W11-12 CONTRAST WORDS & USEFUL VOCABULARY ADITYA

CONTRAST WORDS
• I invited Vaiga to the party. She didn’t come.
• I invited Vaiga to the party but she didn't come. (Result is in opposition to the expectation).
• But is the simplest contrast word.

• Although I invited Vaiga to the party, she dint come.

• Vaiga didn’t come to the party although I invited her.
• (Result comes first and the expectation comes next. This adds focus to the expectation. Both
means the same).

• Though is the shortened form of although. Informal – Use of it in speech more than writing
• Though I invited Vaiga to the party, she didn’t come.
• Vaiga didn’t come to the party though I invited her.

• Even though is a more stronger form of although. (Expresses disappointment)

• Even though I invited Vaiga to the party, she didn't come.
• Vaiga didn’t come to the party even though I invited her. (Stronger form of the earlier
sentence).

• The word „however‟ has the same meaning as „but‟.

• I invited Vaiga to the party but she didn't come.
• I invited Vaiga to the party however she did not come.
• However is a formal word. In spoken language we don’t use the word “however”.
DESPITE AND INSPITE OF
• Both mean the same. You can use them interchangeably.
• Reva decided to buy an expensive car even though her mother objected to it.
• Reva decided to buy an expensive car despite her mother’s objections.
• Reva decides to buy an expensive car in spite of her mother’s objections.
• Despite of – Wrong usage.
DEGREE ADVERBS
➢ Used before adjectives, verbs or other adverbs to give informative about the extend or degree
of something.
They are sad.
They are extremely sad.

I hate the smell of cigars.

I really hate the small of cigars.

She is always late.

She is almost always late.

➢ Other degree adverbs are completely, fair, quite, rather, slightly, too, totally, very (much)
VERY AND TOO
➢ Before an adjective or an adverb, we use very when we mean ‘to a high degree’ and too when
we mean ‘more than enough’ or ‘more than is wanted or needed’.
➢ The weather was very hot in Chennai. Perfect for swimming. (not too hot).
➢ It is too hot to stay in this room – lets find somewhere cooler. (not very hot).
In informal spoken English, particularly in negative sentences, we can sometimes use ‘too’ to mean
roughly the same as ‘very’.
➔I am not too/very bothered about who fails.
➔It is not too/very warm today, is it?
VERY AND VERY MUCH
➢ We don’t use very before verbs but we can use very much before some verbs to emphasise
how we feel about things.
I very much agree with your decision. (not very agree)
We very much enjoyed having you stay with us. (not very enjoyed)
➢ Verbs like this include agree, doubt, fear, hope, like, want, admire, appreciate, enjoy and
regret.
➢ We can use very much or much (but not very) before the last four verbs.
➢ We can use very but not very much before participle adjectives.
She was very disturbed to hear the news. (not she was very much disturbed to hear the
news)
It is very disappointing. (not it is very much disappointing)
➢ However, we can use very much and not very before a past participle which is part of a
passive.
➢ The new highway was very much needed. (not the new highway was very needed).
EXTREMELY / VERY/ ABSOLUTELY / COMPLETELY
➢ We use extremely, very etc with gradable adjectives and absolutely completely etc with
ungradable adjectives.
Extremely + gradable adjective( effective, difficult, hard)
Hugely + gradable adjective (entertaining, successful)
Absolutely + non gradable adjective (clear, sure)
Simply + non gradable adjective (awful, terrible)
QUITE
Quite has two meaning
Quite : to a particular degree but not ‘very’
Quite : to a large degree or ‘very much’
I was quite satisfied with the result (fairly satisfied)
No, you are quite wrong (completely wrong)
When quite is used with ungradable adjectives it means completely.
Lena is not coming until tomorrow’. Are you quite certain?
 Adverbs – Comment, Viewpoint and Focus
Comment Adverbs

Comment adverbs can occur in front, middle or end of the sentence. Sometimes, comment adverbs
are applicable to the whole sentence, in which case, we usually separate from the rest of the
sentence with a comma.
Example
1. The plane apparently overshot the runway after landing.
2. Your plan sounds fine in theory, but will it work?
3. Presumably, he speaks Spanish.
4. In my opinion, he is one of the best students in the class.
5. Honestly speaking, I don’t care what the world thinks.
6. She obviously wants you to stay.
7. Please give generously to the Blue Cross.
8. Frankly, I'm not surprised her family disowned her.
Viewpoint Adverbs
We use viewpoint adverbs to indicate our perspectives clearer.
a) Financially, the hospitalisation has been a disaster for my neighbour.
b) The sisters might be alike physically, but they have very different personalities.

