UNIT IV – Sensors

Transducer
A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to another, often in a
different form.
Broadly defined, the transducer is a device capable of being actuated by an energizing input from one or more
transmission media and in turn generating a related signal to one or more transmission systems. It provides a usable
output in response to a specified input measured, which may be a physical or mechanical quantity, property, or
conditions. The energy transmitted by these systems may be electrical, mechanical or acoustical.
The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is nonelectrical. In order to use electrical methods and
techniques for measurement, the nonelectrical quantity is converted into a proportional electrical signal by a device
called “transducer”.
Actually, electrical transducer consists of two parts which are very closely related to each other. These two parts
are sensing or detecting element and transduction element. The sensing or detecting element is commonly known
as sensor.

1. Sensing Element
The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part of the transistor.
2. Transduction Element
The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element is responsible for
converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal.

Classifications:-
1. Based upon transduction principle used
2. Primary & Secondary transducers
3.Active & Passive transducers
4. Analoge & Digital transducers
5.Transducers & Inverse transducers

1. Based upon the transduction principle:-

 Resistance - Potentimeter devices, Resistance strain gauge, Pirani guage or hot wire meter, Resistance
thermometer, Thermister, Resistance hygrometer, Photoconductive cell.
 Capacitance - Variable capacitance pressure gauge, Capacitor microphone, Dielectric gauge.
 Inductance - Magnetic circuit transducer, Reluctance pick-up, Differential transformer,
Eddy current guage, Magneto striction gauge.
 Voltage & Current - Hall effect transducer, Ionisation chamber, Photoemissive cell,
Photomultiplier tube.
 Self generating transducers - Thermocouple, Thermopile, Moving coil generator, Piezoelectric transducer,
Photovoltaic.

2. Primary & Secondary transducers:-

Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical device. The mechanical device converts the
physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical device are called as the primary
transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured. • The electrical device then convert this
mechanical signal into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are known as secondary
transducers.

Example of Primary and secondary transducer Primary transducer Displacement voltage Secondary
transducer

3. Active & Passive:-

Transducers those which don’t require an auxiliary power source to produce their output are known as ‘Active
transducers’ or self generating type.
eg: Moving coil, Piezoelectric crystal, Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell.
On the other hand transducer that can’t work on the absence of external power supply are called ‘passive
transducers’.
eg: Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive.

4. Analoge & Digital :-

Analoge transducers converts input quantity into an analog output which is continous function of time.
eg: strain gauge, LVDT, Thermocouple. Thermister.

Digital transducer converts input quantity into an electrical output is in the form of pulses
eg: Glass scale, Metallic scale.

5. Transducers & Inverse Transducers

We have already looked into transducers, inverse transducers are just the opposite of transducers in function. I
Inverse transducers converts electrical quantity in non electrical quantity. Just think about an current coil moving
in magnetic field which is an inverse transducer.
eg: Peizoelectrical crystal.

Basically, there are two types of transducers, electrical, and mechanical.

Electrical Transducer Definition
An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical quantity to be measured
is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism into an electrical voltage/current proportional to the input
measurand.
An electrical transducer must have the following parameters:
Linearity: The relationship between a physical parameter and the resulting electrical signal must be linear.
Sensitivity: This is defined as the electrical output per unit change in the physical parameter (for example V/°C for
a temperature sensor). High sensitivity is generally desirable for a transducer.
Dynamic Range: The operating range of the transducer should be wide, to permit its use under a wide range of
measurement conditions.
Repeatability: The input/output relationship for a transducer should be predictable over a long period of time. This
ensures reliability of
Physical Size: The Electrical Transducer Definition must have minimal weight and volume, so that its presence in
the measurement system does not disturb the existing conditions.
Advantages of Electrical Transducer
The main advantages of electrical transducer (conversion of physical quantity into electrical quantities) are as
follows:
Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
Mass-inertia effects are minimised.
Effects of friction are minimised.
The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing medium.
The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling units. The signal magnitude
can be related in terms of the voltage current. (The analog signal information can be converted in to pulse or
frequency information. Since output can be modified, modulated or amplified at will, the output signal can be
easily used for recording on any suitable multichannel recording device.)
The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of similar transducers or control
signals.
The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of measurement.
Selecting a Transducer
The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended application. The following should be
considered while selecting a transducer.
Operating range: Chosen to maintain range requirements and good
Sensitivity: Chosen to allow sufficient output.
Frequency response and resonant frequency: Flat over the entire desired range.
Environmental compatibility: Temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks, interaction, size and mounting
restrictions.
Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than the measurand.
Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli.
Usage and ruggedness: Ruggedness, both of mechanical and electrical intensities versus size and weight.
Electrical parameters: Length and type of cable required, signal to noise ratio when combined with amplifiers, and
frequency response limitations.
Resistive Transducer
Resistive Transducer Definition are those in which the resistance changes due to a change in some physical
phenomenon. The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the length of the conductor can be used
to measure displacement.
Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor changes when strained.
This can be used for the measurement of displacement, force and pressure.
The resistivity of materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can be used for the measurement
of temperature.
Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element provided with a sliding contact, called a wiper. The
motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. Some have a combination of both, with resistive
elements in the form of a helix, as shown in Fig. (c). They are known as helipots.
Translatory resistive elements, as shown in Fig. (a), are linear (straight) devices. Rotational resistive devices are
circular and are used for the measurement of angular displacement, as shown in Fig. (b).
Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the measurement of either
translatory or rotational motion. A potentiometer is a passive transducer since it requires an external power source
for its operation.
They are inexpensive.
Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are not particularly severe.
They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow control operations.
Disadvantages of Potentiometers
When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding contacts.
The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.
Resistance Pressure Transducer
Measurement in the resistive type of transducer is based on the fact that a change in pressure results in
a resistance change in the sensing elements. Resistance pressure transducers are of two main types. First, the
electromechanical resistance transducer, in which a change of pressure, stress, position, displacement or other
mechanical variation is applied to a variable The other resistance transducer is the strain gauge, where the stress
acts directly on the resistance. It is very commonly used for stress and displacement measurement in
instrumentation.
In the general case of pressure measurement, the sensitive resistance element may take other forms, depending on
the mechanical arrangement on which the pressure is caused to act.
Figure (d) and (e) show two ways by which the pressure acts to influence the sensitive resistance element, i.e. by
which pressure varies the resistance They are the bellow type, and the diaphragm type. (Yet another is the
Bourdon tube of pressure gauge).
In each of these cases, the element moved by the pressure change is made to cause a change in resistance.
This resistance change can be made part of a bridge circuit and then taken as either ac or dc output signal to
determine the pressure indication.

