
2. Den : cosx + sinx or cosx - sinx
(C) When denominator D(x) has some quad factors
Num : a + sin2x
(which can not be factorised further)
Then put sin2x = (sinx + cosx)2-1
or sin2x = 1 - (sinx - cosx)2 repeating or non - repeating.
Type - V I sin m x.cos n xdx N(x) Ax B
2
D(x) px qx r
Case -I At least one of m & n odd integer
N(x) Ax B Cx D
Put (sinx or cosx) = t 2
D(x) px qx r px 2 qx r 2
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Indefinite Integration
Case - II Degree [N(x)] > Degree [D(x)] 9. Integrand Involving Even Powers of x
N(x) R(x) x2 1 x2 1
Q(x)
D(x) D(x) x 4 kx 2 1 dx x 4 kx 2 1 dx
Degree [R(x)] < Degree [D(x)] For k = 0, Integrals are termed as Algebraic Twins.
Now proceed, as earlier methods. x 2
1 x 2
1
8. Integration of Algebraic Expressions x4 1
dx x4 1
dx
px q 10. Integration of Irrational Algebraic Functions
1. ax bx c dx
2
dx
Write, px + q = m (ax + bx + c)’ + n
2 Type - 1 (ax b) px q (Put, px + q = t )
2
px + q = m (2ax + b) + n dx
Compare LHS & RHS to find (m & n) Type - 2 (ax 2
bx c) px q (Put, px + q = t )
2
Now put, ax2 + bx + c = t & (2ax + b)dx = dt dx
Type - 3 (ax b) px 2 qx r
px 2 qx r
2. I dx
ax 2 bx c 1
Put, ax + b
px2 + qx + r t
= A (ax2 + bx + c) + B(ax2 + bx + c)' + C dx 1
Type - 4 (ax 2
b) px q
Put, x =
2
t
Find A, B and C and proceed as earlier.
Or the trigonometric substitutions are also helpful.
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Vector
Vector
1. Scalar Triple Product (BOX Product) 3. Vector Triple Product
(a x b).c [a b c] (a x b)x c (a .c) b (b.c) a
Properties of STP
Properties
1. a x (b x c) (b x c) x a
1. [a ka c] 0
2. (a x b) x c a x (b x c)
2. [a c b] [a b c]
3. i x (jx k)
0
3. [a b c] [b c a] [c a b]
4. Unit vector coplanar with a & b & to c is
4. (a x b).c a (b x c)
5. [a b c d] [a c d] [b c d] (a x b)x c
(a x b)x c
6. [ a b c ] [a b c]; when R
4. Scalar Product of 4 Vectors
7. For right handed system
(a x b).(c x d)
[a b c] 0 a b c are
(a . c) (b .d) (a .d) (b .c)
For left handed system non coplanar
[a b c] 0 a .c a . d
Some Important Results b. c b. d
5. Vector Product of Four Vectors
1. [a b b c c a ] 2[a b c]
2. [a b b c c a ] is always zero
.a .b .c
[ m n][a b c] m.a m.b m.c
3.