Phrases: Morally speaking, in political terms, from a technical point of view, as far as environment
is concerned etc.
Examples
1. What you did was not illegal, but it was morally wrong.
2. Much of our behaviour is biologically determined.
3. Outwardly the couple appeared happy.
4. Technically, the two countries are still at war.
5. He certainly was not politically inactive.
Focus Adverbs – Only
‘Even’ and ‘only’ usually go in mid position of a sentence. But if they refer to the subject, they may
come before it.
a) My brother has only brought some books. (He didn’t get anything else other than books).
b) Only my brother has brought some food. (It is my brother and nobody else).
Focus Adverb – Even and Alone
a) Even Liya can speak English. (you might not expect her to)
b) Liya can even speak German (in addition to everything else that she can do).
When we use ‘alone’ to mean ‘only’, it comes after a noun.
a) It is not possible to pass this exam with luck alone. (need to work hard).
Connecting Ideas Between and Within Sentences
Use of Adverbs and Prepositional Phrases
• To connect ideas between one sentence and a previous sentence or sentences:
• There was no AC in the building. As a result, the workers had to be sent home.
• We could go for a movie this Diwali. Alternatively, we could just stay at home and enjoy
the sweets.
Conjunctions and Prepositions
• To connect ideas within a single sentence.
• While I was waiting, I had a cup of coffee.
• I will be wearing a sea-blue shawl so that you can see me easily.
And/ But/ Or/ So/ Semi-Colon(;)/ Colon (:)/ Dash (-)
● To connect ideas between sentences and to connect two clauses in the same sentence
● The building was extremely well constructed and, consequently, difficult to demolish.
● You could fly via Singapore; however, this isn’t the only way.
Examples of Adverbs that Connect Ideas
1) Comparing, Contrasting, and Concession
● Between sentences: however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though,
alternatively, instead, after all, in any case, in contrast, by contrast, otherwise, even so
● Within sentences: although, though, even though, while, yet, whereas
Examples of Adverbs that Connect Ideas
2) Causes, Reasons, Purposes, Results
o Between sentences: therefore, consequently, hence, as a consequence, in consequence
(formal), thus, as a result, so.
o Within sentences: because, since, as, so, in order to, so that.
3) Adding ideas
o Between sentences: in addition, furthermore, too as well, likewise, similarly, moreover,
what’s more, also
4) Time: one event at the same time as another
▪ Between sentences: meanwhile, at the same time, at that time Within sentences: while, as,
when, whenever
5) Time: one event before another
▪ Between sentences: soon, then afterwards, after that, before that, subsequently Within
sentences: after, before, as soon as, since
Even Though
● ‘Even though’ is a conjunction used to say that a fact does not make the rest of the
sentence untrue
● It connects ideas within a sentence
● E.g. Even though trade unions are no longer as powerful as they used to be, their political
influence should not be underestimated.
Even So
● ‘Even so’ is a prepositional phrase used to introduce a fact that is surprising in light of what
was just said.
● It connects ideas between sentences.
● E.g. Much of the power of trade unions has been lost. Even so, their political influence
should not be underestimated.
However
● ‘However’ is used to connect ideas between sentences, but also within a sentence when:
● It is followed by an adjective or an adverb such as ‘much’ or ‘many’ Eg: We just don’t have the
money to do the work, however necessary you think it is.
● It means ‘no matter how’
E.g. However he held the mirror, he could not see the back of his neck.
Innovation in Vocabulary
Prefixes from Greek and Latin
Suffixes from Greek and Latin

Words from Foreign Languages

• English as you may know has borrowed many words from other languages.
• Some lexicographers have documented words from as many as 120 languages in English.
Out of them Latin is the major source.

