Mintzberg's Managerial Roles

Interpersonal Roles
Figurehead: Representing the organization at social events, ceremonies, and more.

Leader: Motivates, directs, and manages the performance of employees.

Liaison: Builds and maintains a network of contacts inside and outside the organization.

Informational Roles
Monitor: Gathers and analyzes information from internal and external sources to keep the
organization well-informed about various factors.

Disseminator: Distributes important information to employees within the organization.

Spokesperson: Communicates information about the organization to external stakeholders.

Decisional Roles
Entrepreneur: Initiates and oversees new projects and improvements.

Disturbance Handler: Resolves conflicts and handles crises within the organization.
Resource Allocator: Decides where to allocate resources, including time, money, and
personnel.

Negotiator: Represents the organization in negotiations and manages agreements.

Classical Approach to Management

This involves three theories:

1. Scientific Management Theory:

● Frederick Taylor
● Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
2. General Administrative Theory
● Henry Fayol
3. Bureaucratic Organization
● Max Weber

Scientific Management Theory

Developed by: Frederick Winslow Taylor
When: Early 1900s

Taylor's approach aimed to improve productivity (less input, more output) and efficiency in
industrial settings through scientific and systematic study of work processes.
Taylor's Principles
● Scientifically study each part of a job and develop the one best way of doing it. It
aims to replace the “rule of thumb” method

● Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the workers

● Cooperate with workers and ensure they use the proper method of doing the job

● Divide work and responsibility equally between workers and managers

Frank and Gilbreth’s Time and Motion Study

Improved upon Taylor’s principles. Studied the movements of workers and the time it takes
them to finish tasks. This was done to:

● Reduce the number of motions in a task.

● Focus on gradually analyzing and improving how tasks are done and how long they
take.

● Increase efficiency to increase profit and worker satisfaction.

Scientific Management — summarized
● Replace the rule of thumb method with science and standardization

● Select the right person for the right job

● Equal division of work between workers and managers

● Collaboration between workers and managers

General Administrative Theory

General Administrative Theory focuses on what managers do and how to improve
management practices. Henri Fayol identified five key functions: planning, organizing,
commanding, coordinating, and controlling, along with 14 management principles

Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management

1. Division of work: Segregate work to enhance productivity

2. Authority and responsibility: Controlled environment & better management

3. Discipline: Good behavior of employees makes it easy to manage them

4. Unity of Command: Every worker should only have one direct boss. Multiple bosses
create conflicts and confusion

5. Centralization: Balance between division of power and hierarchy

6. Unity of Direction: All persons in the company should have one goal

7. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: The interest of the

company is more important than individual interests

8. Scalar Chain: Every individual should be aware of their immediate senior

9. Remuneration of Personnel: Monetary or non-monetary

10. Order: A well-defined work order boosts productivity

11. Initiative: Encourages employees to take initiative

12. Stability of tenure personnel: Job security

13. Equity: No employee should face discrimination

14. Espirit de corps: Developing trust and understanding will lead to a positive work
environment

Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory

Bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be
organized
Systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order, maximize
efficiency, and eliminate favoritism.

● Hierarchy of authority

● Division of work

● Rules and regulations

● Technical competence

● Record keeping

● Impersonal relationships

Neoclassical Theory of Management

The Neoclassical Theory of Management emphasizes the human and social aspects of the
workplace.
It focuses on employee relationships, motivation, and communication, acknowledging that
workers are motivated not just by financial incentives but also by social needs and job
satisfaction.

Hawthorne Experiments
Location: Conducted at Western Electric Company (1924–1932) in Cicero, Illinois

Aim: Study the effect of lighting on worker productivity

Experiment 1: Study the effect of light on productivity

Experiment 2: Study the effect of work hours on productivity

Unexpected results: Productivity increased regardless of changes in lighting conditions or

work hours, leading to the realization that factors beyond physical conditions were
influencing worker performance

Experiment 3: Understand employee attitude through mass interviews

Experiment 4: Study the effects of informal relations

Conclusion: Researchers found that worker productivity was more affected by social and
psychological factors, such as group dynamics, supervision, and feeling valued.