Strain Gauge
The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires to
sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
It is well known that stress (force/unit area) and strain (elongation or compression/unit length) in a member or
portion of any object under pressure is directly related to the modulus of elasticity.
Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance transducers, it is a common practice to
measure strain instead of stress, to serve as an index of pressure. Such transducers are popularly known as strain
gauges.
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact that both the length
and diameter of the conductor changes. Also, there is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when
subjected to strain, a property called the piezo-resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known
as piezo resistive gauges.
Many detectors and transducers, e.g. load cells, torque meters, pressure gauges, temperature sensors, etc. employ
strain gauges as secondary transducers.
When a gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of cross-section decreases. Since
the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of cross-
section, the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. The change in resistance value of a conductor
under strain is more than for an increase in resistance due to its dimensional changes. This property is called the
piezoresistive effect.
The following types of strain gauges are the most important.

 Wire strain gauges

 Foil strain gauges
 Semiconductor strain gauges
 Resistance Wire Gauge
Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type, and the bonded type.
1.Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
An unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire streched between two points in an insulating medium, such as air.
The diameter of the wire used is about 25 μm. The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no free
vibration. Unbonded Strain Gauge Derivation are usually connected in a bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced
with no load applied as shown in Fig.
When an external load is applied, the resistance of the Strain Gauge Derivation changes, causing an unbalance of
the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage. This voltage is proportional to the strain. A displacement of the
order of 50μm can be detected with these strain gauges.
Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
A metallic bonded Strain Gauge Derivation is shown in Fig..

A fine wire element about 25 μm (0.025 in.) or less in diameter is looped back and forth on a carrier (base) or
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented on
a carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper, bakelite, or teflon. The wire is covered on the top with a thin material,
so that it is not damaged mechanically. The spreading of the wire permits uniform distribution of stress. The carrier
is then bonded or cemented to the member being studied. This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional area. The
combined effect is an increase in resistance, as seen from the following equation

where
ρ = the specific resistance of the material in Ωm.
l = the length of the conductor in m
A = the area of the conductor in m2
Strain Gauge Transducer Types:
Strain Gauge Transducer Types are three types, namely
1.Wire Strain Gauges
2.Foil Strain Gauge
3.Semiconductor Strain Gauge
1.Wire Strain Gauges:
Wire Strain Gauges has three types namely,