Words from instilingo

New media
New media acronyms

Advanced Vocabulary
Words from Latin

Words from French

Words from Italian

WORDS MEANING
Zucchini A vegetable (Zucchini grows during summer).
Vendetta A long lasting revenge (Jim was arrested for acting on a vendetta
against the man who killed his wife).
Inferno Hell, a large fire (Can you believe a lit cigar started the inferno that
consumed the public library?)
Pizza Food item of Italian origin (She cancelled her order for a pizza).
 Pasta Food item of Italian origin (Pour the sauce over the pasta).

Words from Japanese

Pragmatic Competence vs Communicative Confidence

Objectives
• Language acquisition (learning) involves both grammatical competence and pragmatic
competence (performance) and they occur simultaneously.
• The distinction between Competence (I-language) and Performance (E-language) at the
level of learning is not tenable.
Proposal
We are working with the following hypotheses:
• What are competence (I-language) and performance (E-language)?
• Learning of language includes aspects of both competence and performance.
• Evidence comes from data from natural language.
• This proposal has implications for learning.
Introduction
• Natural Language Learning
• Universal Grammar
• Competence and Performance
• Evidence form Natural Languages
• Concluding Remarks
• Implications for Teaching/Learning
Linguistics as general knowledge
A famous anthropologist Shirley Brice Heath (1984) writes:
❖ Language increasingly will be a natural part of the research domains of fields ranging from
computer science to industrial sociology. In the days ahead the foundational knowledge
about language that has come from linguistics will be like certain principles of mathematics,
physics, and biology.
Language is the ontogenesis of learning …
❖ Halliday (1993) points out ‘when children learn language they are not simply engaging in one
kind of learning among many; rather they are learning the foundation of learning itself. …
Hence the ontogenesis of language is at the same time the ontogenesis of learning (p.93)’.
Language and Linguistics
❖ Language is an impressive and fascinating human capacity, and human languages are
strikingly powerful and complex systems.
Mark Crimmins, Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
❖ As far as linguistics is concerned, it is all about systematic study of language that is ‘the
domain of knowledge’ (Bernstein 1971, Halliday 1967, Heath 1984) and ‘knowledge
construction’ (Agnihotri 2007).
Language: An Innate Endowment
❖ “Man has instinctive tendency to speak as we see in the babbles of our children while no child
has an instinctive tendency to bake, brew, and write.” - Charles Darwin
❖ Language is one of the most sophisticated activities and human mind. The development of
this capacity requires input from immediate society.
Chomsky’s epistemological questions
❖ The following three questions have been part of generative understanding of language
learning. They are also known as Chomsky’s epistemological questions in the domain of
studies of language as a formal system, which are:
• What constitutes knowledge of language?
• How is knowledge of language acquired? And
• How is this knowledge of language put in practice?
Revolution in understanding language learning
• Stimulus = Response
• Input = Output
• Language Learning is a matter of habit formation
• Poverty of stimulus
• Imperfect/fuzzy stimulus YEILDS perfect learning.
• Language computation is part of generative mechanism of human mind.
‘Learning language is child’s play’
❖ A normal human child is hardwired to acquire language from the immediate environment
with the help of Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and Universal Grammar (UG).

