Cement Industry

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Impacts of cement industry air pollutants on the environment and satellite

data applications for air quality monitoring and management
Article in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · June 2023

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11408-1
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:840
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11408-1
REVIEW
Impacts of cement industry air pollutants

on the environment and satellite data applications for air
quality monitoring and management
Venkata Sudhakar C. ·
Umamaheswara Reddy G.
Received: 5 January 2023 / Accepted: 17 May 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
Abstract The cement industry plays critical role and health risks as well as negative impact on flora
in any country’s development and economic growth. and fauna. The Terra, Aura, Sentinel-5P, GOSAT, and
Cement is extensively used in construction sector other satellite datasets allow estimation of cement
and infrastructural projects. Abundant raw material industry major air pollutants such as particulate
availability, infrastructure demands, urbanization, matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide
and recent government initiatives—Atal Mission for (NO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and volatile organic
Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) compounds (VOCs) using regression models, artifi-
project and housing for all under the Pradhan Mantri cial neural network-based models, machine learning
Awas Yojana (PMAY), India—stood at second place models, and the tropospheric NO2 vertical column
in cement-producing country in the world. Cement density (VCD) retrieval algorithm. This review article
plants are emitting 15% of global pollutions into the explores the evolution of the Indian cement industry,
environment among various industries. Cement indus- air pollutants from the cement industry, social and
try byproducts include dust/particulate matter (PM2.5 environmental implications, satellite datasets, models
and PM10), toxic gases (COx, N Ox, SOx, CH4, and used for assessing air pollutants, and challenges for
VOCs), noise, and heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Co, Pb, and the long-term sustainability of the cement industry.
Hg), which cause climate change, global warming,
Keywords Cement industry · Environmental
impacts · Satellite data · Emission monitoring ·
V. S. C. (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Challenges
Engineering, Research Scholar (Part-Time), Sri
Venkateswara University College of Engineering, Tirupati,
India
Introduction
e-mail: [email protected]
V. S. C. The cement sector will play pivotal role in provid-

Department of Electronics and Communication ing employment, socioeconomic growth, and devel-
Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College,
opment of the country. Its major raw materials are
Tirupati, India
limestone coal and gypsum. India has an abundance
U. R. G. of high-quality limestone reserves throughout the
Department of Electronics and Communication country (www.ibef.org). The total limestone (cement
Engineering, Sri Venkateswara University College
grade) reserves/resources available in India in 2015,
of Engineering, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati,
India according to NMI (National Mineral Inventory) data
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840 Page 2 of 16 Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:840
base based on the UNFC (United Nations frame- terms of the availability of advanced sensors and high
work classification system), are estimated 141.75 temporal resolution dataset at free of cost (Table 1),
billion tonnes (Gupta et al., 2020a). According to a satellite remote sensing techniques have had an
Mines and Minerals-Cement Manufacturers’ Associa- advantage over the ground-level measurements and
tion (CMA) India report, one ton of cement requires airborne monitoring data techniques (Vijayaraghavan
180–250 kg of coal and 1.5 tons of limestone (Indian et al., 2008). The review objectives include cement
Mineral Yearbook 2020). With an installed capac- industry emissions and impacts at various levels of
ity of 500 MTPA (million tonnes per annum) and a cement manufacturing, remote sensing satellites and
productive capacity of 298 MTPA (it is more than sensors in emission management and monitoring,
7% of global production capacity) in 2021, India is and challenges in using satellite dataset in emission
the second largest cement producing and consum- monitoring. The field of remote sensing is constantly
ing country in the world (Gupta et al., 2020a). The evolving and supporting new types of data that enable
cement manufacturing process generates major air environmental engineers to more accurately evaluate
Ox, PM2.5 and PM10, SOx, NOx, trace
pollutants like C the earth’s environment and other specialized proper-
amounts of organic compounds, and heavy metals ties (https://gisgeography.com).
(Dawoudian et al., 2021; Da Silva Dias et al., 2019).
The cement sector alone is the source for 8% of total
national anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. All
such emissions are caused by electricity consumption History of cement industry
(13%), fossil fuel combustion (31%), and limestone
into lime conversion (56%) (Miller et al., 2018). The cement sector is one of the India’s largest and
An environmental impact assessment (EIA) of most important industries in terms of development
an industry is the systematic identification and and employment creation. The first cement factory
analysis of socioeconomic aspects and the environ- started in India at Madras in 1904. Later the India
mental impacts to avoid the negative outcomes and Cement Company Limited was officially established
improve the project viability (Dawoudian et al., a cement plant at Porbandar, Gujarat in 1914, with a
2021; Yogesh, 2013). The EIA document should capacity of 10,000 tonnes and a production capacity
include overview of the cement industry, need of of 1000 tonnes per annum installed (Chitra, 2011).
cement industry, and present status of production, After Independence (in 1948), the Indian government
cement manufacturing process, description of the implemented the Cement Expansion Scheme, which
affected area, impact prediction, impact assessment, included the construction of new factories to increase
and impact mitigation measures (Yogesh, 2013). In production. In 1950–1951, 3.3 million tonnes of
India, EIA was formally inaugurated in 1994, when installed capacity was spread over 22 active units. The
the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) of 1986 cement industry’s price and distribution system was
disseminated the EIA notification, which made envi- taken over by the government in 1956 (Bapata et al.,
ronmental clearance compulsory for the expansion, 2007). After economic reforms in the 1980s and the
modernization, or establishment of a new cement government’s implementation of liberalization poli-
industry (http://envfor.nic.in). cies in 1991, the cement industry experienced expo-
Ground-based air pollutant monitoring instruments nential growth and surpassed China as the second-
have primarily limited the area of land coverage, and largest cement manufacturer in the world (Ravi &
are designed to monitor specific pollutants; expen- Shambhulingappa, 2022; Indian Minerals Year book
sive and many of these instruments are incapable of 2020). In the last 75 years, from 1947 to 2022, the
providing an accurate representation of the total con- Indian cement industry has grown from a mere 18
centration of all pollutants at the cement industrial cement plants to 210 plus major cement plants owned
area (Dubey, 2014). Satellite-based remote sensing by 100 plus cement companies and the cement capac-
is an emerging air pollution monitoring and manage- ity has increased from 1.47 to 600 MTPA. Addition-
ment technology with low cost, low human effort, and ally, India has about 300 micro cement factories with
large-scale atmospheric study for long-term societal an estimated 10 MTPA capacity (Survey of Cement
benefits (Attwa et al., 2021; Thakur et al., 2017). In Industry & Directory, 2022).
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:840 Page 3 of 16 840
Table 1 Satellites and sensors for air pollutant monitoring

