Philosophical Foundations for Curriculum Designing

Concept of Educational philosophy,

Types of philosophy and its role in curriculum designing

Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. It helps educators in

formulating beliefs, arguments, and assumptions and in making value judgments.
Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also helps in answering what schools
are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn, and what materials
and methods should be used. Philosophy provides the starting point in decision
making about education in its totality.

Philosophical Foundations
Philosophical foundations of curriculum contain idealism, realism, pragmatism,
existentialism, and educational philosophies which are perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism, and reconstructionism.
Many sources consider philosophy to be “the study of basic ideas about
knowledge, truth, right and wrong and the nature of meaning of life.”
Locke defines philosophy as a “process of liberation from ignorance and
prejudice” (Curriculum Studies, 2020.)
Philosophy has the multifaceted effect of helping us to:
 indicate in general what we mean,
 make what we mean more specific and definite, and
 develop what we mean into a useful construct.
Thus, philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the curriculum
development process by helping clarify our thought process. And, because
philosophy is a process of the mind, there are a variety of philosophical thoughts
that need consideration.
To start with, there are two broad categories of philosophy: the traditional and
modern philosophies. In each of those categories, there are major philosophies
such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism, as well as educational
philosophies arising from those major philosophies. These include perennialism
and essentialism in the traditional category, while progressivism and
reconstructionism fall under the modern philosophies.

Idealism
Idealism is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems, whose main
proponent was the Greek philosopher, Plato. Idealism advocates that ideas
constitute what is real and permanent, i.e. ideas are the only true reality. Idealism
also emphasizes the spiritual component of man, i.e., man is a spiritual being.
According to this philosophy, education is the process of development of a person,
his/her conscious and spiritual self. The ultimate responsibility for learning rests
with learners. The school exists to develop character, increase knowledge, and
cultivate aesthetic taste. The teacher is expected to be a model, friend, and guide to
the learners.

Realism
The realist’s school of thought is traced back to Aristotle, another main, Greek
philosopher. According to this philosophy, matter or objects that we see exist by
themselves, i.e., they exist absolutely with or without man. In other words, matter
is not a construct of the human mind.
The following principles are therefore upheld:
 the principle of independence of matter,
 the principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization, this means
that law and order prevail in the universe,
 the principle of the world as real as discovered by the scientist.
Thus, it is possible to have objective knowledge of the world. Our senses are also a
source of knowledge. The philosophy also advocates that values exist objectively;
they are absolute and eternal.
What then are the educational implication of realism? Following are a few:
 The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature and
inner workings of the universe.
  Education is essentially transmission of inherited culture from one
generation to another.
 Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain elements of culture.
 Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to discover
important principles and theoretical insights.
Based on this philosophy, there should be a core curriculum for every learner.

Pragmatism
The main proponent of pragmatism was John Dewey (1859 -1952). The
proponents of pragmatism were reacting against what they considered as failures or
shortcomings of the traditional school system, supported by idealism and realism.
Some of the criticisms included:
 Traditional curriculum content included a lot of meaningless and needless
content.
 Traditional curriculum did not give a “utility education.”
 The curriculum was rigid and did not cater to individual needs of particular
learners.
Pragmatists, therefore, advocated for reality being considered as instrumental, i.e.,
used as an instrument to solve problems. Philosophy is therefore built on practical
usefulness, i.e., “cash value of ideas.” Hence, truth is what works, what turns out
all night. Truth also should be the idea that has been tested, verified, and found
effective in solving problems.
What are the educational implications of pragmatism?
Learning from Experience
If experience is the source of knowledge, it is also a source of education. We learn
by doing. However, not every experience is educative; experience must be
productive, i.e., produce growth.
Educational Aim: Develop Learners’ Ability to Deal with Future Problems
That is, to develop intelligence to solve problems. According to Dewey, the
process involves:
  identifying the problem,
 formatting a hypothesis(es),
 gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the problem,
 testing each hypothesis, and
 storing the unity of knowledge for use in some similar situations.
Curriculum
Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on problems that arise out of daily living.
School is therefore an extension of home and community.
Methods of Study
These should include:
 problem-solving,
 activity,
 projects, and
 group involvement.
Teachers should be a resource and guide; thus a motivator. Teaching must be
child-centered.
For pragmatists, all subjects are vital. However, sciences are favored because the
child is able to explore new knowledge.

