4 PHYSICS

Physics is exciting in many ways. To some people

the excitement comes from the elegance and Hypothesis, axioms and models
universality of its basic theories, from the fact that One should not think that everything can be proved
a few basic concepts and laws can explain with physics and mathematics. All physics, and also
phenomena covering a large range of magnitude mathematics, is based on assumptions, each of
of physical quantities. To some others, the challenge which is variously called a hypothesis or axiom or
in carrying out imaginative new experiments to postulate, etc.
unlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refute For example, the universal law of gravitation
theories, is thrilling. Applied physics is equally proposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis,
demanding. Application and exploitation of which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him,
there were several observations, experiments and
physical laws to make useful devices is the most
data, on the motion of planets around the sun,
interesting and exciting part and requires great
motion of the moon around the earth, pendulums,
ingenuity and persistence of effort. bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of these
What lies behind the phenomenal progress required a separate explanation, which was more
of physics in the last few centuries? Great or less qualitative. What the universal law of
progress usually accompanies changes in our gravitation says is that, if we assume that any two
basic perceptions. First, it was realised that for bodies in the universe attract each other with a
scientific progress, only qualitative thinking, force proportional to the product of their masses
though no doubt important, is not enough. and inversely proportional to the square of the
Quantitative measurement is central to the distance between them, then we can explain all
growth of science, especially physics, because these observations in one stroke. It not only explains
the laws of nature happen to be expressible in these phenomena, it also allows us to predict the
precise mathematical equations. The second results of future experiments.
most important insight was that the basic laws A hypothesis is a supposition without assuming
of physics are universal — the same laws apply that it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybody
to prove the universal law of gravitation, because
in widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategy
it cannot be proved. It can be verified and
of approximation turned out to be very
substantiated by experiments and observations.
successful. Most observed phenomena in daily An axiom is a self-evident truth while a model
life are rather complicated manifestations of the is a theory proposed to explain observed
basic laws. Scientists recognised the importance phenomena. But you need not worry at this stage
of extracting the essential features of a about the nuances in using these words. For
phenomenon from its less significant aspects. example, next year you will learn about Bohr’s model
It is not practical to take into account all the of hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that an
complexities of a phenomenon in one go. A good electron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules
strategy is to focus first on the essential features, (postutates). Why did he do that? There was a large
discover the basic principles and then introduce amount of spectroscopic data before him which no
corrections to build a more refined theory of the other theory could explain. So Bohr said that if we
phenomenon. For example, a stone and a feather assume that an atom behaves in such a manner,
dropped from the same height do not reach the we can explain all these things at once.
ground at the same time. The reason is that the Einstein’s special theory of relativity is also
based on two postulates, the constancy of the speed
essential aspect of the phenomenon, namely free
of electromagnetic radiation and the validity of
fall under gravity, is complicated by the
physical laws in all inertial frame of reference. It
presence of air resistance. To get the law of free would not be wise to ask somebody to prove that
fall under gravity, it is better to create a the speed of light in vacuum is constant,
situation wherein the air resistance is independent of the source or observer.
negligible. We can, for example, let the stone and In mathematics too, we need axioms and
the feather fall through a long evacuated tube. hypotheses at every stage. Euclid’s statement that
In that case, the two objects will fall almost at parallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This means
the same rate, giving the basic law that that if we assume this statement, we can explain
acceleration due to gravity is independent of the several properties of straight lines and two or three
mass of the object. With the basic law thus dimensional figures made out of them. But if you
found, we can go back to the feather, introduce don’t assume it, you are free to use a different axiom
corrections due to air resistance, modify the and get a new geometry, as has indeed happened in
existing theory and try to build a more realistic the past few centuries and decades.