Satellite Sensors Air pollutants Spatial resolution Temporal resolution Models
Terra MODIS PM2.5 0.25–1 km 1–2 days Regression and network models (accuracy
Gaofen-1/4/5/6 SAR PM10 16 m 4 days 70–80%), random forest model (Zamani
et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2020b; Méndez et
Huanjing-1 HJ-1 30 m 2 days
al., 2023)
Aura OMI SO2 13 × 24 km 1 day Machine learning-based model (Miller et al.,
Aura TES 5 × 8 km 2 day 2023), AUSTAL 2000 model, differential
optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS-
GaoFen-5 EMI 13 × 12 km 1 day
accuracy 60–70%) (Dutta et al., 2021;
Sentinel-5P TROPOM 3.5 × 7 km 1 day Wang et al., 2020)
MetOP GOME-2 40 × 80 km 1.5 days
MetOp IASI 50 × 50 km 0.5 days
Aura OMI NO2 13 × 24 km 1 day DOAS (accuracy 80%), tropospheric NO2
Aura TES 5 × 8 km 2 day vertical column density (VCD) retrieval
algorithm, regression model (Dutta et al.,
2021; Wang et al., 2020)
GaoFen-5 EMI 13 × 12 km 1 day
Sentinel-5P TROPOM 3.5 × 7 km 1 day
Aqua AIRS CO2 13.5 km 1–2 days OE (optimal estimation accuracy 99%),
GOSAT TANSO 10 km 1 day artificial neural network-based models,
machine learning-based model (Wang
OCO-2 OCO-2 1.2 × 2.2 km 1–2 days
et al., 2020; Dutta et al., 2021; Jadoon
TanSat ACGS 2 km 1 day et al., 2022; Méndez et al., 2023)
GaoFen-5 GMI 13 × 48 km 1 day
Terra MODIS Dust 0.25–1 km 1–2 days Brightness temperature difference in split
MetOp IASI 50 × 50 km 0.5 days windows (Wang et al., 2020)
Cement industry in India Cement production and consumption
India has a total of 210 large cement plants out of The Indian government places a strong emphasis on
which 77 located in the states of Andhra Pradesh infrastructure development to spur economic growth
(AP), Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. In India, cement through the “make in India” project, the develop-
plants are spread all over the country, from east to ment of smart cities under the scheme of AMRUT
west and north to south (Nandamuri et al., 2017). (http://amrut.gov.in), and housing for all under the
Nearly 33% of India’s cement manufacturing scheme of PMAY (https://pmaymis.gov.in/). The
capacity is located in South India, while 22% is in Indian cement industry ranks second in the cement
North India, 13% is in Central and West India, and production and consumption, trailing only China but
the remaining 19% is in East India (IBEF, 2022) as ahead of the USA and Japan. Figure 2 depicts the
shown in Fig. 1. cement production capacity increasing at a compound
The major cement producers in Indian include annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.65% from 2016 to
UltraTech Cement Limited, India Cements Ltd., 2022 (IBEF, 2022). The Indian cement consumption
Ambuja Cements Limited, Dalmia Cement (Bharat) is expected to reach 550–600 MTPA by 2025 and
Ltd., Birla Corporation (BCL), Zuari Cement Ltd., 419.92 million tonnes in fiscal year 2027 (https://
JK Lakshmi Cement, Chettinad Cement, Shree www.ibef.org). In India, the major cement-consuming
Cement Limited, ACC Limited, Penna Cement sectors are real estate and housing (65%), infrastruc-
Industries Ltd., and Ramco Cements Limited as ture (25%), and industrial and commercial develop-
shown in Fig. 1. ment (10%). India’s per-capita cement consumption
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Fig. 1 State-wise cement