Key insights

● Workers are not economic beings

● Social and psychological factors have a major influence
● Workers do not react as individuals but as a part of a group
● Respond to the total work situation

Human Relations Theory: Elton Mayo

● Focuses on the social and psychological needs of employees.

● Employee satisfaction, group dynamics, and relationships are crucial to productivity.

● Productivity increases when workers feel valued and their social needs are met.

Study of Organizational Behaviour

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of how individuals and groups act within
organizations.

It encompasses the examination of various factors that influence behavior in the workplace,
including:

● Individual behavior
● Group dynamics
 ● Organizational structure
● Culture and environment
● Change management
● Performance and productivity

Perception
Perception is an intellectual process through which an individual:
● Selects data from the environment
● Organizes it
● Derives meaning from it

It is a cognitive process that involves individuals selecting, organizing, and interpreting

stimuli.

Components of perception:
● Sensation
● Attention
● Interpretation
● Context

Factors influencing perception

● Personal Factors: Individual traits such as personality, motivation, experiences, and
expectations shape perception.

● Cultural Factors: Cultural background affects the interpretation of behaviors and

norms.

● Social Influences: Group dynamics and social interactions can alter perceptions.

● Situational Factors: The specific context or environment surrounding an event

impacts how it is perceived.

Perceptual Errors
Perceptual errors occur when our judgments and interpretations about people or situations
are flawed.

Common Types:

● Stereotyping: Making assumptions about individuals based on their group

membership (e.g., age, gender).

● Halo Effect: Allowing one positive trait to influence the overall impression of a person
(e.g., assuming a friendly employee is also competent).

● Horns Effect: Allowing one negative trait to color the perception of a person (e.g.,
assuming a rude employee lacks skills).
 ● Selective Perception: Focusing only on certain details while ignoring others, leading
to a biased understanding.

● Attribution Errors involve misjudging the causes of behaviors, such as blaming a

colleague's mistakes on their personality instead of external factors.

Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is about how people explain the reasons behind their own and others'
actions and behavior.

It looks at how we understand why someone behaves a certain way, which can affect our
feelings and interactions with them.

Attribution:

● Observing the behavior

● Determining whether the beahvior was intentional or not
● Determining whether the behavior was caused by internal or external factors

Internal Attribution vs External Attribution

● Internal Attribution: When you think someone's behavior comes from their personal
traits or qualities (e.g., "She did well because she is smart").
 ● External Attribution: When you think someone's behavior is due to external factors
(e.g., "He did poorly because the test was hard").

Factors Influencing Attribution

● Consensus: Do others act the same way in similar situations? If yes, it suggests
external reasons; if not, it suggests internal reasons.

● Distinctiveness: Does the person act differently in different situations? If yes, this
suggests external reasons; if not, it suggests internal reasons.

● Consistency: Does the person behave the same way over time? If yes, it usually
suggests internal reasons.

Fundamental Attribution Error

This is when we blame someone's behavior on their personality (internal) rather than the
situation (external).

For example, if a coworker misses a deadline, we might think they're lazy instead of
recognizing they might have had too much work.

Self-Serving Bias
This is when people take credit for their successes (thinking it's due to their skills) but blame
their failures on outside factors (like bad luck). This helps them feel better about themselves.

Locus of control
Locus of control is about how much control individuals believe they have over their lives.
Internal locus

Internal Locus of Control: Belief that personal actions and decisions influence outcomes.
Example: Attributing success to hard work.

External Locus of Control: Belief that external factors (like luck or fate) determine
outcomes.Example: Blaming failure on difficult circumstances.

Paradigm
A paradigm is a widely accepted set of beliefs, values, and assumptions that shape how
individuals or groups understand and interpret the world.

In various fields, such as science, social sciences, and management, a paradigm provides a
framework for understanding phenomena and guiding research, practices, and behaviors.

It influences what questions are asked, what methods are used, and how results are
interpreted.
Paradigm Shift

A paradigm shift is a fundamental change in how an individual or group perceives

something.

A paradigm shift in organizational behavior refers to a significant transformation in the

underlying beliefs, values, and practices that shape how organizations operate and manage
their workforce.