2018-19
PHYSICAL WORLD 5

theory of objects falling to the earth under A most significant area to which physics has
gravity. and will contribute is the development of
alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of
1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY the planet are dwindling fast and there is an
The connection between physics, technology urgent need to discover new and affordable
and society can be seen in many examples. The sources of energy. Considerable progress has
discipline of thermodynamics arose from the already been made in this direction (for
need to understand and improve the working of example, in conversion of solar energy,
heat engines. The steam engine, as we know, geothermal energy, etc., into electricity), but
is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution in much more is still to be accomplished.
England in the eighteenth century, which had Table1.1 lists some of the great physicists,
great impact on the course of human their major contribution and the country of
civilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise to origin. You will appreciate from this table the
new physics; at other times physics generates multi-cultural, international character of the
new technology. An example of the latter is the scientific endeavour. Table 1.2 lists some
wireless communication technology that followed important technologies and the principles of
the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and physics they are based on. Obviously, these
magnetism in the nineteenth century. The tables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try to
applications of physics are not always easy to add many names and items to these tables with
foresee. As late as 1933, the great physicist the help of your teachers, good books and
Ernest Rutherford had dismissed the possibility websites on science. You will find that this
of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few exercise is very educative and also great fun.
years later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitner And, assuredly, it will never end. The progress
discovered the phenomenon of neutron-induced of science is unstoppable!
fission of uranium, which would serve as the Physics is the study of nature and natural
basis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear phenomena. Physicists try to discover the rules
weapons. Yet another important example of that are operating in nature, on the basis of
physics giving rise to technology is the silicon observations, experimentation and analysis.
‘chip’ that triggered the computer revolution in Physics deals with certain basic rules/laws
the last three decades of the twentieth century. governing the natural world. What is the nature

Table 1.1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions

Name Major contribution/discovery Country of

Origin
Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Greece
Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy
Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland
Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; U.K.
Reflecting telescope
Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U.K.
James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an U.K.
electromagnetic wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany
J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India
W.K. Roentgen X-rays Germany
J.J. Thomson Electron U.K.
Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on Poland
natural radioactivity
Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Germany
Theory of relativity

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6 PHYSICS

Name Major contribution/discovery Country of

Origin
Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria
R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U.S.A.
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand
Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark
C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India
Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France
M.N. Saha Thermal ionisation India
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria
Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy
Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany
Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; U.K.
Quantum statistics
Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U.S.A.
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U.S.A.
James Chadwick Neutron U.K.
Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan
Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India
Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia
S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution India
of stars
John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U.S.A.
C.H. Townes Maser; Laser U.S.A.
Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic Pakistan
interactions

of physical laws? We shall now discuss the ideas about it. The correct notion of force was
nature of fundamental forces and the laws that arrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of
govern the diverse phenomena of the physical motion. He also gave an explicit form for the force
world. for gravitational attraction between two bodies.
We shall learn these matters in subsequent
1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE*
chapters.
We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our In the macroscopic world, besides the
experience, force is needed to push, carry or gravitational force, we encounter several kinds
throw objects, deform or break them. We also of forces: muscular force, contact forces between
experience the impact of forces on us, like when bodies, friction (which is also a contact force
a moving object hits us or we are in a merry-go- parallel to the surfaces in contact), the forces
round. Going from this intuitive notion to the exerted by compressed or elongated springs and
proper scientific concept of force is not a trivial taut strings and ropes (tension), the force of
matter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong buoyancy and viscous force when solids are in

* Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we
advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the
areas which continue to occupy the physicists today.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 53

vA = + 54 km h–1 = 15 m s–1 B = 0 – vB = 25 m s–1.

vB = – 90 km h–1 = – 25 m s–1
In (c), let the velocity of the monkey with respect
Relative velocity of B with respect to A = vB – vA= to ground be vM. Relative velocity of the monkey
– 40 m s–1 , i.e. the train B appears to A to move with respect to A,
with a speed of 40 m s–1 from north to south. vMA = vM – vA = –18 km h–1 = –5 ms–1. Therefore,
Relative velocity of ground with respect to vM = (15 – 5) m s–1 = 10 m s–1.
t

SUMMARY

1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
2. Path length is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object.
3. Displacement is the change in position : ∆x = x2 – x1. Path length is greater or equal to
the magnitude of the displacement between the same points.
4. An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equal
in equal intervals of time. Otherwise, the motion is said to be non-uniform.
5. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which the
displacement occurs :
∆x
v=
∆t
On an x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the line
connecting the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval.
6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time
interval.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small :

∆x dx
v = lim v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.
8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :

∆v
a=
∆t
9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval ∆t goes to zero :

∆ v dv
a = lim a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line

2018-19
54 PHYSICS

parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 55

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same
as the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points;
the path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. In one dimension,
the two quantities are equal only if the object does not change its direction during the
course of motion. In all other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of
displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if
the path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first
specify this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity
and acceleration.
4. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
5. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
6. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero
acceleration. For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost
point but the acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to
gravity.
7. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (3.11)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
8. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (3.3) and (3.5)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (3.11)) are true only
for motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant
during the course of motion.