plants and region-wise
cement installed capacity.
Source: https://www.ibef.
org/download/Cement-
June-2020.pdf
Cement Producon
Values in million metric tonnes
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022E 2027E
Cement Producon 283.46 279.81 297.56 337.32 329.32 294.4 381 419.92
Fig. 2 Cement production volumes in India
is 240 kg, which is significantly lower than the world mixed with gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O). Several blended
consumption of 530 kg (DIPP, 2020). versions of cement are prepared with varying strength,
durability, settling time, and other specialized properties
Cement manufacturing process and emissions by adding admixtures, pozzolanic materials, and other
additives (https://www.cmaindia.org/). Figure 3 shows
Cement is manufactured heating limestone (CaCO3) the cement making process flow diagram. The Indian
with other minerals (alumina (Al2O3), silica (SiO2), and cement industry produces several kinds of cement in
iron oxides (Fe2O3)) in a kiln and forms clinker. To pro- accordance with the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
duce cement, the clinker is grinded to fine powder and specifications, including the Hydrophobic Portland
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1 E
Quarrying
raw 1 E 1 E 1 2
materials
Optional
Raw material Dry mixing
Preheater
E preparation and
(Grinding) Blending H
Processing
1
raw
materials 1 E E Rotary kiln
(Crushing) 2
Raw material Slurry
1 preparation mixing and
(Grinding) Blending
2
1 Particulate emission Clinker
Water cooler 1
2 Gaseous Emission
E Energy
H Heat
E 1 E 1 Gypsum
1
Product Finish
Shipping Packaging
storage Grinding
E
Fig. 3 Cement manufacturing process flow diagram and emission. Source: https://theconstructor.org/building/manufacture-of-
cement/13709/
Cement, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) or gray Stage 2: Crushing, grinding, and mixing The
cement, Oil Well Cement, PBFSC (Portland Blast Fur- mined raw minerals are crushed in two phases: In
nace Slag Cement), Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), primary crushing, the rock size is reduced to the
Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC), SRPC (Sulphate maximum size of 5–8 inches. The secondary crushers
Resistant Portland Cement), and White Portland Cement reduce the size about 3 inches or smaller. The crushed
(Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020). cement raw ingredients are again grinded to get fine
powder and stored in hopper (silos) after screening.
Stage 1: Raw material quarrying The raw mate- The limestone fine powder is mixed with clay, iron
rials desirable for cement manufacturing are lime- ore, bauxite, or fly ash. The raw materials (CaO, S
iO2,
stone, clay, shale, alumina, mill scale, fly ash, and Al2O3, and Fe2O3) are then sent to blending for uni-
bauxite and are extracted from earth using mining form mixing and prepared for the fine grinding. The
operation. The mining process involves the removal raw mix dried in either dry, wet, or semi dry process.
of overburden, drilling, blasting, excavation, loading Fugitive emissions of particulate matter occur during
and unloading, and hauling of raw materials, all of the grinding and transporting processes to the kilns.
which cause the emission of dust or particulate matter
(PM10 and PM2.5) as well as gaseous pollutants into Stage 3: Kiln processing The blended raw mix is
the atmosphere. fed to pre-heaters. The raw materials are refined here
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and transformed into oxides that will be burned in the Particulate matter, SOx, and NOx are among the pol-
kiln. In the kiln phase, clinker is formed from raw lutants emitted during this stage.
materials using a series of chemical reactions. Typi-
cally, 1 ton of clinker is produced from 1.8 tonnes Stage 5: Packing and shipping The cement is
of raw material. At this stage, emissions primarily transferred to storage silos for a short period of time
consist of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), SOx, using bucket elevators and conveyors before being
NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons. delivered to customers. The majority of cement is
delivered to consumers in bags (normally 50 kg bags)
The following events occurred during the clinker via railway and trucks (Zimwara et al., 2012). Particu-
production process: late matter emissions are significant during this stage.
• Free water evaporation.

• The evolution of combined water in argillaceous Cement industry emissions and impacts
constituents.
• Calcium oxide (CaO) is produced through calcina- Cement production has significant local, regional,
tion of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). and global positive and negative impacts (Samdariya
et al., 2021). On the positive side, the cement sector
CaCO3 + heat(900 > ◦ C) → CaO + CO2
offers locals job opportunities and business opportu-
• The formation of dicalcium silicate by the reaction nities, especially in rural areas of developing nations.
of CaO with silica. The negative impacts include landscape disturbance,
airborne pollution, noise, and vibration and disruption
2CaO + SiO2 → Ca2 SiO4 to local biodiversity and human health (https://www.
ambujacement.com/). Cement manufacturing indus-
• The liquid phase is formed by the reaction of
tries generate heavy emissions which are potential
CaCO3 with the aluminum and iron-containing
sources of anthropogenic pollution. The five categories
constituents.
4CaCO3 + Fe2 O3 + Al2 O3 → Ca4 Al2 Fe2 O10 (tetracalcium aluminoferrite) + 4 CO2
• The formation of clinker nodules. of pollutants produced by cement industries include