❖ A complex system and generative capacity miraculously develops with the help of an inbuilt
Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
❖ This process is fast, effortless, and requires no instruction.
 ❖ It recognizes patterns, develops rule, and generates a perfect system called Language.
❖ Results into a body of knowledge – ‘Knowledge of Language (KoL)’.
❖ Human Linguistic Computation and Cognition use socio-culturally grounded context.
❖ The knowledge of language that grows in human mind is not an outcome of a chain of
stimulus-response process; rather it (KoL) is a part of generative apparatus as a special kind of
cognitive ability.
❖ KoL has got serious consequences for Language (second) Teaching/Learning and defining
language as multilingually on a continuum.
Universal Grammar
❖ UG consists of a set of innate and abstract linguistic principles which govern what is possible
in human language (Larsen-Freeman & Long, p. 230).
❖ Principles cluster around parameters – set of properties along which languages vary in
certain restricted ways.
Knowledge of Language
❖ KoL consists of underlying rules that we know but we do not know that we know them.
❖ These underlying rules trigger generative mechanism of a speaker:
➔ produce sentences that they may not have heard before, and
➔ enable them separate grammatical sentences from ungrammatical ones.
Two aspects of language
• I – Language
• Formal Properties of Language
• Linguistics Competence
• Principles and Parameters in Natural Language
• La langue
• E – Language
• Functional Properties of Natural Language
• Rules of language use
• Acquisition of socially grounded information
• Function/use of language in society
• Linguistic Performance
• Communicative Competence
• La parole
❖ We propose that I/E- language distinction at the level of learning is not tenable.
Metaphoric Expressions
• Children i.e. early learners do not require structured instruction for developing an understanding
of functional properties (pragmatic competence) of language.
• However, the adult learners in learning language require them specifically.
• lakshman rekhaa
• Kick the bucket
• khet kii mulii
Non-verbal Communication
❖ Interpretations of non-verbal modes of communication begins simultaneously with the in. It
includes
• Eye contact
• Emotions such as happiness, griefs etc.
• Gestures both appropriate and inappropriate
Concluding Remarks…
❖ Empirical data from learning of language by children reveals that the strict distinction
between I/E language seems untenable.
❖ Children acquire pragmatic competence (knowledge about the use of language)
simultaneously with grammatical competence. No structured instruction is required for
acquiring pragmatic competence.
❖ Children not only acquire expected appropriateness in their linguistic performance but they
also acquire competence in what not to say without structured instruction effortlessly.
❖ There are examples that substantiate such things in adult learning second language, when
learning of above-mentioned pragmatic competence is very difficult if not impossible and
requires rigorous efforts.
❖ Thus we argue for both aspects of the study of language (i.e. language as a formal system and
language as a social reality) as part of the faculty of language.
Implication for Teaching/Learning Language
❖ This idea of simultaneity bears significant implications in language learning and teaching. We
demonstrate that grammatical competence and pragmatic competence are acquired
simultaneously in the event of first language acquisition and the pragmatic understanding is
embedded in the grammatical structures.
❖ This makes an informed teacher.
Negative Sensitive Elements in English
Learning a language
❖ Language acquisition (learning) involves both grammatical competence and pragmatic
competence (performance) and they occur simultaneously.
Elements that help learning
❖ What are competence (I-language) and performance (E-language)?
❖ Learning of language includes aspects of both competence and performance.
Linguistics as general knowledge
A famous anthropologist Shirley Brice Heath (1984) writes:
❖ Language increasingly will be a natural part of the research domains of fields ranging from
computer science to industrial sociology. In the days ahead the foundational knowledge
about language that has come from linguistics will be like certain principles of mathematics,
physics, and biology.
Language: As special endowment
❖ Language is one of the most sophisticated activities and human mind. The development of
this capacity requires input from immediate society.
Negative words:
No
Not
Negative Sensitive Elements
• Anybody Somebody
• Anyone Someone
• Anything Something
• Any
• A word
• A penny
Examples
• John did not like anything.
• *John liked anything.
• Mary did not meet with anyone.
• *Mary met with anyone.
• Raju did not speak a word.
• Raju spoke a word.
• Sarita did not give a penny/a red cent.
• Sarita give a penny/a red cent.
Replacing negation
• Did you meet with anyone?
• *Did you get a penny?
• * Did Raju say a word?
Metaphors
Look at these three sentences:
• She flew past me on her bicycle.
• Turing was the father of the modern computer.
• He gave me a cold look
In all these sentences, the word in bold type is not used in its basic or literal meaning – it is used in
a metaphorical way.
What is a metaphor?
A metaphor is a type of comparison. When we use a word or phrase as a metaphor, it does not
carry its literal meaning.
✓ For example, if you say someone 'flies past' on a bicycle or in a car, they are not really flying
through the air, but the speed of their movement reminds you of a plane or a bird.
How do metaphors work?
❖ Every metaphor contains a 'key idea'. This is the connection or similarity between the literal
meaning and the metaphorical meaning.
❖ Sometimes the same key idea is expressed in several different words and phrases. For
example, when we talk about illness, we often use words and phrases whose literal meanings
are to do with fighting or war:
 • A good diet will help your body fight disease.
• The virus attacks the immune system.
• Jean died on Sunday after a long battle with cancer.
❖ The key idea in this case is that trying to recover from an illness is like fighting a war, and
many of the words and phrases that we use for talking about illness express this idea.
Idioms vs. Metaphors
▪ An idiom is an expression where the derived meaning is different from the literal meaning of
individual words.
▪ Metaphor is an analogy between two objects or ideas that are conveyed by comparing the
two unrelated objects.
▪ Metaphor is a figurative expression which compares two unrelated subjects without using the
terms ‘as’ or ‘like’.
Examples
1. Life isn’t black and white.
Meaning: The term ‘black and white’ is used to highlight the ambiguous nature of life.
2. Her soul is black.
Meaning: The soul being called black or dark describes the insensitive nature of a person. 3.
He carries the weight of the world on his shoulders.
Meaning: A huge amount of trouble is emphasized by the weight of the world.
4. The police officer was digging up details about the suspects.
Meaning: The constant search about the suspects is shown by the word ‘digging’