 Grid type
 Rossette type
 Torque type
 Helical type

The grid arrangement of the wire element in a bonded strain gauge creates a problem not encountered in the use
of unbonded strain gauges. To be useful as a strain gauge, the wire element must measure strain along one axis.
Therefore complete and accurate analysis of strain in a rigid member is impossible, unless the direction and
magnitude of stress are known. The measuring axis of a strain gauge is its longitudinal axis, which is parallel to
the wire element, as shown in Fig..
When a strain occurs in the member being measured, along the transverse axis of the gauge, it also affects the
strain being measured parallel to the longitudinal axis. This introduces an error in the response of the gauge.
In most applications, some degree of strain is present along the transverse axis and the transverse sensitivity must
be considered in the final gauge output. Transverse sensitivity cannot be completely eliminated, and in highly
accurate measurements the resultant gauge error must be compensated for.
If the axis of the strain in a component is unknown, Strain Gauge Transducer Types may be used to determine the
exact direction. The standard procedure is to place several gauges at a point on the member’s surface, with known
angles between them. The magnitude of strain in each individual gauge is measured, and used in the geometrical
determination of the strain in the member. Below Figure shows a three-element strain gauge, called a Rossette
gauge, in which the angle between any two longitudinal gauge axes is 45°.
The 45° Rossette gauge is, in general, the most popular one. There are different shapes and sizes of Strain Gauge
Transducer Types for various purposes.
Serving a similar, but not specialised, purpose are gauges with specially modified grid configurations, such as
those shown in Figs. (a), (b) and (c).
A measurement of this type would be useful at the cross-point of an X-shaped frame.
The latest in strain gauges is the etched foil strain gauge. This device uses the technique of PCB design. Its physical
and electrical characteristics are superior to bonded wire strain gauges in almost every respect.
The size of strain gauges varies with application. They can be as small as 3 sq.mm. Usually they are larger, but
not more than 2.5 mm long and 12.5 mm wide.
To obtain good results, it is desirable that a resistance wire strain gauge have the following characteristics.
The Strain Gauge Transducer Types should have a high value of gauge factor (a high value of gauge factor
indicates a large change in resistance for particular strain, implying high sensitivity).
The resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as possible, since this minimises the effects of undesirable
variations of resistance in the measurement circuit. Typical resistances of strain gauges are 120 Ω, 350 Ω and 1000
Ω.
A high resistance value results in lower sensitivity. Hence, in order to get high sensitivity, higher
bridge Voltages have to be used. The bridge voltage is limited by the maximum current carrying capacity of the
wires, which is typically 30 mA.
The strain gauge should have a low resistance temperature coefficient. This is necessary to minimise errors on
account of temperature variation, which affects the accuracy of measurements. (Temperature compensation is also
used.).
The strain gauge should not have hysteresis effects in its response.
In order to maintain constancy of calibration over the entire range of the strain gauge, it should have linear
characteristics, i.e. the variation in resistance should be a linear function of the strain.
Strain gauges are frequently used for dynamic measurements and hence their frequency response should be good.
Linearity should be maintained within specified accuracy limits over the entire frequency range.
Leads used must be of materials which have low and stable resistivity and low resistance temperature coefficient.
Foil Strain Gauge
This class of strain gauges is an extension of the resistance wire strain gauge. The strain is sensed with the help of
a metal foil. The metals and alloys used for the foil and wire are nichrome, constantan (Ni + Cu), isoelastic (Ni +
Cr + Mo), nickel and platinum.
Foil gauges have a much greater dissipation capacity than wire wound gauges, on account of their larger surface
area for the same volume. For this reason, they can be used for a higher operating temperature range. Also, the
large surface area of foil gauges leads to better bonding.
Foil type Strain Gauge Transducer Types have similar characteristics to wire strain gauges. Their gauge factors
are typically the same.
The advantage of foil type Strain Gauge Transducer Types is that they can be fabricated on a large scale, and in
any shape. The foil can also be etched on a carrier.
Etched foil gauge construction consists of first bonding a layer of strain sensitive material to a thin sheet of paper
or bakelite. The portion of the metal to be used as the wire element is covered with appropriate masking material,
and an etching solution is applied to the unit. The solution removes that portion of the metal which is not masked,
leaving the desired grid structure intact.
This method of construction enables etched foil strain gauges to be made thinner than comparable wire units, as
shown in Fig.. This characteristics, together with a greater degree of flexibility, allows the etched foil to be
mounted in more remote and restricted places and on a wide range of curved surfaces.

The longitudinal sensitivity of the foil gauge is approximately 5% greater than that of similar wire elements. The
transverse strain sensitivity of this gauge is smaller 1/3 to 1/2 of similar wire gauges. The hysteresis of the foil
gauge is also 1/3 to 1/2 of a wire strain gauge.
(The term hysteresis, as used in Strain Gauge Transducer Types, is defined as follows. If the resistance of a strain
gauge is measured with no strain applied, and the gauge is then stressed to its maximum usable resistance value,
the measured resistance, after the stress is removed, differs from the original value. The inability of the gauge
element to resume the exact physical form it had before being elongated, produces the difference in resistance.
This effect is called hysteresis.)
The resistance film formed is typically 0.2 mm thick. The resistance value of commercially available foil gauges
is between 50 and 1000 Ω The resistance films are vacuum coated with ceramic film and deposited on a plastic
backing for insulation.
Semiconductor Strain Gauge
To have a high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is desirable. A high gauge factor means relatively higher
change in resistance, which can be easily measured with a good degree of accuracy.
Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a very high gauge factor is required. They have a gauge factor 50
times as high as wire strain gauges. The resistance of the semiconductor changes with change in applied strain.
Semiconductor strain gauges depend for their action upon the piezo resistive effect, i.e. change in value of
the resistance due to change in resistivity, unlike metallic gauges where change in resistance is mainly due to the
change in dimension when strained. Semiconductor materials such as germanium and silicon are used as resistive
materials.
A typical strain gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a protective box, as shown in Fig.
. Semiconductor wafer or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm are used. They are bonded on suitable
insulating substrates, such as teflon.

Gold leads are generally used for making contacts. These strain gauges can be fabricated along with an IC Op Amp
which can act as a pressure sensitive transducer. The large gauge factor is accompanied by a thermal rate of change
of resistance approximately 50 times higher than that for resistive gauges. Hence, a semiconductor strain gauge is
as stable as the metallic type, but has a much higher output.
Simple temperature compensation methods can be applied to semiconductor strain gauges, so that small values of
strain, that is micro strains, can also be measured.
The gauge factor of this type of semiconductor strain gauge is 130 ± 10% for a unit of 350 Ω, 1″ long, 1/2″ wide
and 0.005″ thick. The gauge factor is determined at room temperature at a tensile strain level of 1000 micro strain
(1000 micro in/in. of length). The maximum operating tensile strain is ± 3000 micro strain, with a power dissipation
of 0.1 W. The semiconductor strain gauge also has low hysteresis and is susceptible to regular methods of
temperature compensation. The semiconductor strain gauge has proved itself to be a stable and practical device
for operation with conventional indicating and recording systems, to measure small strains from 0.1-500 micro
strain.
Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
Semiconductor strain gauges have a high gauge factor of about + 130. This allows measurement of very small
strains, of the order of 0.01 micro
Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are excellent, e. less than 0.05%.
Life in excess of 10 x 106 operations and a frequency response of 1012 HZ.
Semiconductor strain gauges can be very small in size, ranging in length from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge

They are very sensitive to changes in temperature.