• Volatile substances evaporating (e.g., chlorides, air emissions, solid waste, wastewater, noise pollution,
potassium, sodium, and sulfates). and waste fuels (Zhu et al, 2022). Figure 4 describes
• Excess CaO reacts with dicalcium silicate the overview of cement plant emission and impacts.
(Ca2SiO4) to form tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO5).
Ca2 SiO4 + CaO → Ca3 SiO5 CO2 emission and impacts
Cement manufacturing emits greenhouse gases

Bad odor would emerge from the usage of sulfur- (GHG) both directly and indirectly. Cement direct
containing raw materials or the burning of sulfur-con- emissions occur as a result of the chemical process
taining fuels (Zimwara et al., 2012). known as calcination. Calcination is the process in
which limestone (CaCO3) is heated to decompose into
Stage 4 Cooling and final grinding The clinker carbon dioxide (CO2) and calcium oxide (CaO). This
coming from the burning zone (kiln) is very hot. So process accounts for roughly 50% of CO2 emissions
that is cooled to a temperature of 60–150 °C from from cement production (Mohamad et al., 2021).
2000 °C by passing air over it. The cooled clinkers
are received in small trolleys and then stockpiled. CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2
The powdered gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) is added as
The usage of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and
retarding agent during final grinding. The gypsum
oil) to heat the kiln causes for 40% of indirect C
O2
added controls the setting time of finished cement.
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Volatile organic carbon

compounds (VOCs)
Nitrogen Particulate matter
oxide(NO2)
Carbon dioxide Heavy metals

Environmental
pollution
Acids Kiln dust
Noise
nts
la
tP
en
Impact on the central
Global
em
nervous system,
warming
C
reproductive system and Photochemical
lung cancer (PM) oxidation
Headache and
anxiety(SO2) Acidification
Environmental
Health Impacts
Asthma, reduced lung
Impacts function, Impact on liver, Ecotoxixity Eutrophication
Spleen and blood (NO2)
Cardiovascular
diseases Ozone layer
(PM,O3, SO2) Irritation of eyes, nose and Human toxicity
Abiotic depletion
throat breathing problems
depletion
(O3, PM, NO2)
Fig. 4 Potential pollutants from cement industrial zones and impacts
Fig. 5 CO2 emissions from 160