5. His irresponsible behavior made his health turn south.

Meaning: Here, ‘turn south’ means that his behavior worsened.
6. The wind screamed in his face while he was riding the bike.
Meaning: The wind is compared with a scream to emphasize on how furiously it blew.
7. Go for a walk or you’ll become a couch potato.
Meaning: Here, the person is told that he/she will turn fat and bulgy like a potato if they
avoid exercising.
8.Her heart of stone was the result of the previous unfortunate events in her life.
Meaning: In this sentence, the heart is symbolized by a stone, emphasizing on the lack of
empathy she developed.

9. Her mom warned her about the monsters in the world.

Meaning: The denotation of the bad, wicked people is made by monsters.
10. See the world from a different lens.
Meaning: Different lens indicates a different perspective
11. He’s an early bird.
Meaning: Early bird indicates to wake up early or arrive early to an event/place.
12. His anger bottled up inside.
Meaning: Bottled up is shown to indicate anger repressed inside.

13. Life is no bed of roses.

Meaning: This sentence describes the nature of life being filled with hardships and sacrifice.
14. I’ll make sure she pays for her doings.
Meaning: Here, paying for something means to fix or pay redemption.
 15. I’m the master of my sea.
Meaning: The sentence emphasizes the fact that the person is the master of his own world
and his own fate.
16. She wears different hats to earn a livelihood.
Meaning: Wearing different hats means doing different jobs to earn a living.

17. The complex case landed the detectives barking up the wrong tree.
Meaning: Barking up the wrong tree is used to indicate that the detectives ended up at the
wrong conclusion.
18. The good news about the profit made lifted his spirits.
Meaning: Here, lift someone’s spirits means to make someone feel carefree.
19. Taxes are a minefield for people who are careless.
Meaning: Here, ‘minefield’ is used to denote the presence of dangerous consequences and
problems the person is in.
20. She soon realized that she had been taken for a ride.
Meaning: Taken for a ride means that she had been tricked.

21. He was a cheetah in the race.

Meaning: The runner’s speed is being attributed to the speed of a cheetah.
22. You’ll be left in the dust.
Meaning: Here leaving one in the dust, implies being left far behind.
23. The professor was a guiding light for him.
Meaning: The professor is compared with light, so as to help him pave his way easily.
24. The curtains of life fell.
Meaning: The phrase ‘curtains of life’ are compared to that of a show which has fallen
denoting that the person’s life is over.

25. Life is a maze.

Meaning: Life is being said to have its own navigation as you move ahead with surprises at
every turn.
26.There’s a rat among us.
Meaning: Rats are said to be sneaky animals and are associated with betrayal.
27. Her heart sank on hearing the terrible news.
Meaning: The sinking of the heart is termed to emphasise on deep sorrow.
28. Laughter is the best medicine.
Meaning: Laughter is compared with medicine so as to help you heal or recover from an
event.

29.India’s culture is a salad bowl.