Existentialism
According to Akinpelu (1981), existentialism is defined as “the philosophy of
existence.” A person is therefore free to choose the type of life to live and is in
control of his/her destiny. An individual is thus free to make choices and be
responsible for them.
Reality, therefore, is subjective. Values emphasized are those that the individual
chooses freely according to his/her perception.
Implications of Existentialism on Education and Curriculum
The main implication is an emphasis on knowledge and abilities for personal
choice. Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and principles of the human
condition and acts of choice-making.
Curriculum should have a broad range of subject matter from which learners can
choose, i.e., electives, and an inclusion of subjects that involve:
 human emotions,
 aesthetics, and also,
 philosophical subjects.
Most important is that philosophy can free learners to expand their learning and
what they believe. Thus, there should be no standard guides for teachers to follow,
given that learners are unique.

Educational Philosophies
Based on the major philosophies ,certain educational philosophies were developed by various
scholars.
We begin by pointing out that there are two broad categories of educational philosophies: the
traditional and the modern philosophies.
Traditional educational philosophies include perennialism and essentialism; while modern
educational philosophies include progressivism and reconstructionism.

Perennialism
Perennialism draws from both idealism and realism. The perennialists believe that the
“cement of education, is the common nature of man” (Doll, 1992:29). With that focus,
education should be the same for everyone.
Education must therefore pursue perennial truths. These truths are absolute and universal.
The philosophy presupposes that there are permanent studies and knowledge that is available,
particularly from the great books, which should be taught to all students.
The stress is on significance of reason and intellectual development. Curriculum is
expected to contain “important” subjects taught in their customary separate form, e.g.,
history as history, geography as geography, and civics as civics, rather than combining them
and naming them “Social Studies” for example.
Other subjects emphasized on include literature, philosophy, and theology because of their
ability to “sharpen the mind.”

Essentialism
Essentialism focuses on traditional subjects, reading, writing, and mathematics.
This philosophy aims to instill students with the “essentials” of academic
knowledge and character development.
As with perennialism, essentialism is also on the major traditional philosophies of
idealism and realism. Essentialist’s educational aims are to develop intellectual
powers, as well as educate competent persons. Schools should therefore not be
side-tracked into catering to the personal problems and social needs of students.
Cultural heritage needs should be considered for curriculum making. Essential
skills especially reading, writing, and arithmetic (three Rs) and academic subjects
such as English, science, and mathematics are given priority in the education
process with an emphasis on mastery of concepts and principles of subject-matter.
As with perennials, the curriculum is subject-centered and emphasized separate
organized disciplines as opposed to integrated subjects. The teacher in this case is
considered an authority in his/her subject field. Moving from traditional
educational philosophies, let us now examine more modern ones.

Progressivism
Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from pragmatism..
Besides Dewey’s contribution, other scholars in this area include Montessori,
Cornelius, and Rousseau. Their studies and research were geared towards
identifying the most appropriate type and nature of curriculum for learners.
Progressivists education seeks to promote democratic schooling as well as social
living. The other major emphasis is on a child or learner-centered curriculum. The
curriculum therefore is based on the learners’ interests, needs, abilities, and
aspirations, among other characteristics of the learners.
Progressive education curriculum emphasized five approaches to the
teaching/learning process, namely:
 teacher-pupil planning of curriculum activities,
 flexible curriculum and individualized instruction, and
 learner-centered teaching and learning methodology.
Selection of study material in line with the expressed interests and concerns of the
learner. Non-formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas like games,
related hobbies, and other co-curricular areas.
The aim of this form of education is to provide a learning atmosphere that allows
children maximum self-direction and to reduce teacher domination in the
teaching/learning process.
Concerning progressivism, the emphasis is on a child-centered curriculum, which
necessitates a flexible and broad curriculum. There is also an emphasis on practical
skills.
In general, it is possible to identify elements of past education in the present-day
curricula in many education systems within the United States and the rest of the
world, depending on the past history.

Reconstructionism
Reconstructionists hold on to an anthropological–sociological philosophy that
would put schools at the forefront of remaking society. Reconstructionism evolved
from a critical perspective of the work of the progressivists who put much
emphasis on the needs of the child, sometimes at the expense of societal needs.
Reconstructionist’ educational aims are to improve and reconstruct society as need
be, as well as education for change and social reform. Thus, the study of
contemporary social problems become the centerpiece of curriculum content.
The critical social problems might be national or global including such issues as
oppression, poverty, hunger, racial/ethnic strife, war, and health issues such as
HIV/Aids.
The reconstructionist believe that resources are available to solve these problems
and the education profession could be the catalyst to prepare and organize future
generations to make this possible. They, however, try to avoid indoctrinating
children; rather, they seek to lead them in rational discussion and critical analysis
of issues.
Reconstructionists use multiple teaching materials, and they consider the inclusion
of subject matter that would be useful to serve the central cause of the issue of
concern. Planning of curriculum often involves various stakeholders including
learners, parents, and community leaders.