n .a n .b n .c
2. Volume of Tetrahedron
V (a x b) x (c x d)
[a b d]c [a b c]d
1
[a b c] [a c d]b [b c d]a
6
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Vector
9. Fundamental Theorem in Plane
Necessary & Sufficient Condition for Coplanarity
r xa yb
of 4 Points Where,
a & b are two non - zero, non - collinear vectors
xa yb zc td 0 x + y + z + t = 0 10. Shortest Distance
4 point are in the same plane if a. Between two Skew Lines
[b a c a d a] 0 (b a).(p x q)
[a b d] [a b c] [a c d] [b c d] |pxq|
6. ReciprocaI System of Vectors
bxc cxa axb
a ' b' c'
[a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
(where, [a b c] 0 )
7. Vector Eq. of a Straight Line
Through a given point & paraIlel to a given vector
b. Between two Parallel Lines
a b sin
(a b) x c
AP b r a b r a b |c|
Through two given points
r a (b a)
R
8. Vector Eq. of Angle Bisectors
Angle between Vectors :
a b
r a s(b c) Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars
r a t (b c) a vector
a
c (a b ) m scalar
ma
a, b vector m, n scalar
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Vector
1. m (a) (a) m ma Representation of Vectors in Space
2. m (na) n (ma) (mn) a in terms of 3 Orthonormal Triad of Unit Vectors
3. (m + n) a ma na
4. a a
a A(x1, y1,z1 )and B(x2 , y2 , z2 )
are twopointsinspace
5. m (a b) ma mb
Centres of Triangle
AB (x 2 x1 )i (y 2 y1 ) j (z 2 z1 )k
| AB | (x 2 x1 ) 2 (y 2 y1 )2 (z 2 z1 ) 2
Linear Combination of Vectors
r xa yb zc .....
(a) Position vector of Centroid : Linearly Dependent Linearly Independent
x1 a1 x 2 a 2 ..... x n a n 0
3 ‘n’ scalars x1,x2,x3, x1= x2= x3=...= xn= 0
a b c
(b) Incentre ...., xn, not all zero
a bc
Vector Addition Properties
Properties
a b c
(c) Excentres ; 1.
a b c abba
2. (a b) c a (b c)
a b c a b c
&
a bc a bc 3. a oa oa
sin 2A sin 2B sin 2C 4. a ( a) o ( a) a
(d) Circumcentre
sin 2A a) Triangle Law of Vectors
tan A tan B tan C
(e)Orthocentre
tan A
Important Points
Position Vector
a) Parallelogram Law of Vectors
AB b a
OA & OB
vectors a & b
a
Unit Vector a OC
|a | sum a b
Negative of a Vector AB a BA a
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Vector
Note :
(i) | a b | | a | | b |
(ii) | a b | | a | | b |
(iii) | a b | | a | | b |
b) External Division in ratio m : n
ma nb
d1 p q d2 p q r
mn
d1 d2 d1 d2 Test of Collinearity of 3 points
p q
2 2
3 points A, B, C will be collinear, if
AB BC
Section Formula
Necessary and sufficient condition :
If & only if there exist scalars x, y, z ; not all zero
simultaneously such that ;
xa yb zc 0
a) Internal Division in ratio m : n
na mb
r
mn
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3 D Geometry
3 D Geometry
I. Equation of the Straight Line a bm cn
Symmetrical form/Vector form: cos(90o )
a 2 b2 c2
Point A (a) ; Parallel to vector b sin
r a b Conditions for :
1) Line // to plane :
r a b, R
a + mb + nc = 0
Point A (x1, y1, z1); Dir. Ratios a, b, c a b c
2) Line to plane :
x x1 y y1 z z1 m n
5. Angle b/w a Line and a Plane
a b c
Vector Form :
x x1 y y1 z z1
Line : r a bt
m n
2. Eq. of a Line passing through 2 pts. plane : r .n q,
Cartesian form :
Points : A (x1, y1, z1) & B(x2, y2, z2)
Dir. Ratios : x2- x1, y2- y1 & z2- z1
x x1 y y1 z z1 n .b
sin
1
x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1 n b