Meaning: Salad bowl is a common cultural idea to reflect India’s multiple cultures, yet
having their own individual identities.
30.His heart was made of gold.
Meaning: Here, gold is used to indicate abundance and generosity
What is writing?
• Writing is the art of expressing our views, ideas, and thoughts.
• Though writing seems easy while thinking about it, many times, it results in unorganized and
scattered pieces of information on paper and creates confusion or sends a wrong message.
• Effective writing can be a daunting task as it demands much more than mere correct grammar.
• You need to gain knowledge about sentence structure, develop your vocabulary, and build other
basic writing skills.
Writing made simple : Steps to write well
• Give Your Writing Structure
• Make sure you’re clear on the concepts you’re writing about.
• If the message is complex, outline it.
• Anticipate your readers’ questions.
• Don’t over-explain everything.
• Go easy on the prepositional phrases.
• Eliminate the filler words and phrases.
• Don’t pad weak words with adverbs.
• Stick with simple words.
• Use contractions.
• Practice, practice, practice!
Essays and its types
• Argumentative essay
• Admissions essay
• Persuasive essay
• Compare and contrast essay
• Personal essay
• Expository essay
An Effective Essay
• Decide what kind of essay to write
• Brainstorm your topic
• Research the topic
• Choose a writing style
• Develop a thesis
• Outline your essay
• Write your essay
• Edit your writing to check spelling and grammar
Research Report
• Research papers are intended to demonstrate a student’s academic knowledge of a subject.
• Three categories: analytical, expository, or argumentative research papers.
• If you’re presenting an analysis of information, then your paper is analytical.
• If you’re writing to explain information, then your paper is expository.
• If you’re arguing a conclusion, then it’s argumentative or persuasive.
Step One : Re-search
1. Understand your subject
2. Formulate ideas for your paper
3. Develop a thesis statement
4. Gather resource materials and begin reviewing them.
Step Two : Make Notes
• As you read and evaluate the information you discover, take notes.
• Keep track of your reference materials so you can cite them and build your bibliography later.
• Try storing your notes in a spreadsheet.
• Create columns for elements you want to include in your paper as well as information necessary
for your citations/bibliography.
• Columns can include headings such as Title, Author, Reference link, Page number, and Quotes.
Step Three: Organise
• Before you begin writing - Don’t skip the organization step. It’s critical to your paper’s
success.
• Without it, your paper will lack focus and you’ll spend much more time in the revision
process trying to make sense of your jumbled thoughts.
• Thesis statement: A sentence that summarizes the main point of your essay and previews
your supporting points. The thesis statement is important because it guides your readers
from the beginning of your essay by telling them the main idea and supporting points of your
essay.
• Your thesis statement should match the type of paper you’re writing.
The Outline
• Having a clear direction in your research with a thesis statement and organize your
presentation with an outline.
• An outline will help you organize your thoughts before you dig into the writing process.
• Think about the main points you’ll need to present to support that statement. Those main
points are your sub-headings.
• Organize your thoughts and information under each sub-heading.
• Delete the ideas that doesn’t fit within the outline. Everything you learn may be fascinating,
but not all of it is going to be relevant to your paper.
Writing – The Introduction
• The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important
questions:
• What is this?
• Why am I reading it?
• What do you want me to do?
• You should answer these questions by doing the following:
• Set the context – Provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation
so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support.
• State why the main idea is important – Tell the reader why he or she should care and keep
reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want to
read and act upon.
• State your thesis/claim – Compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support
with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal), and
ethos (author credibility).
 Writing – The Body
• Outline will come in handy: remember that your outline isn’t meant to be a prison. It’s a
guideline to keep you on track.
• Your paper may evolve, so keep it fluid, but do remember to stay focused on your thesis
statement and proving your points.
• Don’t let your sources organize your paper! Organize first and use your sources as they