Linearity of semiconductor strain gauges is poor.
They are more expensive.
Strain Gauge Load Cell Working:
The Strain Gauge Load Cell Working is used to weigh extremely heavy loads. A length of bar, usually steel, is
used as the active element. The weight of the load applies a particular stress to the bar. The amount of strain which
results in the bar for different values of applied stress is determined, so that the strain may be used as a direct
measure of the stress causing it.
The load cell shown in Fig. is a good example of the use of strain gauges in weighing operations.

As the stress is applied along the direction of S (shown by the arrow in Fig.), the steel bar experiences a
compression along that axis and an expansion along the X and Y axes. As a result, gauge A experiences a decrease
in resistance, while gauge B undergoes an increase in resistance. When these two gauges and the gauges on the
two remaining sides of the steel are connected to form a bridge circuit, four times the sensitivity of a simple gauge
bridge is obtained. This makes the load cell sensitive to very small values of applied stress, as well as to extremely
heavy loads.
Pressure Inductive Transducer:
Pressure Inductive Transducer – A simple, arrangement, wherein a change in the inductance of a sensing element
is produced by a pressure change, is given in below Fig..
Here the pressure acting on a movable magnetic core causes an increase in the coil inductance corresponding to
the acting pressure. The change in inductance can again be made on the basis of an electrical signal, using an ac
bridge.
An advantage of the Pressure Inductive Transducer type over the resistive type is that no moving contacts are
present, thereby providing continuous resolution of the change, with no extra friction load imposed on the
measuring system.
In a slightly modified form, this principle is used to obtain a change in mutual inductance between magnetically
coupled coils, rather than in the self inductance of a single coil. When a change in an induced voltage is involved,
the transducer is sometimes called a variable reluctance sensor or magnetic pickup. A very important example of
the mutual type is the LVDT.

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

Capacitive Pressure Transducer Working Principle – A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical
position of the moving element may be used to provide an electrical indication of the element’s position.

The capacitance is given by

where

K = the dielectric constant

A = the total area of the capacitor surfaces
d = distance between two capacitive surfaces
C = the resultant capacitance.
From this equation, it is seen that capacitance increases (i) if the effective area of the plate is increased, and (ii) if
the material has a high dielectric con-stmt.
The capacitance is reduced if the spacing between the plates is increased. Transducers which make use of these
three methods of varying capacitance have been developed.
With proper calibration, each type yields a high degree of accuracy. Stray magnetic and capacitive effects may
cause errors in the measurement produced, which can be avoided by proper shielding. Some capacitive dielectrics
are temperature sensitive, so temperature variations should be minimised for accurate measurements.
A variable plate area transducer is made up of a fixed plate called Stator and a movable plate called the Rotor.
The rotor is mechanically coupled to the member under test. As the member moves, the rotor changes its
position relative to the stator, thereby changing the effective area between the plates. A transducer of this type is
shown in below fig.

.
Such a device is used to detect the amount of roll in an aircraft. As the aircraft rolls to the left, the plates moves to
the relative position shown by dashed lines in Fig. and the capacitance decreases by an amount propotional to the
degree of roll. Similarly to the right. In this case the stator, securely attached to the aircraft, is the moving
element. The weight on the rotor keeps its position fixed with reference to the surface of the earth, but the relative
position of the plates changes and this is the factor that determines the capacitance of the unit.
Below Figure shows a transducer that makes use of the variation in capacitance resulting from a change in
spacingbetween the plates. This particular transducer is designed to measure pressure (in vacuum).

Enclosed in an airtight container is a metallic diaphragm which moves to the left when pressure is applied to the
chamber and to the right when vacuum is applied. This diaphragm is used as one plate of a variable capacitor. Its
distance from the stationary plate to its left, as determined by the pressure applied to the unit, determines the
capacitance between the two plates. The monitor indicates the pressure equivalent of the unit’s capacitance by
measuring the capacitor’s reactance to the ac source voltage.
(The portion of the chamber to the left of the moving plate is isolated from the side into which the pressurized gas
or vapour is introduced. Hence, the dielectric constant of the unit does not change for different types of pressurized
gas or vapour. The capacity is purely a function of the diaphragm position.) This device is not linear.
Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of capacity between a fixed plate and another plate
free to move as the pressure changes. The resulting variation follows the basic capacity formula.
where
A = area of one side of one plate in cm2
n= number of plates
t = thickness of dielectric in cm
K= dielectric constant
The capacitive transducer, as in the capacitive microphone, is simple to construct and inexpensive to produce. It
is particularly effective for HF variations.
However, when the varying capacitance is made part of an ac bridge to produce an ac output signal, the conditions
for resistive and reactive balance generally require much care to be taken against unwanted signal pickup in the
high impedance circuit, and also compensation for temperature changes. As a result, the receiving instrument for
the capacitive sensor usually calls for more advanced and complex design than is needed for other transducers.
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT):
LVDT is an another type of transducer often used to measure force, pressure or position. The Fig. shows the basic
structure of LVDT. As illustrated in the Fig., the linear variable differential transformer consists of a single
primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and S2 Wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The
secondaries have an equal number of turns but they are connected in series opposition so that the emfs induced in
the coils oppose each other. The primary winding is connected to an ac source, whose frequency may range from
50 Hz to 20 kHz. A movable soft iron core slides inside the hollow former The position of the movable core
determines the flux linkage between the ac excited primary winding and each of the two secondary windings. The
core made up, of nickel-iron alloy is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The displacement to be
measured is applied to an arm attached to the core. With the core in the center, or reference, position, the induced
emfs in the secondaries are equal, and since they oppose each other, the output voltage will be zero volt.