Vector form :
Points : A (a) & B (b)
6. Condition for a Line in a Plane
r a (b a), R
x x1 y y1 z z1
3. General Form Line :
m n
A line is obtained by the intersection of 2 planes. Plane : ax + by + cz + d = 0
Conditions : a + bm + cn = 0
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0
7. Gen. Eq. of Plane containing a Line
Plane : ax + by + cz + d = 0
x x1 y y1 z z1
4. Angle b/w a Line & a Plane Line Contained :
m n
Cartesian Form :
Plane : ax + by + cz + d = 0 a(x x1 ) b(y y1 ) c(z z1 ) 0
Dir. Cosines : , m, n 8. Eq. of Plane containing a given line & ||e1 to
another given line
x x1 y y1 z z1
Containing :
1 m1 n1
r a b
x x 2 y y2 z z2
II to
2 m2 n2
r c d
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3 D Geometry
x x1 y y1 z z1
Eqn. of plane: 1 m1 n1 0
2 m2 n2
[r a b d] 0
9. Condition for two lines to be intersecting OR
to be coplanar
x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1
1 m1 n1 0
2. Distance Formula
2 m2 n2
[c a b d] 0 Dis. b/w 2 pts. P (x1, y1, z1) & Q (x2, y2, z2)
10. Shortest Dis. b/w Two Lines (x 2 x1 ) 2 (y 2 y1 ) 2 (z 2 z1 )2
x1 x 2 y1 y 2 z1 z 2 3. Section Formula
1 m1 n1
Internal Division
2 m2 n2
m1x 2 m 2 x1 m1 y 2 m 2 y1 m1z 2 m 2 z1
, ,
(m n 1 2 m 2 n1 ) 2
m1 m2 m1 m 2 m1 m 2
11. Unsymmetrical Form of St. Line External Division
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
m1x 2 m 2 x1 m1y 2 m 2 y1 m1z 2 m 2 z1
& a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 , ,
together represents the line m1 m 2 m1 m 2 m1 m 2
12. Line of Greatest Slope in a Plane Mid Point
x1 x 2 y1 y 2 z1 z 2
, ,
2 2 2
3. Centres of a Triangle
ABC
A(x1, y1, z1), B (x2, y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3)
1. Coordinates of a Point in Space Centroid :
Octants & sign of the coordinates
x1 x 2 x 3 y1 y 2 y3 z1 z 2 z 3
, ,
3 3 3
Incentre :
ax1 bx2 cx3 ay1 by2 cy3 az1 bz2 cz3
, ,
a bc a bc a bc
Centroid of n sided polygon :
n x i n yi n zi
(x, y, z) = n , n , n
i 1 i 1 i 1
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3 D Geometry
a1a 2 b1b 2 c1c 2
a12 b12 c12 x a 22 b 22 c 22
7. The Plane (i) Eq. of y-z plane: x = 0
Eq. of Plane in 3D : (ii) Eq. of z-x plane: y = 0
ax + by+cz+d=0 (iii) Eq. of x-y plane : z = 0
8. Eq. of a plane passing through a fixed pt.
Centroid/Mean Centre of Gravity : Tetrahedron
Vector Form : (r a).n 0
x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 y1 y 2 y3 y 4 z1 z 2 z3 z 4 Cartesian Form :
, ,
4 4 4
a(x x1 ) b(y y1 ) c(z z1 ) 0
4. Direction Cosines of Vector/Line 9. Eq. of a plane passing through 3 given pts.
a(x1, y1, zv), B(x2, y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3)
a a1i a 2 j a 3k
x x1 y y1 z z1
a a a x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1 0
cos 1 cos 2 m cos 3 n
|a| |a| |a| x 3 x1 y3 y1 z 3 z1
a i mj nk A(a),B(b),C(c)
2 m2 n 2 1 r a r b r c 0
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1 r a b a c a 0
sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 2 10. Intercept Form of the Plane
5. Dir. cosines of the line joining 2 given pts.
x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1
r
m n x y z
1
if , m & n are dir. cosines of line, then- , -m & -n a b c
are also dir. cosines of the same line.