become relevant.
• Consider the Rule of Three.
Rule 1: Find supporting arguments for each point you make.
Rule 2: Present a strong point first, followed by an even stronger one.
Rule 3: Finish with your strongest point.
Writing – The Conclusion
• Wrap it up.
• Restate thesis statement.
• Present your thesis again but reword it.
• Briefly summarize the points you’ve made.
• Take a moment to explain why you believe those points support your case.
• If your research is inconclusive, take a moment to point out why you believe this topic
bears further research.
Checklist for Revision
• Is your thesis statement clear and concise?
• Is your paper well-organized and does it flow from beginning to end with logical transitions?
• Do your ideas follow a logical sequence in each paragraph?
• Have you used concrete details and facts and avoided generalizations?
• Do your arguments support and prove your thesis?
• Have you avoided repetition?
• Are your sources properly cited?
• Have you checked for accidental plagiarism?
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
➢ Barriers to Communication imply hurdles or obstacles on the way of transmission of the
message form the sender to the receiver.
1. Physical and Mechanical Barriers: Noise is the disruption or interference in communication
cycle. Noise can be physical as well as psychological. Physical disturbances or distractions such as
gossip, loud speakers, noise of the equipments or machines etc. can cause disturbance in sending
and receiving messages. Whereas, psychological noise refers to mental disturbances such as, clash
in ego, pre occupied mind, hangover, fatigue, anxiety, prejudices, and strong negative emotions
etc. also cause hindrance in communication cycle. Other attributes which cause disturbance are:
 Time
 Distance
 External Noise
 Any Physical Disturbance
 Information Overload
→ Pace of Delivery
→Pace of Reception
2. Language or semantic Barriers: Language is the carrier of all verbal communication. As each
one of us has got a different worldview and perception, the role of language becomes more
imperative and significant in exchanging and sharing information. Lack of coherence, errors of
omission, selection of improper words and technical jargon may mar the meaning and message of
the communication. Other attributes which create a barrier are:
 Unclear Message
 Bad Translation
 Technical Jargon
 Unspecified Assumptions
 Unclear Connotation
 Metaphors
 Linguistic inappropriateness
 Socio-cultural inappropriateness
3. Socio-Psychological Barriers: Every individual perceives things differently. Given these inter-
personal differences and individuality, receiving, interpreting, and decoding depend upon the
psychological state of individual’s mind. The external environment plays a significant role in shaping
of our individual as well as collective perception. Such differences cause barriers to an effective
communication.
 Socio-Cultural Differences In terms of
→Values,
→Beliefs,
→Stereotypes,
→Group Norm,
→Bias,
→Ethnocentrism
4. Organizational Barriers: An organization is a deliberate creation for attainment of specified
objectives. This is usually attempted through a variety of official measures such as designing the
organizational arrangements for performances of various activities, prescribing of various policies,
rules, regulations and procedures, laying down of norms of behaviour, instituting a reward-and-
punishment system etc. All the inner processes, including communication in different directions,
are markedly affected by these prescriptions. Some major organizational barriers are as it follows.
 Status
 One-way Flow
 Organizational Hierarchy
 Rules and Regulations
 Lack of Compliance
 Different Priorities
 Rigidity in Policy
 Attitude towards Seniors
 Lack of Trust in Subordinates Barriers
5. Personal Barriers: Apart from the above-mentioned organizational barriers; some inter-
personal barriers to come into play. These barriers are basically a very significant intervention in
disturbing the communication cycle. Primarily the following inter-personal barriers are of special
mention. They are:
 Differences in Perception
 Differences in Attitudes
 Inattention
 Occupied Mind
 Premature Evaluation
 Resistance to Change
 Selective Omission
 Filtering of Information
 Message Overload
➢ Developing and maintaining a system of good communication is the primary job of any
executive. Effectiveness of Communication largely depends on reciprocal understanding, mutual
exchange of ideas, facts, and information. Gateways
➢ The characteristics and attributes of a good communication system are:
 Two-way Channel
 Mutual Trust
 Clarity of Message
 Timely Message
 Consistency of Message
 Good Reasoning
 Proactive Relations
 Periodical Feedback
 Emphatic Listening
 Flexibility
 Socio-cultural Appropriateness