cement production in India
from 1960 to 2020. Source: 140
million metric tons
https://www.statista.com 120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1960
1963
1966
1969
1972
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
2008
2011
2014
2017
2020
emissions. Another source of indirect emissions is past few decades. In 2019, these emissions reached
cement transportation, which accounts for 5–10% of O2 (MtCO2). Emis-
at 144 million metric tonnes of C
the industry’s emissions. In 2018, the Indian cement sions fall down to 123 MtCO2 in 2020 as a result of
sector produced 576 kg CO2/ton of cement, compared COVID-19.
to the global average of 634 kg C O2/ton of cement
(https://aeee.in/). It accounts for 6–9% of global SO2 emission and impacts
CO2 emissions, making it a significant contributor to
global warming. Figure 5 shows the sharp increase Sulfur oxides (SOx) are air pollutants produced by the
in CO2 emissions from the cement industry over the cement kiln processes. Sulfur dioxide ( SO2) is produced
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from both sulfide compounds in the raw materials and ecosystems (Akpambang et al., 2022). Heavy metal
from combusted sulfur in the fuels to fire a preheater bioaccumulation can cause poising in aquatic and ter-
kiln system. The oxidation of SO2 in the atmosphere restrial life by biomagnification. Cement plant main-
produces sulfate-containing aerosol (sulfuric acid) par- tenance produces waste such as used oil and metal
ticles, which form hazy air, influence cloud formation, scrap. The majority of these wastes are disposed in
and cause acid rain (Kashkin et al., 2018). Acid rains landfills, which contaminate land, air, and water caus-
cause for acidification of soil, water bodies, plant dam- ing respiratory diseases (Arachchige et al., 2019).
age, and corrosion of buildings and monuments in the
nearby area of cement plants (Kashkin et al., 2018). Peo- VOC emission and impacts
ple living near cement plants are afflicted with diseases
such as cardiovascular disease, anxiety, and headache. Volatile organic carbon (VOC) compounds are
directly emitted into the atmosphere from cement
NO2 emission and impacts kilns as a result of the burning of organic matter pre-
sent in raw materials. Incomplete burning is another
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced during the burn- major source of VOC occurrence. VOCs include
ing of nitrogen containing fuel at high temperature in dioxin (polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxin) and
the long rotary cement kilns (Zimwara et al., 2012). furan (polychlorinated dibenzofuran), which belong
The oxidation of nitrogen molecules in the raw mate- to a group of 210 chemically interrelated organic
rial feed to the kiln also contributes to NOx emis- compounds containing 1 to 8 chlorine (Cl) atoms.
sions. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and NOx are the short VOCs are a precursor to the formation of trop-
lived pollutants that interact with oxygen, water, and ospheric ozone (O3), which is the main ingredi-
other chemicals to form hazy air, acid rain, particulate ent in smog, and contaminate soil and ground
matter, and ozone (O3). The health influences of NO2 water. VOC emissions impair the plant develop-
include irritation of the eyes, inflammation of the ment, chlorosis, and necrosis in broad-leaf plants
human respiratory system, and infections, and impact (Zimwara et al., 2012). VOC vapors can cause a
on the liver, spleen, and blood (Salama et al., 2022). variety of health effects, including eye, nose, and
throat irritation, headaches, nausea, and damage
Dust and heavy metal emission impacts to the liver, kidneys, or central nervous system
(Mohamad et al., 2021).
Dust particles/particulate matter originates primarily
from the quarrying operations, crushing, grinding, and Noise emission and impacts
blending operations, storage and handling, packing and
dispatch of clinker/cement, and vehicle movements on Noise emissions occur during raw material preparation and
unsealed roads (Ahmad et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2017). processing (Sudhakar et al., 2022). In the cement industry, noise
Secondary particulate matter formed from kilns opera- is up to 106 dBA. The primary sources of noise in the cement
tion and clinker cooling. Dust emissions from cement industry include gas dynamic noise produced by blower equip-
industry reduce visibility and air quality. PM10 is a major ment, compressors, and collectors, mechanical noise produced
air pollutant that has impacted both the environment and by milling and crusher devices, and electromagnetic noise
human health. PM2.5 causes cardiovascular diseases, produced by electric motors (Canfeng et al., 2012; Zhu et al.,
impact on the reproductive system, impacts on the cen- 2022). Noise from cement industry has a wide range of effects
tral nervous system, and damage on the respiratory sys- on human health, and working in these environments for an
tem causing chest discomfort, nose and throat breathing extended period of time results in neurasthenia syndrome and
problems, and even early death (AbdelSattar, 2019). hearing loss (Mohamad et al., 2021; Thai et al., 2021).
Some fuel and raw material content that is inher-
ently present in low concentrations is liable for heavy
metal emissions. Heavy metals such as chromium Satellites/sensors for emission monitoring
(Cr), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), lead (Pb), and mercury
(Hg) pollute soil and water and have an impact on Cement factory emission measurement, monitor-
plant functions and cell structure, human health, and ing, and evaluation aid in better understanding the
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sources, concentrations, and effects of atmospheric CO2, NO2, and O3 along with aerosol, and monitors
pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, CO2, NO2, SO2, and VOCs) formaldehyde emissions and mapping emission hot-
in and around the cement industrial area, as well as spots around the globe (El Khoury et al., 2019). The
improving the industry’s environmental performance. TROPOMI spatial resolution is 7 × 3.5 km near nadir,
An atmospheric air pollutant has its own spectral spectral resolution is 0.23 − 0.5 nm, and it provides
properties for electromagnetic radiation emission and daily global coverage (Butz et al., 2011). Sentinel-
absorption. Satellite sensors are designed to detect 5P maintains measurement consistency with previ-
electromagnetic radiation absorption, emission, or ous and ongoing earth’s atmosphere spatial missions
scattering, from these pollutants. The “retrieval” (IASI, OMI, and SCHIAMACHY). The Sentinel-5P
process is used to extract environmental geophysical data products are available at the Copernicus Open
parameters of interest from satellite sensor measured Access Hub (https://scihub.copernicus.eu/).
radiances (Vijayaraghavan et al., 2008).
A new era for the investigation of the earth’s OCO‑2 and OCO‑3
atmosphere began in the early 1970s with the deploy-
ment of weather (meteorological) satellites (Safari- Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) and OCO-3
anzengir et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). Polar-orbit- are the NASA’s environmental satellites which were
ing sun-synchronous satellites are commonly used for launched on July 2, 2014 and May 4, 2019 respec-
air quality remote sensing. These are typically located tively. OCO-2/3 is dedicated to atmospheric carbon
at an altitude of around 800 km (low earth orbit). dioxide and oxygen measurement. OCO-2 uses a
At present, technological advanced sensors onboard spectral wavelength range of 758 − 772 nm to observe
satellites have been launched and applied to air pol- and measure atmospheric oxygen. The instrument
lutant observation, such as the Copernicus Sentinel- employs two bands for observing atmospheric car-
5P (ESA), Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO- bon dioxide, one with a spectral wavelength range
2, USA), Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite of 1594 − 1619 nm. The other has a spectral range of
(GOSAT, Japan), Hyperspectral Imaging Observation 2042 − 2082 nm. Each of the three bands has a total of
Satellite (HySIS, India), Carbon Dioxide Observa- 1024 channels (Boesch et al., 2021). OCO-3 is similar
tion Satellite (TanSat, China), and GaoFen-5 (GF-5, to OCO-2 in functionality, but it observes air pollut-
China). The emerging artificial intelligence (AI)- ants from a lower (420 km) processing orbit instead
based algorithms, along with the proliferation of tech- of a sun-synchronous orbit. The OCO-3 has a slightly
nologically advanced sensors like miniaturization of larger footprint (≤ 1.6 × 2.2 km2) and improved scan-
sensors, high-speed data transport, and improved data ning capability (Nassar et al., 2022). The OCO-3
storage capacities, have made it possible to monitor data products are available at the NASA GES DISC
emissions in new ways and find the sources of emis- (http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/).
sions (https://www.geospatialworld.net). Some of the
commonly used satellite sensors in environmental Aura (OMI)
monitoring are shown in Table 1.
Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) was launched
Sentinel‑5P (TROPOMI) on July 15th, 2004, aboard the NASA Aura space-
craft. OMI is a nadir-viewing, wide field-of-view
The TROPOSpheric Monitoring Instrument is the (WFOV) UV–VIS spectrometer intended to meas-
sole payload on Copernicus Sentinel-5P, which was ure tropospheric/stratospheric pollutants such as O 3,
launched on October 13th, 2017 by the European NO2, SO2, and aerosol characteristics (Martin, 2008;
Space Agency (ESA). Sentinel-5P is the world’s Salama et al., 2022; Streets et al., 2013). OMI com-
most advanced air quality monitoring satellite. The bines the advantages of SCIAMACHY and GOME
hyperspectral spectrometer (TROPOMI) covers the with the advantages of TOMS, measuring the entire
wavelength in eight bands: two UV (270 − 320 nm), spectrum in the UV–VIS wavelength range. OMI
two UV–VIS (320 − 500 nm), and two NIR covers a spectral range from 270 to 500 nm using
(675 − 775 nm), and two SWIR (2305 − 2385 nm). two channels with a spectral resolution range of 1.0
TROPOMI is used to track air pollutants timely like to 0.45 nm. OMI has 13 × 24 km spatial resolution at
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nadir and daily temporal resolution (Kolios & Hat- including one NIR band of 0.76 μm (O2 A-band) and
zianastassiou, 2019; Zhang et al., 2017). OMI has three SWIR bands of 1.58 μm (CO2 weak absorp-
two ultraviolet bands as UV-1 ranging from 270 to tion band), 1.64 μm (CH4), and 2.0 μm (CO2 strong
314 nm, the UV-2 ranging from 306 to 380 nm, and absorption band). The NIR O 2 band provides surface
one visible (VIS) band ranging from 350 to 500 nm pressure, cloud, and aerosol parameters for retrieving
(Streets et al., 2013). OMI is more sensitive to SO2 CO2 and CH4.
than Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)
(Krueger et al., 2009; Luo et al., 2015). The OMI TanSat (ACGS, CAPI)
Aerosol level-2 data products are available from
NASA GES DISC (https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/). The TanSat, China’s first miniature satellite, was
launched on December 22, 2016, and it is used to meas-
HysIS ure global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) (Yang
et al., 2020). TanSat is equipped with the (ACGS)
The Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS) is an atmospheric carbon dioxide grating spectrometer and
earth observation mini satellite (IMS-2) designed a visible and near-infrared spectra (CAPI) cloud and
by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) aerosol polarimetry imager (Du at el., 2018). ACGS
to provide imaging services and insights into Indian detect O2 and CO2 absorption spectra using grating
agriculture, forestry, environmental monitoring, and technique in three narrow bands like molecular oxy-
coastal zone, and monitors pollution from industrial gen (O2) A-band spectral ranges from 758 to 778 nm,
sources and other geological environments (https:// weak carbon dioxide (WCO2) absorption band ranges
www.isro.gov.in/). HySIS was launched by ISRO on from 1.594 to 1.624 µm, and the strong carbon dioxide
November 29, 2018. HySIS operates in visible (VIS), (SCO2) ranges from 2.042 to 2.082 µm. ACGS’s spec-
near infrared (NIR), and shortwave infrared (SWIR) tral resolutions in the O2-A band is 0.044 nm, 0.12 nm
spectral regions. in the weak CO2 band, and 0.16 nm in the strong CO2
band (Meng et al., 2022).
GaoFen‑5 (EMI, GMI)
The EMI and GMI are the high-resolution space- Satellite data processing
borne imaging spectrometer onboard GaoFen-5 (GF-
5) China’s satellite, launched on May 9, 2018. Satellite data products are processed at different lev-
els ranging from level 0 to level 4. Figure 6 summa-
EMI rizes the steps involved in processing satellite data
for air pollution monitoring. Satellite level 0 (L-0)
The environmental trace gas monitoring instrument data are the full instrument resolution raw image data
(EMI) is a wide-field nadir viewing spectrometer, from the onboard sensor instrument that is initially
designed for monitoring global atmospheric green- processed to ensure the integrity of the near-real-
house gases including S O2, NO2, and O
3 in the two time-acquired data (https://sentinels.copernicus.eu)
ultraviolet (UV) bands UV1 at spectral wavelength and is then processed to level-1 data (L-1). Level-1
from 240 to 315 nm and UV2 (311–403 nm) and two data are generated by using the instrument’s pre and
visible (VIS) spectral regions VIS1 (401–550 nm) post launch radiometric and geometric calibrations to
and VIS2 (545–710 nm) with a spectral resolution generate radiances, which are then geo-located (per-
of 0.3–0.5 nm. The spatial resolution at the nadir is pixel latitude and longitude). Data at level 2 (L-2) and
12 × 13 km (across x along track direction) (Yang level 3 (L-3) are converted from L-1 to a geophysical
et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020). parameter such as aerosol optical depth (AOD)/verti-
cal column density (VCD) of air pollutants. L-2 and
GMI L-3 are the relevant levels for air quality (AQ) appli-
cations. The primary distinction between L-2 and
The greenhouse-gas monitoring instrument (GMI) L-3 data is that L-2 data are the original geo-located
gives the remote sensing data in spectral bands inferences that have not been spatially gridded,
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Fig. 6 Satellite data