6. Direction Ratios of a Line
Relationship b/w DCs & DRs
11. Normal Form of the Plane
a
;m
b
;n
c d (d 0)
Vector Form : r.n
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
Angle b/w 2 lines with dir. cosines Cartesian Form : x my nz d
12. Parametric Equation of Plane
1 , m1 ,n1 and 2 , m 2 , n 2 is
r a p q[r a p q] 0
cos 1 2 m1m 2 n1n 2 =
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3 D Geometry
13. Perpendicular Dis. of a Pt. from a Plane
Cartesian Form : Plane : r.n1 d1
Parallel Plane : r.n1 d 2
16. Distance between two Parallel Planes
P1 : a1x b1y c1z d1 0
& P2 : a 2 x b 2 y c2 z d 2 0
d1 d 2
If planeis r.n d a . n d Distance
a 2 b2 c2
& point is a, then | n |
17. Eq. of the Bisector Plane b/w the Planes
14. Angle Between Two Planes
a1x b1y c1z d1 a 2 x b2 y c 2 z d 2
a12 b12 c12 a 22 b22 c22
18. Family of Planes
If planes are a1x + b1y+ c1z + d1=0
& a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
a1a 2 b1b 2 c1c 2
cos
a12 b12 c12 x a 22 b 22 c 22
19. Two Sides of a Plane
a1 b1 c1 d1 Points : P(x1, y1, z1), Q (x2, y2, z2)
(i) Parallel & distinct if,
a 2 b 2 c2 d 2 Plane : ax + by + cz + d = 0
(ii) Perpendicular if, a 1a 2 b1b 2 c1c 2 0 ax1+ b1 + cz1 + d
& ax2+ b2 + cz2 + d
a1 b1 c1 d1
(iii) Identical if, Same signs Opposite signs
a 2 b 2 c2 d 2
Pts. lie on the Pts. lie on the
15. Eq. of a Plane Parallel to given plane
same side opposite sides
Cartesian Form : Plane : ax + by + cz + d = 0
Parallel Plane : ax + by + cz +K = 0
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Statistics
Statistics
1. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) In this method, if each value of deviation (di) is
For Ungrouped Distribution divided by any common number say, (h)
If x1, x2 ... xn are ‘n’ values of variate then their di
Then, let u i d i hu i
x1 x 2 ....... x n h
AM (x) is x =
n
Then, x a
f u i i
h
x
n
i 1 xi n
OR x i n x
N
n i 1 2. Properties of AM
For Ungrouped Freq. Distribution (1) The sum of deviation of variate from their AM is
Values: x1, x2 ... xn always zero
Frequencies : f1, f2 ... fn (x i x) 0 OR f i (x i x) 0
AM of this frequency distribution is
(2) If the AM of the observations
f x f x ....... f n x n
x 1 1 2 2 x1, x2 ........, xn is x .
(f1 f 2 ....... f n )
Then, AM of x1 + , x2 + ....., xn + is
x
n
fx
i 1 i i
OR x
n
f xi
i 1 i x
n
f
i 1 i N (3) If the AM of the observations
n x1, x2 ........, xn is x .
Where, N f i
i 1
Then, AM of x1 , x2 ....., xn is
For Grouped Frequency Distribution x
1. Find the middle values of each group (or class) (4) If the AM of the observations
2. Change it into Ungrouped Frequency x1, x2 ........, xn is x .
Distribution. Then, AM of ax1 ± b, ax2 ± b, ............, axn ± b
3. Then use the same formula used for Ungrouped is ax b
Frequency Distribution. (where a, b are constants)
A.M by Short Method (By change of origin) (5) The sum of square of deviation of variate from
In this method we take deviation (di) of each their AM is minimum.
i.e. (x i x) (x i a)
2 2
variate (xi) from any central value (a).
Let, xi - a = di xi = a + di (where a is any central value)
(6) AM is not affected by any change in assumed
Then, x
f (a d ) OR x a f d
i i i i
N N mean.