EXERCISES

3.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
3.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 3.19. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).

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56 PHYSICS

Fig. 3.19
3.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
3.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1
m long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically
and otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the
start.
3.5 A jet airplane travelling at the speed of 500 km h–1 ejects its products of combustion
at the speed of 1500 km h–1 relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of the
latter with respect to an observer on the ground ?
3.6 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
3.7 Two trains A and B of length 400 m each are moving on two parallel tracks with a
uniform speed of 72 km h–1 in the same direction, with A ahead of B. The driver of
B decides to overtake A and accelerates by 1 m s–2. If after 50 s, the guard of B just
brushes past the driver of A, what was the original distance between them ?
3.8 On a two-lane road, car A is travelling with a speed of 36 km h–1. Two cars B and
C approach car A in opposite directions with a speed of 54 km h–1 each. At a
certain instant, when the distance AB is equal to AC, both being 1 km, B decides
to overtake A before C does. What minimum acceleration of car B is required to
avoid an accident ?
3.9 Two towns A and B are connected by a regular bus service with a bus leaving in
either direction every T minutes. A man cycling with a speed of 20 km h–1 in the
direction A to B notices that a bus goes past him every 18 min in the direction of
his motion, and every 6 min in the opposite direction. What is the period T of the
bus service and with what speed (assumed constant) do the buses ply on the
road?
3.10 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its
motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 57

3.11 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.
3.12 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
3.13 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity is either greater than or equal to the first.
When is the equality sign true ? [For simplicity, consider one-dimensional
motion only].
3.14 A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a
speed of 5 km h–1. Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back
home with a speed of 7.5 km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to
50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ? [Note: You will appreciate from this exercise why it
is better to define average speed as total path length divided by time, and not
as magnitude of average velocity. You would not like to tell the tired man on
his return home that his average speed was zero !]
3.15 In Exercises 3.13 and 3.14, we have carefully distinguished between average speed
and magnitude of average velocity. No such distinction is necessary when we
consider instantaneous speed and magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. Why ?
3.16 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 3.20) carefully and state, with reasons, which of
these cannot possibly represent one-dimensional motion of a particle.

Fig. 3.20

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58 PHYSICS

3.17 Figure 3.21 shows the x-t plot of one-dimensional

motion of a particle. Is it correct to say from the
graph that the particle moves in a straight line for
t < 0 and on a parabolic path for t >0 ? If not, suggest
a suitable physical context for this graph.

3.18 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of

30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s car speeding away
in the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If
the muzzle speed of the bullet is 150 m s–1, with
what speed does the bullet hit the thief’s car ? (Note:
Fig. 3.21
Obtain that speed which is relevant for damaging
the thief’s car).
3.19 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of the
following graphs (Fig 3.22):

Fig. 3.22

3.20 Figure 3.23 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter14).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.

Fig. 3.23

3.21 Figure 3.24 gives the x-t plot of a

particle in one-dimensional motion.
Three different equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average speed greatest, and in which
is it the least ? Give the sign of average
velocity for each interval.

Fig. 3.24

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 59

3.22 Figure 3.25 gives a speed-time graph of

a particle in motion along a constant
direction. Three equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average acceleration greatest in
magnitude ? In which interval is the
average speed greatest ? Choosing the
positive direction as the constant
direction of motion, give the signs of v
and a in the three intervals. What are
the accelerations at the points A, B, C Fig. 3.25
and D ?

Additional Exercises

3.23 A three-wheeler starts from rest, accelerates uniformly with 1 m s–2 on a straight
road for 10 s, and then moves with uniform velocity. Plot the distance covered by
the vehicle during the nth second (n = 1,2,3….) versus n. What do you expect this
plot to be during accelerated motion : a straight line or a parabola ?
3.24 A boy standing on a stationary lift (open from above) throws a ball upwards with
the maximum initial speed he can, equal to 49 m s–1. How much time does the ball
take to return to his hands? If the lift starts moving up with a uniform speed of
5 m s-1 and the boy again throws the ball up with the maximum speed he can, how
long does the ball take to return to his hands ?
3.25 On a long horizontally moving belt (Fig. 3.26), a child runs to and fro with a speed
–1
9 km h (with respect to the belt) between his father and mother located 50 m apart
on the moving belt. The belt moves with a speed of 4 km h–1. For an observer on a
stationary platform outside, what is the
(a) speed of the child running in the direction of motion of the belt ?.
(b) speed of the child running opposite to the direction of motion of the belt ?
(c) time taken by the child in (a) and (b) ?
Which of the answers alter if motion is viewed by one of the parents ?