When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux links the left-hand
coil than the right-hand coil. The emf induced in the left-hand coil, Es1, is therefore larger than the induced emf
of the right-hand coil, Es2.
The magnitude of the output voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages and it is
in phase with the voltage of the left-hand coil.
Similarly, when the core is forced to move to the right, more flux links the right-hand coil than the left-hand coil
and the resulting output voltage, which is the difference between Es2 and Es1, is now in phase with the emf of the
right-hand coil.

Thus the LVDT output voltage is a function of the core position. The amount of a voltage change in either
secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of the core. By noting which output is increasing
or decreasing, the direction of motion can be determined. The output ac voltage inverts in phase as the core passes
through
the central null position. Further as the core moves from the center, the greater is the difference in value between
Es1 and Es2 and consequently the greater the output voltage. Therefore the amplitude of the output voltage is a
function of the distance the core moves, while the polarity or phase indicates the direction of the motion.
The amount of output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function of the core displacement within a limited range of
motion.
Advantages of LVDT:
Linearity : The output voltage of LVDT is almost linear for displacement upto
Infinite Resolution : The change in output voltage is continuous, stepless. The effective resolution depends more
on the equipment used for the measurement rather than on the LVDT.
High Output : LVDT gives reasonably high output, and hence requires less amplification afterwards.
High Sensitivity : LVDT has high sensitivity of about 300 mV/mm; i.e., 1 mm displacement of the core produces
a output voltage of 300 mV.
Ruggedness : LVDT is mechanically rugged and can withstand mechanical shock and vibrations.
Less Friction : Since there are no sliding contacts, the friction is very less.
Low Hysteresis : LVDT has a low hysteresis, hence its repeatability is extremely good under all conditions.
Low Power Consumption : Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power.
The LVDT transducers are small, simple, and light in weight. They are stable and easy to align and maintain.
Disadvantages of LVDT :
Comparatively large displacements are necessary for appreciable differential output.
They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields. However, his interference can be reduced by shielding.
The dynamic response is limited by the mass of the core.
Temperature affects the transducer.
Applications of LVDT :
The LVDT can be used in all applications where displacement ranging from fractions of a few mm to a few cm
have to be measured.
Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force, weight, and pressure etc.
The force or pressure to be measured is first converted into a displacement using primary transducers. Then this
displacement is applied to an LVDT, that acts as a secondary transducer, and converts the displacement into
proportional output voltage. In these applications the high sensitivity of LVDT is a major attraction.

Photoelectric Transducer
Photoelectric Transducer Working can be categorised as photo emissive, photo-conductive or photo-voltaic.
In photo emissive devices, radiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted from the cathode surface.
In photo conductive devices, the resistance of a material is changed when it is illuminated.
Photo voltaic cells generate an output voltage proportional to the radiation intensity. The incident radiation may
be infrared, ultraviolet, gamma rays, X-rays, or visible light.
Photo Multiplier Tube
The photo multiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a photo cathode, an anode and several
additional electrodes, termed Dynodes, each at a higher voltage, than the previous dynode.
Below Figure illustrates the principle of the photo multiplier. Electrons emitted by the cathode are attracted to
the first dynode. Here a phenomenon known as secondary emission takes place.
When electrons moving at a high velocity strike an appropriate material, the material emits a greater number of
electrons than it was struck with.
In this device, the high velocity is achieved by the use of a high voltage between the anode and the cathode. The
electrons emitted by the first dynode are then attracted to the second dynode, where the same action takes place
again. Each dynode is at a higher voltage, in order to achieve the requisite electron velocity each time. Hence,
secondary emission, and a resulting electron multiplication, occurs at each step, with an overall increase in electron
flow that may be very great. Amplification of the original current by much as 105 — 109 is common. Luminons
sensitivities range from lA per lumen or less, to over 2000 A per lumen. Typical anode current ratings range from
a minimum of 100 μA to a maximum of 1 mA.
The extreme luminous sensitivity possible with these devices is such that for a sensitivity of 100 A per lumen, only
10-5 lumen is needed to produce 1 mA of output current.
Magnetic fields affect the photo multiplier because some electrons may be deflected from their normal path
between stages and therefore never reach a dynode or anode. Hence, the gain falls. To minimise this effect μ-metal
magnetic shields are often placed around the photo multiplier tube.
Photo Conductive Cells or Photo Cells
The devices discussed above achieve an electrical output by photo emission. Another photo electric effect that is
very useful is the photo conductive effect.
In this effect, the electrical resistance of the material varies with the amount of incident light, as shown in Fig.
(b).
A typical construction is as shown in Fig. (a). The photo conductive material, typically Cadium sulphide,
Cadium selenide or Cadium sulphoselenide, is deposited in a zig zag pattern (to obtain a desired resistance value
and power rating) separating two metal coated areas acting as electrodes, all on an insulating base such as ceramic.
The assembly is enclosed in a metal case with a glass window over the photo conductive material.
Photocells of these types are made in a wide range of sizes, from 1/8 in. in diameter to over 1 in. The small sizes
are suitable where space is critical, as in punched card reading equipment. However, very small units have low
power dissipation ratings.
A typical control circuit utilising a photo conductive cell is illustrated in below Fig.. The potentiometer is used
to make adjustments to compensate for manufacturing tolerances in photocells sensitivity and relay operating
sensitivity

When the photocell has the appropriate light shining on it, its resistance is low and the current through the relay is
consequently high enough to operate the relay. When the light is interrupted, the resistance rises, causing the
relaycurrent to decrease enough to de-energise the relay.
Piezoelectric Transducer Working Principle:
Piezoelectric Transducer Working Principle – A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt
and Barium titanate produce an emf when they are placed under stress. This property is used in Piezoelectric
Transducer Working Principle, where a crystal is placed between a solid base and the force-summing member, as
shown in Fig..