3. Weighted Mean (W.M.)
Where, a is assumed mean (any central value
Let the 'n' values be : x1, x2 ........, xn &
of variate xi)
Their Weightages are : w1, w2 ........, wn
Step Deviation Method
(By change of origin and scale)
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Statistics
Then, WM of this distribution is
n
w 1x1 w 2 x 2 ....... w n x n 1 1 1
W.M. .......
w1 w 2 ....... w n x1 x 2 xn
n n
wi xi w i 1
i 1 i 1 HM
1 1 1 1
4. Combined Mean (C.M.) .......
n x1 x 2 xn
If, x1 , x 2 ,...., x k are mean of observations of
Thus, the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocal
'K' series which have (n1, n2, ......, nk) terms
of given values is known as Harmonic Mean of
respectively then their combined mean is -
these values.
n1x1 n 2 x 2 ........ n k x k
x For Frequency Distribution
n1 n 2 ........ n k
Let 'n' values be : x1, x2 ... xn
5. Geometric Mean (GM) Their frequencies : f1, f2 ... fn
For Ungrouped Distribution Then, HM of this frequency distribution is
If x1, x2 ... xn are n positive values then their GM
1
is HM
1 1 1 1
f1 f 2 ....... f n
GM (x1 x 2 x 3 ........ x n )1/ n N x1 x2 xn
"Thus, the nth root of the product of n +ve values" N
HM
is known as GM of these values. f1 f 2 f
....... n
x1 x 2 xn
1 n
GM antilog og x i
n i 1 7. Median
For Frequency Distribution Median is the middle value of a series when the
Let 'n' values be : x1, x2 ... xn values of the series are arranged in ascending or
Their frequencies : f1, f2 ... fn descending order
GM of this freq. distribution is It divides an arranged series into two equal parts.
For Ungrouped Distribution
GM x1f1 x f22 ......... x fnn
1/ N
Let 'n' be the number of terms in a series
Here, N = fi Firstly arrange the series in ascending or
6. Harmonic Mean (HM) descending order. Then, in this arranged series
For Ungrouped Distribution
n 1
If x1, x2 ... xn are 'n' non-zero values then their 2 th term (n is odd)
HM is
n th term n 1 th term
1 2
2
Median
1 1 1 1 2 (n is even)
.......
n x1 x 2 xn
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Statistics
For Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
Mode
f0 f1 h
1. Firstly arrange the values of variate xi, in (2f 0 f1 f 2 )
ascending order with their frequency.
Where, - lower limit of modal class.
2. Prepare cumulative frequency (c.f) column and
f0 - frequency of modal class.
find the value of N.
f1 - frequency of the class preceding modal class.
N 1 f2 - frequency of the class succeeding modal
2 th term (N is odd)
class.
Median N N h - class interval of modal class.
2 th term 2 1 th term
9. Relation b/w Mean, Median and Mode
2 (N is even)
Symmetric and Asymmetric (Skewed)
For Grouped Frequency Distribution Distribution
1. Prepare the cummulative frequency (c.f.) column A distribution is called Symmetric, when the value
and find the value of N/ 2 of Mean, Median & Mode of the distribution
2. Find the class which contain the value of c.f. are same (equal).
which is equal or just greater to N/2. Mean, Median, Mode
This is median class.
N
F
Median h
2
f
Where, - lower limit of median class.
Symmetrical Distribution
F- c.f. of the class preceding median class.
f - frequency of median class. A distribution which is not Symmetric is called
Skewed (or asymmetric) distribution.
h - Class interval of median class.
8. Mode
Mode is the value of variate which have maximum
frequency.
For Ungrouped Distribution
The value of variate which is repeated max. no.
of times is known as its mode.
For Grouped Frequency Distribution
The value of variate which have maximum
frequency.
For Grouped Frequency Distribution
Find the class which have max frequency.
This is the Modal Class.
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Statistics
Note : Standard Deviation :
For a Skewed Distribution - The positive square root of the variance is called
Mean - Mode = 3 (Mean - Median) Standard Deviation.
Mode 3Median 2Mean It is denoted by .
10. Range S.D. Variance
The range of a distribution is the difference of Formulae for Variance
Highest Value (H) and Least Value (L) of the For Ungrouped Distribution :
distribution.