CONTEXT OF COMMUNICATION-THE SPEAKING MODE

Communicative Competence
• Dell Hymes coined the term Communicative Competence in 1966 as a response to the
perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between Linguistic Competence
and Linguistic Performance.
• "Communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".
 • Communicative competence is the intuitive functional knowledge and control of the
principles of language usage.
The Sixteen Components Applied to Discourse
◦ message form; ◦ message content;
◦ setting; ◦ scene;
◦ speaker/sender; ◦ addressor;
◦ hearer/receiver/audience; ◦ addressee;
• purposes (outcomes); • purposes (goals);
• key; • channels;
• forms of speech; • norms of interaction;
• norms of interpretation; and • genres.
S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G MODEL
• Hymes argues that in order to speak a language correctly, one
needs not only to learn its vocabulary and grammar, but also the
context in which words are used.
• In this context, the learning the components of the SPEAKING
model is essential for Competence.

Setting and scene

• "Setting refers to the time and place of a speech act and, in general, to the physical
circumstances”. Scene is the "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a setting,
including characteristics such as range of formality and sense of play or seriousness.
• Setting of the speech event also refers to the location of participants and any physical
barriers that may be present.
Participants
• Speaker and audience – Speaker and the audience that can be distinguished as addressees
and other hearers. When considering the participants in a speech event, one should consider
implicit and explicit rules about who is, can, and should be involved; what expectations are
established for the participants; who is speaking and who is being addressed.
Ends
• ‘Ends’ refers to Purposes, goals, and outcomes.
Act sequence
• Form and order of the event –
• Act sequence refers to the sequence of speech acts that make up the event. The order of
speech acts greatly influences the speech event.
• Act sequence for an event also orients the participants to social cues. Important aspects of
act sequence include turn-taking and interrupting.
Key
• "Key" refers to the clues that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act Clues
that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act.
Instrumentalities
• It refers to the forms and styles of speech. These include the method of communication
(writing, speaking, signalling), the language, dialect (a mutually intelligible subset of a
language) or register (a variety of a language that is used in specific settings).
Norms
• Social rules governing the event and the participants' actions and reaction –
When is it okay to speak?
Who should listen?
When is silence preferred?
How loud is too loud?
What speed should be used in the conversation?
What topics are acceptable? Genre
The kind of speech act or event;
Didactic, moral instruction, gossip, jokes, and conversations
INTERVIEW SKILLS
Challenges:
◦ Anxiety
◦ Nervousness
◦ Over Cautiousness
◦ Fear of Mistakes
◦ Lack of Preparation
◦ Lack of Control over the Content
◦ Lack of appropriate Linguistic Skills
◦ Inappropriate Communication Strategies
◦ Improper Body Language
◦ Frequent Distractions
Pre-Interview
◦ Planning & Preparation
◦ Research about the Organization
◦ Prepare and Practice Standard Answers
◦ Be in Control
◦ Know your Audience/Organization
◦ Preparation
◦ Control over the Contents
◦ Organize the information
◦ Work on your Appearance
◦ Arrange your Papers and Testimonials
While-Interview
◦ Make a Good First Impression
◦ Answer the Right Questions
◦ Get Your Tone Right
 ◦ Speaking Intelligibly
◦ Speaking fluently
◦ Speaking confidently
◦ Daring to paraphrase
◦ Asking for clarifications
◦ Linguistic Skills
◦ Interactive Skills
◦ Communication Strategies
◦ Ability to respond quickly
◦ Proper Introduction
◦ Logical Arguments
Post-Interview
◦ Follow Up
◦ Thanking the Panel
◦ Complying with the instructions if issued regarding formalities
Linguistic Skills
◦ Accuracy of-
◦ Vocabulary
◦ Grammar
◦ Pronunciation
◦ Ability to –
◦ handle a range of topics
◦ get in a range of contexts
◦ select semantically appropriate expressions, words, structures
◦ Cohesion in ideas
Interactive Skills
◦ Fluency
◦ Speaking at natural speed
◦ Linking and pausing naturally
◦ Paraphrasing
◦ Alternate Explanation
◦ Substantiating with appropriate examples
◦ Asking questions
Communication Strategies
◦ Greeting
◦ Opening
◦ Holding the floor
◦ Paraphrasing
◦ Clarifying
◦ Using appropriate Body Language
◦ Interpreting Feedback

NOTES BY – ADITYA DHAR DWIVEDI