Fig. 3.26
3.26 Two stones are thrown up simultaneously from the edge of a cliff 200 m high with
initial speeds of 15 m s–1 and 30 m s–1. Verify that the graph shown in Fig. 3.27
correctly represents the time variation of the relative position of the second stone
with respect to the first. Neglect air resistance and assume that the stones do not
rebound after hitting the ground. Take g = 10 m s–2. Give the equations for the
linear and curved parts of the plot.

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60 PHYSICS

Fig. 3.27
3.27 The speed-time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown in
Fig. 3.28. Obtain the distance traversed by the particle between (a) t = 0 s to 10 s,
(b) t = 2 s to 6 s.

Fig. 3.28

What is the average speed of the particle over the intervals in (a) and (b) ?
3.28 The velocity-time graph of a particle in one-dimensional motion is shown in
Fig. 3.29 :

Fig. 3.29
Which of the following formulae are correct for describing the motion of the particle
over the time-interval t1 to t2:
(a) x(t2 ) = x(t1) + v (t1) (t2 – t1) +(½) a (t2 – t1)2
(b) v(t2 ) = v(t1) + a (t2 – t1)
(c) vaverage = (x(t2) – x(t1))/(t2 – t1)
(d) aaverage = (v(t2) – v(t1))/(t2 – t1)
(e) x(t2 ) = x(t1) + vaverage (t2 – t1) + (½) aaverage (t2 – t1)2
(f) x(t2 ) – x(t1) = area under the v-t curve bounded by the t-axis and the dotted line
shown.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 61

APPENDIX 3.1 : ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS

Differential Calculus

Using the concept of ‘differential coefficient’ or ‘derivative’, we can easily define velocity and
acceleration. Though you will learn in detail in mathematics about derivatives, we shall introduce
this concept in brief in this Appendix so as to facilitate its use in describing physical quantities
involved in motion.
Suppose we have a quantity y whose value depends upon a single variable x, and is expressed
by an equation defining y as some specific function of x. This is represented as:
y = f (x) (1)
This relationship can be visualised by drawing a graph of function y = f (x) regarding y and x as
Cartesian coordinates, as shown in Fig. 3.30 (a).

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.30
Consider the point P on the curve y = f (x) whose coordinates are (x, y) and another point Q
where coordinates are (x + ∆x, y + ∆y). The slope of the line joining P and Q is given by:
∆y (y + ∆y ) − y
tanθ = = (2)
∆x ∆x
Suppose now that the point Q moves along the curve towards P. In this process, ∆y and ∆x
∆y
decrease and approach zero; though their ratio will not necessarily vanish. What happens
∆x
to the line PQ as ∆y→ 0, ∆x→ 0. You can see that this line becomes a tangent to the curve at
point P as shown in Fig. 3.30(b). This means that tan θ approaches the slope of the tangent at
P, denoted by m:
∆y (y + ∆y ) − y
m = lim = lim (3)
∆x ∆x → 0
∆x → 0 ∆x
The limit of the ratio ∆y/∆x as ∆x approaches zero is called the derivative of y with respect to x
and is written as dy/dx. It represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the
point (x, y).
Since y = f (x) and y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x), we can write the definition of the derivative as:
dy df ( x ) ∆y  f ( x + ∆x ) – f ( x ) 
= = lim = lim  
dx dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x → 0  ∆x 
Given below are some elementary formulae for derivatives of functions. In these u (x) and v (x)
represent arbitrary functions of x, and a and b denote constant quantities that are independent
of x. Derivatives of some common functions are also listed .