(1) 2
(x x) x
i
2 2
i
2x xi
x 2
Range H L n n n n
x x xi
2
The Range of the Grouped Distribution is the 2 2
(2) 2
i
x 2
i
difference of Upper Limit of Max Class (H) and n n n
Lower Limit of minimum class (L).
d di
2
2
Coefficent of Range = (3) 2
i
;[d i x i a]
n n
Diff .of extreme values H L
u 2 u 2
Sum of extreme values H L
h
2 i i ; u di
2
(4) n n i h
11. Mean Deviation (M.D.)
The mean of absolute value of deviation of each For Frequency Distribution
variate from any central value is called Mean
(1) 2
f (x i i x) 2
Deviation about that central value (mean, median, N
f x f x fi x i
2
mode). 2 2
(2) 2
i i
x 2
i i
Let A be any central value of a distribution then N N N
M.D. about A is defined as
f d fi di
2 2
2
i i
M.D.
n
i 1 | xi A |
(For Ungrouped Distribution)
(3)
N N
n
f u2 f u
i i i i
2
(For Frequency Distribution) M.D.
n
i 1 | xi A
(4) h N N
2 2
N
n Note :
N fi
n 1 (1) 2x d2 h 2 u2 2
12. Variance and Standard Deviation (2) The variance of first 'n' Natural No.s is
Variance : n2 1
2
The Mean of square of deviation of each variate 12
from their mean is called Variance. (3) The variance of A.P.
It is denoted by 2 a, a + d, a + 2d, ......., a + 2nd is
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Statistics
n n 1 2 depend on change of scale Multiplication &
2 d
3 Division).
Properties of Variance Property - 2
Property - 1 We have,
Let the distribution be : x1, x2, ........, xn Distribution 1
And if Variance is : 2
(Mean : x1 , Variance : 12 , No. of Terms : n1)
Then, Distribution 2
Var.(x1 , x 2 ,......., x n ): (Mean : x 2 , Variance : 22 , No. of Terms : n2)
2 And their Combined Mean : x
Var.(x1 , x 2 ,......., x n ): Then, their combined variance 2 is
22 n1 (12 d12 ) n 2 (22 d 22 )
2
Var.(ax1 b, ax 2 b,......., ax n b) : n1 n 2
a 22 Where,
Where , a, b are constants. d1 x1 x
d2 x 2 x
Thus, the Variance and S.D. does not depend
on changé)of origin (add & subtract) but they n112 n 2 22 n1d12 n 2 d 22
2
n1 n 2 n1 n 2
n112 n 2 22 n 1n 2
(x1 x 2 ) 2
n1 n 2 n1 n 2
2
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Differential Equation
Differential Equation
1. Order And Degree of Differential Equation 2. The arbitrary constants in a Differential Eq. are said
Introduction to be independent, when it is impossible to deduce
Consider the Differential Equation, an equivalent relatio containing fewer arbitrary
constants.
dy d 2 y
f x, y, , 2 .......... 0 3. Solution of Differential Equation
dx dx
Finding the unknown function is called Solving or
ORDER :
Integrating the Differential Equation.
It is the order of the highest differential coefficient
It is a relation between variables involved which
occurring in the equation
satisfies the Differential Equation
DEGREE :
The solution of the Differential Equation is also
It is the degree of the highest order derivative
called its Primitive. Because it can be regarded as
occurring in the eq. after it has been expressed in a
a relation derived from it.
form free from radicals & fractions.
4. General & Particular Solutions
Note :
General Solution :
1. If differential equation cannot be written as
The solution of a Differential Equation which
polynomial in derivatives, then degree is not defined.
contains :
2. If degree exists, then it is always a Natural Number.
No. of independent arbitrary constants = Order of
2. Formation of a Differential Equation.
the Differential Equation
Let we have,
Then the sol. is called the General solution
An equation in independent and dependent
OR OR
variables having some arbitrary constants
Complete Integral Complete Primitive
f(x,y, cl, c2, c3, ... cn) = 0
Particular Solutions :
Then, a Differential Eq. is obtained as follows :
A solution obtainable from the general solution by
1. Differentiate the given equation. w. r. t. the
giving particular values to the constants is called a
independent variable (say x) as many times as the
Particular Solution.
number of arbitrary constants in it.