An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a
crystal. This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of applied pressure.
Since the transducer has a very good HF response, its principal use is in HF accelerometers. In this application, its
output voltage is typically of the order of 1 — 30 mV per gm of acceleration. The device needs no external power
source and is therefore self generating. The disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions. The output
voltage is also affected by temperature variation of the crystal. The basic expression for output voltage E is given

by
where
Q = generated charge
Cp = shunt capacitances
This transducer is inherently a dynamic responding sensor and does not readily measure static conditions. (Since
it is a high impedance element, it requires careful shielding and compensation.)
For a Piezoelectrical Transducer element under pressure, part of the energy is, converted to an electric potential that
appears on opposite faces of the element, analogous to a charge on the plates of a capacitor. The rest of the
applied energy is converted to mechanical energy, analogous to a compressed spring. When the pressure is
removed, it returns to its original shape and loses its electric charge.
From these relationships, the following formulas have been derived for the coupling coefficient K.
An alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to vibrate at its natural resonance frequency. Since the
frequency is a very stable quantity, Piezoelectrical Transducer crystals are principally used in HF accelerometers.
The principal disadvantage is that voltage will be generated as long as the pressure applied to the piezo electric
element changes.
Thermistor
Thermistor – The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature. By selecting materials that are
very temperature sensitive, devices that are useful in temperature control circuits and for temperature
measurements can be made.
Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors (semiconductor material), made by
sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), i.e. resistance decreases as temperature rises. Figure
shows a graph of resistance vs temperature for a thermistor. The resistance at room temperature (25°C) fortypical
commercial units ranges from 100 Ω to 10 Ω They are suitable for use only up to about 800°C. In some cases,
the resistance of thermistors at room temperature may decrease by 5% for each 1°C rise in temperature. This high
sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor extremely useful for precision temperature
measurements, control and compensation.

The smallest thermistors are made in the form of beads. Some are as small as 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) in diameter.
These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass probes. Glass probes have a diameter of about
2.5 mm and a length which varies from 6 — 50 mm. The probes are used for measuring the temperature of liquids.
The resistance ranges from 300 Ω to 100 Ω.
Where greater power dissipations is required, thermistors may be obtained in disc, washer or rod forms.
Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or mounted on a small plate, are mainly used for
temperature control. These thermistors are made by pressing themistors material under several tons of pressure in
a round die to produce flat pieces 1.25 — 25 mm in diameter and 0.25 — 0.75 mm thick, having resistance values
of 1 Ω to 1 MΩ. These are sintered and coated with silver on two flat surfaces.
Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the centre in order to make them
suitable for mounting on a bolt. Rod thermistors are extruded through dies to make long cylindrical units of 1.25,
2.75, and 4.25 mm in diameter and 12.5 — 50 min long. Leads are attached to the end of the rods.
Their resistance usually varies from 1 — 50 Ω
The advantage of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability to produce high resistance units with
moderately high power handling capability.
Thermistors can be connected in series/parallel combinations for applications requiring increased power handling
capability. High resistance units find application in measurements that employ low lead wires or cables.
Thermistors are chemically stable and can be used in nuclear environments. Their wide range of characteristics
also permits them to be used in limiting and regulation circuits, as time delays, for integration of power pulses,
and as memory units.
Typical thermistor configurations are as shown in Fig. (a). Figure (b) shows a bush type thermistor.
A thermistor in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge provides precise temperature information. Accuracy is limited, in
most applications, only by the readout devices.
Thermistors are non-linear devices over a temperature range, although now units with better than 0.2% linearity
over the 0-100°C temperature range are available. The typical sensitivity of a thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C
at 200°C.

Advantages of Thermistor Circuit:

Small size and low cost.
Fast response over narrow temperature range.
Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute temperature.
Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
Limitations of Thermistor Circuit:
Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.
Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.
Thermocouple:
A thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar petal wires joined together at one end, forming a hot junction and
terminated at the other end known as reference or cold junction. When heat is applied to the hot junction, a
temperature difference exists between the hot junction and the cold junction, causing generation of emf. This is
illustrated in Fig. (a). The magnitude of this emf depends on the material used for the wires and the temperature
difference between the two junctions. The two dissimilar metals form an electric circuit, and a current flows as a
result of the generated emf as shown in Fig. (a).

When the cold junction is terminated by a meter or recording instrument, as shown in Fig. (b), the meter
indication is proportional to the thermoelectric effect, caused by constant potentials at the junctions, is known as
the seeback effect.

Advantages of Thermocouple:
The thermocouple is rugged in construction.
It covers a wide temperature range, from —270°c to 2700°c.
Using extension leads and compensating cables, long transmission distances for temperature measurement are
possible. This is most suitable for temperature measurement of industrial furnaces.
The thermocouple is comparatively cheaper in cost.
The calibration can be easily checked.
The thermocouple offers good reproducibility.
Speed of response is high.
Measurement accuracy is quite satisfactory.
Limitations of Thermocouple:
For accurate temperature measurements, cold junction compensation is
The emf induced verus temperature characteristics is somewhat nonlinear.
Stray voltage pickup is possible.
In many applications, amplification of signal is required.
Resistance Temperature Detectors [RTD]:
Generally, electrical resistance of any metallic conductor varies according to temperature changes. The sensor for
measurement of temperature by utilizing this phenomenon is called “Resistance Thermometer”. It is a basic
element of resistance temperature detector, RTD.
Measurement of change of resistance of RTD due to temperature changes is measured by Wheatstone bridge. The
Fig. shows the necessary circuit connections.