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62 PHYSICS

d (a u ) du du du dx
=a ; = .
dx dx dt dx dt

d(uv) dv du d (u / v ) 1 du dv
=u +v ; = 2 –u
dx dx dx dx v dx dx

du du dx
=
dv dv dx
d d
(sin x ) = cos x ;
dx
(cos x ) = – sin x
dx
d d
(tan x ) = sec2 x ; (cot x ) = – cos ec 2 x
dx dx

d
(sec x) = tan x sec x ;
d
(cosec 2 x ) = – cot x co sec x
dx dx

d du d 1
(u )n = n u n –1 ; ( ln u) =
dx dx du u
d u
(e ) = eu
du

In terms of derivatives, instantaneous velocity and acceleration are defined as

∆x dx
v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
∆v dv d2 x
a = lim = =
∆t →0 ∆t dt dt 2
Integral Calculus
You are familiar with the notion of area. The formulae for areas of simple geometrical figures are
also known to you. For example, the area of a rectangle is length times breadth and that of a
triangle is half of the product of base and height. But how to deal with the problem of determination
of area of an irregular figure? The mathematical notion of integral is necessary in connection with
such problems.
Let us take a concrete example. Suppose a variable force f (x) acts on a particle in its motion
along x - axis from x = a to x = b. The problem is to determine the work done (W) by the force on the
particle during the motion. This problem is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
Figure 3.31 shows the variation of F(x) with x. If the force were constant, work would be simply
the area F (b-a) as shown in Fig. 3.31(i). But in the general case, force is varying .

Fig. 3.31

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 63

To calculate the area under this curve [Fig. 3.31 (ii)], let us employ the following trick. Divide the
interval on x-axis from a to b into a large number (N) of small intervals: x0(=a) to x1, x1 to x2 ; x2 to x3,
................................ xN-1 to xN (=b). The area under the curve is thus divided into N strips. Each strip
is approximately a rectangle, since the variation of F(x) over a strip is negligible. The area of the ith
strip shown [Fig. 3.31(ii)] is then approximately

∆Ai = F (x i )(x i – x i –1) = F (x i )∆x

where ∆x is the width of the strip which we have taken to be the same for all the strips. You may
wonder whether we should put F(xi-1) or the mean of F(xi) and F(xi-1) in the above expression. If we
take N to be very very large (N→∞ ), it does not really matter, since then the strip will be so thin that
the difference between F(xi) and F(xi-1) is vanishingly small. The total area under the curve then is:

N N
A= ∑
i =1
∆Ai = ∑ F (x )∆x
i =1
i

The limit of this sum as N→∞ is known as the integral of F(x) over x from a to b. It is given a special
symbol as shown below:
b
A=
∫ F (x )dx
a

The integral sign ∫ looks like an elongated S, reminding us that it basically is the limit of the sum
of an infinite number of terms.
A most significant mathematical fact is that integration is, in a sense, an inverse of differentiation.
dg(x )
Suppose we have a function g (x) whose derivative is f (x), i.e. f ( x ) =
dx
The function g (x) is known as the indefinite integral of f (x) and is denoted as:

g( x ) =
∫ f (x )dx
An integral with lower and upper limits is known as a definite integral. It is a number. Indefinite
integral has no limits; it is a function.

A fundamental theorem of mathematics states that

∫ f (x ) dx = g(x )
b
a
≡ g(b ) – g(a )
a
2
As an example, suppose f (x) = x and we wish to determine the value of the definite integral from
x =1 to x = 2. The function g (x) whose derivative is x2 is x3/3. Therefore,

2 2
x3 8 1 7
∫
1
x 2 dx =
3
1
= – =
3 3 3

Clearly, to evaluate definite integrals, we need to know the corresponding indefinite integrals. Some
common indefinite integrals are

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64 PHYSICS

1
∫ ( x )dx = ln x ( x > 0)

This introduction to differential and integral calculus is not rigorous and is intended to convey to
you the basic notions of calculus.

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CHAPTER FOUR

MOTION IN A PLANE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
4.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
4.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
4.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
4.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
4.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
4.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
4.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
4.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
4.9 Relative velocity in two in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
dimensions discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
4.10 Projectile motion the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
4.11 Uniform circular motion motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Summary
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
Points to ponder
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.
Exercises
Additional exercises 4.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS
In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

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66 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 4.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 4.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented
r by an arrow placed r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 4.2.2 Equality of Vectors
4.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 4.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 4.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 67

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
4.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 4.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 4.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 4.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′, the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′. its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
4.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 4.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
λ A = λ A if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 4.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
−λ gives another vector whose direction is
opposite to the direction of A and whose
magnitude is λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 4.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 4.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 4.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.

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68 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 4.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (4.1) vector”.
The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 4.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (4.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (4.2) It is shown in Fig 4.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 4.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 4.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (4.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 4.6(b)]. In Fig.4.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (4.4) equivalent.

Fig. 4.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.

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