Raw satellite data
processing for air quality
monitoring (Level-0 data)
Calibration and Geolocation of radiances
Calibration, bias
correction
(Level-1 data )
Radiance Inversion model
Air quality model
Geophysical parameters
(Level-2 data)
Spatial and Temporal resampling
Post processing softwate
Averaged Geophysical
quantities
(Level-3 data) Model Output
(Level-4 data)
whereas L-3 data have been mapped to a regular spa- Table 2 provides the details of few popular web tools for
tial grid and averaged over time. Although L-3 data air quality analysis.
are suitable for most local AQ applications, the end-
users believe that L-2 data are perfectly adapted for
investigating point-of-source pollution (Duncan et al., The air quality management
2014). Level-4 data models are the results of lower-
level data analyses (e.g., variables derived from sev- The air quality management system is a cyclic pro-
eral measurements). cess illustrated in Fig. 7, and it includes the ambient
air monitoring, emission measurements, emission
Data access, visualization, and analysis tools inventories, air quality (AQ) modeling, air qual-
ity assessment tools, dissemination of alerts to the
The NASA Applied Remote SEnsing Training (NASA regional officers, and initiating ground inspection to
ARSET) website (https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/) investigate the non-compliance of the sources (https://
keeps an up-to-date list of the many web tools available www.epa.gov/). Satellite imagery data and ground-
for satellite data access, processing, and visualization. based Continuous Emissions Monitoring Systems
The majority of websites offer imagery in widely used (CEMS) data visualized together to provide a more
file formats such as GeoTIFF (.tif) or NetCDF (.nc), gif, complete picture of air quality condition at the speci-
png, and kml or kmz. The NASA Air Quality Applied fied region by computing modeling. Measured air
Sciences Team (NASA AQAST) website listed compre- quality is unlikely to meet the national air quality
hensive web tools for accessing satellite datasets for spe- index (AQI) standards. The pollution control boards
cific pollutants like particulate matter (PM), CO, N O2, (PCBs) send dissemination of alerts to the regional
or aerosols (https://airquality.gsfc.nasa.gov/resources). officers for initiating ground inspection to investigate
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Table 2 Dataset access, visualization, and analysis resources