At 0°C, the resistance of RTD is usually 100 Ω. By choosing R3 = 100 Ω and R1= R2, the bridge is balanced at
O°C. Therefore, at 0°C voltage across B and D is zero and hence the output voltage is zero. Any change in the
RTD resistance due to change in temperature unbalances the bridge circuit resulting voltage across B and D
terminal. This voltage is proportional to the change in the resistance and hence to the change in the temperature.
The circuit just discussed is not suitable for high precision measurement because it is susceptible to
lead resistance and produce error. For precision measurements 3-wire and 4-wire connection methods are used.
Advantages of RTD:
High accuracy
They can be calibrated to detect the actual temperatures to within ± 0.25°C up to 120°C and ± 0.5°C from 120°C
to 550°C. Therefore they have wide temperature range.
Does not require temperature compensation.
Designed for fast response.
Excellent stability and reproducibility.
Good sensitivity.
Disadvantages of RTD:
Requires bridge circuit and external power source for measurement.
Chances of self heating due to current through RTD and thus the change in resistance
Large size as compared to thermocouples
High cost
 Biosensors:
 Analytical devices that consists a combination of biological detecting elements like sensor system and a
transducer is termed as biosensor.
 Biosensors can be defined as self-sufficient integrated devices that has capacity to provide specific qualitative
or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element which is in direct-spatial
contact with a transductional element.
 In simple words, biosensors are analytical devices that detects changes in biological processes and transform
the biological data into electrical signal.
 The main features of biosensors are:
 Stability
 Economical
 Sensitivity
 Reproducibility
Components of biosensor:
 The block diagram of the biosensor consists of three segments namely, sensor, transducer, and electrical
circuit.
 i. Sensor or detector: The first segment is the sensor or detector which is a biological component. it is a
biochemical receptor. It interacts with the analyte and signal the change in its composition as electrical
signal.
 ii. Transducer: The second segment is the transducer and it is a physical component which amplifies
the biochemical signal received from detector, alters the resulting signal into electrical and displays in an
attainable way.
 iii. Electrical circuit: It is the associated part which consists of Signal Conditioning Unit, a Processor
or Micro-controller and a Display Unit.
Principle of Biosensors:
 Biosensors works on the principle of signal transduction and biorecognition of element.
 All the biological materials including-enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, hormone, organelle or whole cell can be
used as sensor or detector in a device. But the desired bio-receptor is usually a specific deactivated enzyme.
 The deactivated enzyme is placed in proximity to the transducer.
 The tested analyte links to the specific enzyme (bio-receptor) and inducing a change in biochemical property of
enzyme. The change in in turn gives an electronic response through an electroenzymatic approach.
 Electroenzymatic process is the chemical process of converting the enzymes into corresponding electrical
signals with the aid of transducer.
 Now, the outcome from transducer i.e. electrical signal is a direct representation of the biological material (i.e.
analyte and enzyme in this case) being measured.
 The electrical signal is usually converted into physical display for its proper analysis and representation.
Working principle of biosensors:
 The union of biological sensitive element and a transducer is responsible to convert the biological material into
a corresponding electrical response in form of signal.
 The output of the transducer will be either current or voltage relying on the type of enzyme.
 If the output is voltage, then it is fine. But if the output is current, then this current needs to be converted into
equivalent voltage (using an Op-Amp based current to voltage converter) before proceeding further.
 The output voltage signal is generally very low in amplitude and is superimposed on a high frequency noise
signal.
 Thus, the signal is amplified (using an Op-Amp based Amplifier) and then it is passed through a Low Pass RC
Filter.
 Signal Processing Unit or a Signal Conditioning Unit is accountable for performing the this process of
amplifying and filtering the signal .
  The output of the signal processing unit is termed as an analog signal. This output is equivalent to the
biological quantity being measured.
 The analog signal can be exhibited directly on an LCD display but usually, this analog signal is passed to a
Microcontroller, where the analog signal is converted into digital signal. This is done since it is easy to analyse,
process or store a digital signal.
Types:
 On the basis of sensor device as well as the biological material the biosensors are classified as:
 1. Electrochemical biosensors
 2. Calorimetric/Thermal detection biosensors
 3. Optical biosensors
 4. Piezo-electric biosensors
 5. Resonant biosensors
1. Electrochemical biosensors:
 Generally, electrochemical biosensor works on the principle that many enzyme catalysis reactions consumes or
generates ions or electrons causing some change in electrical properties of the solution which can be detected
and used as a measuring parameter.
 For example some biological compounds such as glucose, urea, cholesterol, etc.) are not electroactive, so the
combination of reactions by this biosensor produce an electroactive element. This electroactive element results
in change of current intensity which is proportional to the concentration of analyte.
 An electrochemical biosensor uses an electrochemical cell with electrodes of different dimension and
modifications.
 Three kinds of electrodes are generally used-
 Working electrode
 Reference electrode
 Counter or Auxilary electrode
 It is the working electrode where reaction occurs between electrode substrate and analyte.