Note :
Note :
The general solution of a differential equation of
No. of independent arbitrary constants decide the
nth order contains 'n' & only 'n' independent
order of Differential Equation.
arbitrary constants.
2. Eliminate the arbitrary constants.
5. Solution of D.E. by Variable Separable Form
3. The eliminant is the required Differential Equation.
If the differential equation can be expressed as :
Note :
f(x) dx + g(y) dy = 0
1. A Differential Equation. represents a family of
Then,
curves all satisfying some common properties.
It is said to be Variable Separable Type of
This can be considered as the geometrical
Differential Equation
interpretation of the differential equation.
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Differential Equation
6. DE Reducible to variable separable Where (h, k) is intersection point of lines
Type-2 : By Substitution Method a1x+ b1y + c1 = 0 & a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
dy Case -3 If a2 + b1 = 0
f (ax by c) (b 0)
dx Method -1 Use method of intersecting lines.
(If b = 0 this is directly Variable Separable) Method -2 Cross multiply & use xdy + ydx = d(xy)
To solve this, Substitute : t = ax + by + c 9. Linear Differential Equations
Then the equation reduces to separable type in the A differential equation is said to be linear if
variable t and x which can be solved. Dependent variable & its differential coefficients
7. Homogeneous Differential Equations occur in the first degree only.
A differential equation of the form And they are never multiplied together.
dy f (x, y) The nth order Linear Differential Equations is of
dx (x, y) the form :
where, f (x, y) & (x, y)
dn y d n 1 y
Are homogeneous functions of x & y, and of the a 0 (x) a1 (x) ..... a n (x).y (x)
d xn d x n 1
same degree
Where, a0(x), a1(x),.....an(x) are called the
Then, this type of eq. is called Homogeneous.
coefficients of the Differential Equation
This equation may also be reduced to the form
Note :
dy x dy y A Linear Differential Equation is always of the first
g OR h
dx y dx x degree but every Differential Equation of the first
It is solved by putting y = vx , degree need not be linear.
Such that y changes to another variable v and the 3
d2 y d y
D.E. is transformed to Variable Separable Type. e.g. y 0
2
d x2 d x
Note :
is not linear, though its degree is 1.
1. The function f(x, y) is said to be a homogeneous
Type - 1 : Linear D. E. of First Order
function of degree ‘n’, if f(tx, ty) = tn. f(x, y) for
The most general form of a Linear D. E. of first
any real number t( 0),
order is :
8. Equations Reducible To The Homogeneous
dy dx
Form Py Q OR Rx S
dx dy
dy a1x b1y c1
Consider Where, P & Q are functions of x
dx a 2 x b 2 y c 2
R & S are functions of y.
a b c
Case - 1 1 1 1 Parallel Lines To solve such equations, multiply both sides by
a 2 b2 c2
e e
P dx R dy
Substitute : a1x + b1y = t OR
a1 b1 dy dy Pdx
Py Q .e Pye Qe
Pdx Pdx
Case - 2 Intersecting Lines
a 2 b2 dx dx
Substitute : x = X + h ; y = Y + k d
(ye ) Qe
Pdx Pdx
dx
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Differential Equation
11. Exact Differential Equations
ye Q.e
Pdx Pdx
c
Sometimes just by inspection, a first order degree
y(I.F.) Q(I.F.) c differential equation can be written in the exact
Note : differential form which can be easily integrated.