Name Applications
GES DISC/Giovanni Giovanni is a web-based visualization and analysis tool for

aerosols, atmospheric chemistry, temperature and moisture, and
rainfall (http://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/)
Worldview An interactive visualization and analysis web tool for measuring
air quality, managing wildfires, and monitoring floods (https://
www.earthdata.nasa.gov/worldview)
NOAA Infusing Satellite Data into Environmental Applications IDEA is a PM2. 5 forecasting tool that integrates NASA satellite
(IDEA) observations into EPA and NOAA calculations to improve air
quality evaluation, management, and prediction (http://www.
star.nesdis.noaa.gov/smcd/spb/aq/)
NOAA IDEA-I International MODIS/AIRS Processing Package. A software tool that uses Terra or Aqua MODIS AOD to identify
(IMAPP) locations of heavy aerosol loading from which 48 h forward
trajectories are generated (http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/imapp/
ideai_v1.0.shtml)
The Smog Blog A discussion of current air quality in the USA and around the
world (http://alg.umbc.edu/usaq/)
Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS) Useful web tools are available to search satellite datasets by pol-
lutant type. http://earthdata.nasa.gov
Fig. 7 Cement industry air quality management (image: Kurinji & Ganguly, 2020 CEEW)
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the non-compliance of the sources (http://aprtpms.ap. emissions. Given the scarcity of ground monitor-
gov.in/dashboard.html). ing data in India, the results of the translation pro-
cess will be fraught with uncertainty.
Air pollution control methods
The Indian cement industry is implementing some of