Types of electrochemical biosensors

 Electrochemical biosensors are classified into three types:
 Amperometric Biosensors
 Potentiometric Biosensors
 Conductimetric Biosensors
 1. Amperometric Biosensors
 The Bioelectrochemical reaction in this biosensors generate measurable amount of current which is
directly proportional to the substrate concentration.
 The first generation amperometric biosensors use the Clark oxygen electrode which determines the
reduction of O2 present in the analyte solution.
 Determination of glucose using glucose oxidase enzyme is a redox reaction which is an example of
Amperometric biosensors.
 This first generation biosensors depend on the dissolved O2 to measure the concentration analyte.
However, as modification in second generation biosensors, a mediators is being used.
 This mediators transfer the electrons produced by the bioelectrochemical reaction directly to the
electrode instead of reducing O2 dissolved in analyte solution.
 Nowadays, the electrodes remove the electrons without the aid of mediators and are coated with
electrically conducting organic salts.
 2. Potentiometric biosensors:
 Potentiometric biosensors use the ion-selective electrodes to convert the biological reaction to
electronic response.
  Most commonly used electrodes are pH meter glass electrodes (for cations glass pH electrodes coated
with a gas selective membrane for CO2, NH or H2S.) or solid state electrodes.
 Biosensors detects and measures the ions or electrons generated in many reactions, very weak buffer
solutions are used in this case.
 Gas sensing electrodes detect and measure the amount of gas produced.
 3. Conductimetric biosensors:
 These biosensors measure electrical conductance/ resistance of the solution.
 Conductance measurement have comparatively low sensitivity.
 Electrical field is generated by use of sinusoidal (ac) voltage which serves in reducing unwanted effects
such as:
 Faradaic processes
 Double layer charging
 Concentration polarization
2. Calorimetric/Thermal detection biosensors:
 Most of the enzyme catalysed reactions are exothermic in nature.
 Calorimetric biosensors measure the change in temperature of analyte solution following enzyme action and
interpret it in terms of analyte concentration in the solution.
 The analyte solution is passed through a small packed bed column consisting immobilized enzyme.
 The temperature of the solution is measured just before the entry of the solution into the column, and just as it
leaves the column using separate thermistors.
 It is the most usually applicable type of biosensor and can also be used for turbid and colourful solutions.
 There are demerits such as:
 The biggest demerit is to maintain the temperature of the sample stream say + or -0.01°C.
 Low range and sensitivity.
3. Optical biosensors:
 Both catalytic and affinity reactions are measured by this biosensor.
 The products generated during the catalytic reactions cause a change in fluorescence that is measured by the
biosensor.
 In other way, biosensors measure the change induced in the intrinsic optical properties of the biosensor surface
due to loading on it of di-electric molecules like protein.
 A most advanced biosensor involving luminescence uses luciferase enzyme for detection of bacteria in food or
clinical samples.
 In the presence of O2, luciferase takes up the ATP released from the lysis of bacteria to produce light which is
detected and measured by biosensor.
4. Piezo-electric biosensors:
 In these biosensors, the surface is coated with antibodies which binds to the complementary antigen present in
the sample solution.
 This results in increased mass which decreases their vibrational frequency, this alteration/change is used to
determine the amount of antigen present in the sample solution.
4. Resonant biosensors:
 The vibrations of the electron cloud in a molecule is termed as resonant biosensors.
 These plasmons oscillate at a particular frequency characteristic of the material.
 The oscillations in surface plasmons are confined to the surface of the material.
 Generally, gold or silver surfaces are preferred for the SPR based biosensors.
 When electromagnetic radiation falls on the metal surface, at a particular angle of incidence, the frequency of
the electromagnetic radiation matches the frequency of vibrations resulting in resonance.
  The resonant angle depends on the refractive index of the medium.
 The refractive index in turn is determined by the local mass density on the metal surface.
 If the surface of the metal film is modified with the antibody/receptor i.e. capture molecule, then specific
binding occurs between the capture molecule on addition of the sample and its ligand leading to an alteration in
mass and hence change in resonant angle.
 These biosensors are employed to understand the functional aspects of human immune deficiency virus (HIV)
both qualitatively and quantitatively.
 The major merits of these biosensors are rapid measurements and relatively high sensitivity,
 The major demerit is that it cannot be used to detect and measure the turbid and coloured solutions. In few
cases, ligands may interfere with the binding.

What are Gas Sensors?

Gas sensors are primarily used to detect specific gases and measure the presence and concentration of gases in the air
surrounding the sensor. They are essential in safety systems, providing information on combustible, flammable, and
toxic gases, as well as the oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide proportions in the area.

1.Semiconductor Gas Sensor

This type of sensor accounts for about 60% of gas sensors. Semiconductor gas sensors are used to detect the presence
of gases in the surrounding environment. They work by measuring changes in the electrical resistance of a
semiconductor material when it comes into contact with the gas being detected.
The semiconductor material used in the sensor is typically made from metal oxide such as tin oxide, tungsten oxide, or
zinc oxide. When the gas enters the sensor, the gas molecules react with the semiconductor material, causing a change
in its electrical conductivity. This change in conductivity is proportional to the concentration of the gas.
Working Principle: The sensor consists of two parts: the sensing material and transducer. The sensing material is
made up of a thin layer of the semiconductor material. The transducer is responsible for converting the change in
electrical conductivity into a measurable signal.
Advantages:

 Simple structure, low price, high detection sensitivity, fast response speed, and so on.

Disadvantages:

 Small measurement linearity range, large interference from background gas, easily affected by environmental
temperature, etc.

Applications:

 Semiconductor gas sensor applications include detecting and measuring the concentration of various gases in
different environments, such as toxic gases in industrial settings, carbon monoxide in homes, and air pollutants
in outdoor environments. They are also used in breath analyzing devices for detecting alcohol and other
substances, as well as in medical equipment for monitoring patient gases during anesthesia. Semiconductor gas
sensors are also employed in automotive control systems for monitoring emissions and optimizing fuel
consumption.