1. The factor e
Pdx
is called integrating factor of the Following exact differentials must be
Differential Equation and is popularly abbreviated remembered
as I. F. 1. xdy + y dx = d(xy)
2. On multiplying by the I. F, the L. H. S. becomes x dy y dx y
2. d
the derivative of the product of y and the I.F. x 2
x
3. Sometimes a given differential equation becomes
y dx x dy x
linear if we take y as the independent variable and 3. 2
d
y y
x as the dependent variable.
x dy y dx
dy 4. d nxy
e.g. The eq. : (x 2y3 ) y xy
dx
dx dy
dx x 2y3 1 5. d n(x y)
can be written as x 2y 2 xy
dy y y
y dx x dy x
Which is a Linear D. E. 6. d n
xy y
10. Equations Reducible To Linear Form
x dy y dx y
Bernoulli's Equation 7. d n
xy x
dy
the equation : Py Q.y n
dx x dy y dx y
8. d tan 1
Where, P & Q are functions of x x y
2 2
x
Is reducible to the Linear Form by dividing it by yn y dx x dy x
9. d tan 1
Then, Substitute y (1-n)
=z x y
2 2
y
Now, solve as normal Linear DE. x dx y dy
10. d n x 2 y 2
x y
2 2
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Area Bounded Curve
Area Bounded Curve
1. Area Under the Curves Note :
(1) Area bounded by the curve, the x - axis & the If the curve be symmetric and suppose it has 'n'
ordinates at (x = a, b) is given by : symmetric portions
b
Then,
A y dx
a Total Area = n (Area of symmetric portion)
Where, y = f (x) lies above the x - axis and (b > a)
(2) If y = f (x) lies completely below the x - axis then,
b
(4) Area bounded by the curve, y - axis & the two
A y dx
a abscissa at y & y = b is given by :
b
A x dy (Integration w. r. t. 'y')
a
b
f (y) dy (dy : horizontal strip)
a
(3) If curve crosses the x - axis at x = c then,
c b
A y dx y dx
a c
2. Area Enclosed between two Curves
(1) Area bounded by two curves :
y = f (x) & y = g(x)
Such that, f (x) > g(x) is given by :
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Area Bounded Curve
x2 3. Standard Areas To Be Remembered
A [f (x) g(x)]dx (1) Area bounded by :
x1 y = sinx Where, x [0, ]
Where,
Area sin x dx 2
x1 and x2 are roots of equation f(x) = g(x) 0
(2) In case horizontal strip is taken
Then we have, (2) Area bounded by :
y2 Y = cosx
A [f (y) g(y)]dy
Where, x 0,
y1 2
2
Area cos x dx 1
0
(3) If the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x)
intersect at x = c, then required area is :
c b
A (g(x) f (x)) dx (f (x) g(x)) dx
a c (3) Area bounded by :
b Parabolas y2 = 4ax; x2 = 4by
| f (x) g(x) |dx 16ab
a (a > 0; b > 0) A
3
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Area Bounded Curve
(4) Area enclosed by (x 1) 2 (y 2) 2
1
Curve : y2 = 4ax; its double ordinate at x = k 4 9
(chord perpendicular to the axis of symmetry) Area .(2).(3) 6
2 5. Area enclosed by inverse of a function
Required Area (area ABCD)
3 The area bounded by a curve (say y = f(x)) on
x-axis is equal to
The area bounded by the inverse of that curve
(f-1(x)) on y axis.
e.g.
A1 A2
Area bounded by Area bounded by
f (x) nx f 1 (x) e x
(x 1) & (x e) (y 1) & (y e)
&x axis &y axis
x 2 y2
(5) whole area of ellipse 2 2 1
a b
Area = | ab |
6. Variable Area Greatest & Least Value
Concept of Variable Area
(Greatest And Least Value)
y = f (x) A monotonic function in (a, b)
Then, the area bounded by :
4. Finding Area by Shifting of Origin
ordinates at x = a, x = b
Shifting of Origin
y = f (c), [where c (a, b)]
Since area remains invariant even if the coordinate
ab
axes are shifted. is minimum when c
2
Hence, shifting of origin in many cases prove to be
very convenient in computing the areas.
area of
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