This shift can be triggered by various factors, including technological changes, societal
values, or new research findings that challenge existing assumptions about organizational
behavior.

It often results in dramatic changes in how problems are understood and solved.

Individual Behaviour and Personality

Id: The impulsive part of the personality that seeks instant pleasure and gratification.

Ego: The rational part that mediates between desires and reality, finding acceptable ways to
satisfy the Id.

Superego: The moral component that represents societal values and acts as a conscience,
guiding decisions on right and wrong.

Personality
Personality refers to the individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling,
and behaving.

It encompasses various traits that shape how a person interacts with the world, including
their emotional responses, habits, and social behaviors.

Understanding personality is essential for predicting behavior in various situations.

Big 5 Model
The Big Five Model, or Five-Factor Model (FFM), identifies five broad dimensions of
personality:

1. Openness to Experience: Creativity and willingness to try new things.

2. Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, and discipline.

3. Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, and talkativeness.

4. Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperativeness, and trust.

5. Neuroticism: Emotional instability and susceptibility to stress.

Dogmatism
Dogmatism is a personality trait characterized by a rigid adherence to one's beliefs and a
reluctance to consider alternative viewpoints.

In an organizational context, dogmatic individuals may resist change and be less adaptable
to new ideas, hindering innovation and collaboration.

Abilities in Individual Behavior

Skills and competencies that enable effective task performance within organizations, such
as:

Cognitive Abilities: Mental skills like reasoning and problem-solving.

Technical Abilities: Specialized skills related to specific tasks or professions.

Interpersonal Abilities: Skills for effective interactions and communication.

Emotional Intelligence (EI): Ability to manage one's and others' emotions.

Physical Abilities: Skills enabling the performance of physical tasks.

Learning Theories
Learning theories explain how individuals acquire, process, and retain knowledge.

They provide a framework for understanding how learning occurs and can inform
educational practices and training programs.

Behavioral Learning Theory (B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov)

Learning is a change in behavior resulting from external stimuli.

● Classical Conditioning: Learning occurs through associations between stimuli. For

example, in Pavlov’s experiment, dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that
was associated with food.

● Operant Conditioning: Learning is influenced by the consequences of behavior.

Positive reinforcement (rewards) increases the likelihood of behavior, while negative
reinforcement (removing unpleasant stimuli) and punishment (introducing unpleasant
consequences) decrease it.

Cognitive Learning Theory (Jean Piaget, Albert Bandura)

Learning involves internal mental processes like memory & problem-solving and is not just a
response to stimuli.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Learning through observing others and social interactions.

Experiential Learning Theory (David Kolb)

Experiential learning theories emphasize learning through experience.

They propose that individuals learn best when they engage in hands-on, real-world activities
that allow for reflection and application.

Learning Cycle:

● Experience
● Reflect
● Conceptualize
● Apply

Applications:

● Internships
● Simulations
● Hands-on training

Maslow's Theory
Maslow's Theory: Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory that
categorizes human needs into five levels, arranged in a pyramid:

1. Physiological Needs: Basic needs for survival, such as food, water, and shelter.

2. Safety Needs: Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.

3. Love and Belonging Needs: Emotional relationships, friendship, and a sense of

belonging.

4. Esteem Needs: Recognition, self-esteem, and respect from others.

5. Self-Actualization: Realizing personal potential and self-fulfillment. Understanding

these needs helps organizations create environments that foster employee
motivation and satisfaction.
Gestalt’s Theory
Gestalt theories are a school of thought that focuses on how people perceive the world as a
whole rather than as a collection of individual parts. The word "gestalt" is German for "whole"
or "put together."

Here are some key concepts in Gestalt theory:

1. Similarity: People tend to group similar objects together.

2. Continuation: People tend to follow the smoothest path along linear visuals.

3. Closure: People tend to complete visuals with missing pieces if enough information
is available.

4. Proximity: People tend to organize objects that are closer together.

5. Figure/ground: People can produce multiple images from a single visual by

distinguishing between the background and foreground.

6. Symmetry and order: People tend to simplify complex shapes into simpler or more
symmetrical shapes.

7. Emergence: People can quickly make sense of their environment without analyzing
every small detail.