1.

Introduction to Integrals

An integral is one of the two fundamental operations in calculus, the other being
differentiation. While differentiation is concerned with finding the rate of change or slope of a
function, integration is about finding the total accumulation of a quantity. It can be interpreted in
various ways, such as the area under a curve, the total distance traveled, or the accumulation of
mass.

There are two primary types of integrals:

● Indefinite Integrals (Antiderivatives)

● Definite Integrals

1.1 Indefinite Integrals

An indefinite integral represents a family of functions whose derivative is the given function. It
is denoted as:

∫f(x) dx\int f(x) \, dx∫f(x)dx

Where f(x)f(x)f(x) is the integrand and dxdxdx indicates the variable of integration. The result of
an indefinite integral is a function plus a constant of integration, represented by CCC, because
the process of integration is the reverse of differentiation, and differentiation of any constant is
zero.

For example, the integral of x2x^2x2 is:

∫x2 dx=x33+C\int x^2 \, dx = \frac{x^3}{3} + C∫x2dx=3x3​+C

The constant CCC accounts for the fact that there could be any constant added to the
antiderivative, as the derivative of a constant is zero.

1.2 Definite Integrals

A definite integral calculates the total accumulation of a quantity over a specific interval. It is
written as:

∫abf(x) dx\int_{a}^{b} f(x) \, dx∫ab​f(x)dx

Where:

● aaa is the lower limit of integration,

● bbb is the upper limit of integration,
● f(x)f(x)f(x) is the integrand.
The definite integral gives a numerical value that represents the area under the curve y=f(x)y =
f(x)y=f(x) between x=ax = ax=a and x=bx = bx=b. The result of a definite integral is a number,
not a function.

For example:

∫13(2x) dx\int_{1}^{3} (2x) \, dx∫13​(2x)dx

This means we're looking for the area under the curve y=2xy = 2xy=2x from x=1x = 1x=1 to
x=3x = 3x=3. First, find the antiderivative:

∫2x dx=x2\int 2x \, dx = x^2∫2xdx=x2

Now evaluate at the limits:

x2∣13=32−12=9−1=8x^2 \Big|_1^3 = 3^2 - 1^2 = 9 - 1 = 8x2​13​=32−12=9−1=8

Thus, the area under the curve from x=1x = 1x=1 to x=3x = 3x=3 is 8.

2. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus links the concept of the derivative with the integral. It
consists of two parts:

2.1 Part 1: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (First Part)

If fff is a continuous function on the interval [a,b][a, b][a,b], and FFF is an antiderivative of fff,
then:

∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_{a}^{b} f(x) \, dx = F(b) - F(a)∫ab​f(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)

In other words, the definite integral of a function can be evaluated by finding any antiderivative
of the function and then subtracting the values of the antiderivative at the limits of integration.

2.2 Part 2: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Second Part)

This part tells us that if F(x)F(x)F(x) is defined as the integral of f(x)f(x)f(x) from a constant aaa
to a variable xxx, then the derivative of F(x)F(x)F(x) is simply the function f(x)f(x)f(x):

F(x)=∫axf(t) dtF(x) = \int_{a}^{x} f(t) \, dtF(x)=∫ax​f(t)dt

and

F′(x)=f(x)F'(x) = f(x)F′(x)=f(x)

This implies that integration and differentiation are inverse operations.

3. Common Integration Techniques

While basic integrals can be solved directly, many integrals require additional techniques. Here
are some of the most commonly used methods:

3.1 Power Rule

The power rule for integration states that if n≠−1n \neq -1n=−1, then:

∫xn dx=xn+1n+1+C\int x^n \, dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C∫xndx=n+1xn+1​+C

This rule applies to any real number nnn except −1-1−1.

For example:

∫x3 dx=x44+C\int x^3 \, dx = \frac{x^4}{4} + C∫x3dx=4x4​+C

3.2 Substitution Method

The substitution method is useful when an integral contains a function and its derivative. To
apply substitution:

1. Choose a substitution u=g(x)u = g(x)u=g(x) where g(x)g(x)g(x) is a part of the integrand,

often inside a composition of functions.
2. Compute du=g′(x) dxdu = g'(x) \, dxdu=g′(x)dx.
3. Substitute uuu and dududu into the integral.

For example:

∫2x⋅ex2 dx\int 2x \cdot e^{x^2} \, dx∫2x⋅ex2dx

Let u=x2u = x^2u=x2, so that du=2x dxdu = 2x \, dxdu=2xdx. The integral becomes:

∫eu du=eu+C=ex2+C\int e^u \, du = e^u + C = e^{x^2} + C∫eudu=eu+C=ex2+C

3.3 Integration by Parts

The integration by parts formula comes from the product rule of differentiation and is given by:

∫u dv=uv−∫v du\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du∫udv=uv−∫vdu

This technique is used when the integrand is a product of two functions that are not easy to
integrate directly.

For example:

∫x⋅ex dx\int x \cdot e^x \, dx∫x⋅exdx

Choose u=xu = xu=x and dv=ex dxdv = e^x \, dxdv=exdx, so du=dxdu = dxdu=dx and v=exv =
e^xv=ex. Applying the formula:

∫x⋅ex dx=x⋅ex−∫ex dx=x⋅ex−ex+C\int x \cdot e^x \, dx = x \cdot e^x - \int e^x \, dx = x \cdot e^x -
e^x + C∫x⋅exdx=x⋅ex−∫exdx=x⋅ex−ex+C

3.4 Partial Fractions

When the integrand is a rational function (a fraction of two polynomials), partial fraction
decomposition is often used. This involves breaking the rational function into simpler fractions
that can be integrated individually.

For example:

∫1x2−1 dx\int \frac{1}{x^2 - 1} \, dx∫x2−11​dx

Factor the denominator:

x2−1=(x−1)(x+1)x^2 - 1 = (x - 1)(x + 1)x2−1=(x−1)(x+1)

Decompose into partial fractions:

1x2−1=Ax−1+Bx+1\frac{1}{x^2 - 1} = \frac{A}{x - 1} + \frac{B}{x + 1}x2−11​=x−1A​+x+1B​

Solve for AAA and BBB, then integrate each term separately.

4. Applications of Integrals

Integrals have a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

● Area Under a Curve: The definite integral gives the area under the curve of a function
between two points on the x-axis.
● Accumulation Functions: Integrals can represent the total accumulated quantity, such
as total distance traveled or total mass.
● Physics: In physics, integrals are used in areas like work, energy, fluid dynamics, and
electromagnetism.
● Economics: Integrals can be used to compute consumer and producer surplus, cost
functions, and total revenue.