the following air pollution reduction methods: Conclusions
• Replacing clinkers with readily available fly ash, The aim of this review paper is to describe cement
which lowers emissions and the amount of fuel production which involve processes and air pollutant
needed to produce clinkers. emissions associated with cement production, impacts
• Utilizing electrostatic precipitators, pulse jet fab- of air pollutants on the environment and society, satel-
ric filters, bag-house filters, and industrial scrub- lite datasets, and methods used in air pollutant emis-
bers to reduce industrial pollution and improve air sion monitoring and management. Machine learning
quality. methods and satellite remote sensing are emerging
• Making use of alternative fuel sources (green tools for the cement industry environmental impact
energy). assessment. Concerning the cement industry’s air
• Co-processing, this involves burning waste mate- pollutant emission monitoring and management dur-
rials as fuel in high-temperature kilns. This also ing the cement production, our review shows that the
disposes of solid waste effectively. Copernicus Sentinel-5P is widely used for NO2 meas-
urement with differential optical absorption spectros-
copy (DOAS) at accuracy of 80%, tropospheric N O2
Challenges in using satellite dataset in emission vertical column density (VCD) retrieval algorithm, and
measurement regression model. The GOSAT dataset is utilized for
CO2 measurement with accuracy of 99% using the OE
Challenges associated with the use of satellite data in (optimal estimation) model, artificial neural network-
air quality measurements include the following: based models, and machine learning models (KNN,
SVM, RF). NASA’s Aura (OMI) satellite dataset is
• The lack of technical skills and computation used to measure S O2, with an accuracy of 60–70%
power required to convert satellite observations using a machine learning-based model, the AUSTAL
into ground measurements of pollutants is one of 2000 model, and differential optical absorption spec-
the primary impediments to expanding the use of troscopy (DOAS). Terra (MODIS) satellite dataset was
satellite-based remote sensing in air quality man- utilized to measure PM 2.5 and P M10 with regression
agement. and network models with an accuracy of 70–80%, and
• Traditional storage and computing methods are the random forest model was used. In future research,
insufficient for processing large amounts of satel- we seek to develop techniques and models for predict-
lite-derived atmospheric data quickly. Handling ing air quality and climate change, thereby fostering
and interpreting data from these sources are made the development of sustainable cement industries. Air
much easier with tools like Google Earth Engine pollutant emission assessment ultimately helps deci-
(GEE) and other cloud computing platforms to sion makers to have a complete review of the loca-
handle and process data. They enable non-tradi- tion, major sources of pollution, and their distribution
tional users and non-experts to access and use sat- pattern, which determines the specified area’s needed
ellite data through the use of simple scripting lan- effort to reduce pollution levels and the effect on the
guages, as well as to visualize the results (Kurinji environment and human health.
& Ganguly, 2020).
Author contribution The authors confirm the following con-
• The most difficult aspect of using satellite meas- tributions to the paper: G. Umamaheswara Reddy designed the
urements to infer air quality is converting aero- study; C. Venkata Sudhakar collected, analyzed, interpreted,
sol optical depth (AOD) into ground particulate and wrote the manuscript. The manuscript was reviewed and
approved by the authors.
concentrations or columnar volume densities into
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Data availability The data for this study were generated Procedia Engineering, 43, 186–190. https://doi.org/10.
from published articles (references) and internet sources cited 1016/j.proeng.2012.08.032
in the manuscript. Chitra, S. V. (2011). A brief account of cement industry in
India and the norms for suitability of limestone deposits
Declarations for cement manufacture. Asian Journal of Research in
Chemistry, 4(4), 516–523.
The authors have read, understood, and have complied as appli-
Da Silva Dias A. M., Fonseca, A., & Paglia, A. P., (2019). Tech-
cable with the statement on “ethical responsibilities of authors”
nical quality of fauna monitoring programs in the environ-
as found in the instructions for authors and are aware that with
mental impact assessments of large mining projects in south-
minor exceptions, no changes can be made to authorship once
eastern Brazil. Science of The Total Environment, 216–223
the paper is submitted.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.425
Conflict of interest The authors declared no competing Dawoudian, J., Bahamin, S., & Tantoh, H. B. (2021). Envi-
interests. ronmental impact assessment of cement industries using
mathematical matrix method: Case of Ghayen cement,
South Khorasan, Iran. Environmental Science and Pollu-
tion Research, 28(18), 22348–22358. https://doi.org/10.
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Impacts of cement industry air pollutants on the environment and satellite

Article in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · June 2023

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Impacts of cement industry air pollutants

Received: 5 January 2023 / Accepted: 17 May 2023

V. S. C. The cement sector will play pivotal role in provid-

Table 1 Satellites and sensors for air pollutant monitoring

Cement industry in India Cement production and consumption

Fig. 1 State-wise cement

Fig. 2 Cement production volumes in India

• Free water evaporation.

• The formation of clinker nodules. of pollutants produced by cement industries include

Cement manufacturing emits greenhouse gases

Volatile organic carbon

Carbon dioxide Heavy metals

Fig. 4 Potential pollutants from cement industrial zones and impacts

Fig. 5 CO2 emissions from 160

Fig. 6 Satellite data

Calibration and Geolocation of radiances

Radiance Inversion model

Air quality model

Spatial and Temporal resampling

Post processing softwate

Table 2 Dataset access, visualization, and analysis resources

GES DISC/Giovanni Giovanni is a web-based visualization and analysis tool for

The Indian cement industry is implementing some of

system for estimation of efficiency of carbon-capturing jcr/​cases/​Cement%​20Ind​ustry​(B)-​The%​20dem​and-​supply-​

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system for estimation of efficiency of carbon-capturing jcr/cases/Cement%20Industry(B)-The%20demand-supply-