UNIT 1: Sustainable Development

Pronunciation
Most recurring sounds (plural morpheme /iz/ , /-s/, /-z/ and past morpheme /-t/, /-d/, /-id/)

In English, the suffix ‘-s’ is used to mark plural in nouns, singular forms of verbs,
possessiveness or contracted forms. However, it is pronounced differently. Follow the
examples. Example: buses /-iz/ texts /-s/ bags /-z/

Pronunciation tips:

 If words end in /s/, /t∫/, /dʒ/, /z/, / ∫ /, /ʒ/ sounds the ‘_s’ is pronounced as /-iz/.
 If words end in /b/, /d/, /g/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /r/, /D/, /ò/, /v/ sounds the ‘s’ is
pronounced as /-z/.
 If words end in /f/, /k/ /p/, /t/, /θ/ sounds the ‘-s’ is pronounced as /-s/ • Past
morpheme /-d/: In English, regular verbs take the suffix /-(e)d/ to mark past tense.
 Past morphemes added to regular verbs –d, or -ed are pronounced as /-t/, /-d/ or /-id/.

Pronunciation Tips: There are three simple rules that help to pronounce past morphemes
correctly.

 If the verb base ends with a voiceless sound, /p/,/ f/,/ k/,/ s/,/ sh/, /ch/,/ th/ then the
ending –ed sounds like “t”.
 If the verb base ends in a voiced sound,/ b/, /v/, /g/, /z/, /j/, /th/, /l/, /m,/ /n/, /r / then
the ending –ed sounds like “d”.
 If the verb base ends in a “t” or “d” sound then the ending sounds like “id” or “ud”.

Public Speech

I. Steps in public speech:

Step I: select a topic

Step II: prepare your speech

Step III: Practice

Step IV: presentation

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Organization of the speech

There are three parts of a public speech (introduction, body and conclusion)

i. Introduction – is the beginning of the speech where you have to introduce

yourself, the topic that you will speak on and gather the audience’s interest.
ii. Body – is the main part of the speech that contains all supporting details and facts
about your topic. Here it is important to use connecting words (for example,
though, on the other hand, similarly, first, in conclusion, to summarize, etc. ) to
present your points in a logical order and maintain coherence.
iii. Conclusion - Summarize your main points and restate the purpose of the speech.

Vocabulary Skills
Guessing Meanings from Context

Context is a word, a group of words, or sentences that surround unknown words.

A Context Clue is a hint from the rest of the sentence or paragraph that helps you to
understand the meaning of the unknown word.

Types of Context Clues

There are different types of context clues such as; Definition, Restatement, Example,
Contrast, Cause and Effect & Inference.

i. Definition

A writer may help readers understand an unfamiliar word by giving the definition of a word
directly.

It may be signaled by one of these expressions: is/are, is/ are called, is/are defined as, is/are
described as, is/are known as, mean/which mean, etc.

For example:

1. Semantics is the study of meaning in language while pragmatics is the study of how
people use language in social situations. ·
2. A highly refined extract of seaweed is called carrageenan.

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In addition to the expressions above, some punctuation can be used as a definition clue too.
For example:

 Comma (,)

Many heavy smokers develop emphysema, a serious lung disease which makes breathing
very difficult.

 Parentheses ( )

Paella (a Spanish fried rice mixed with small pieces of vegetables, fish, and chicken) is better
served hot as breakfast.

 Dash (-)

Carbon dating - a scientific method to determine the age of old objects - is generally accepted
to be accurate.

ii. Restatement

Some unknown words are probably restated by using another word which is more familiar to
us. The signal words are as follows: or, in other words, that is (to say), i.e. etc.

For example,

1. A pseudonym or a penname is used to hide the identity of a writer.

2. Most members of the camel family are found in arid habitats; in other words, they are
found in dry areas.

iii. Example

Some examples are given to help readers understand the meaning of the unknown words. The
examples usually follow the expressions like: such/such as, like, especially, for example, for
instance, including, etc.

For example,

1. At night we sometimes saw some nocturnal animals, such as owls and bats.
2. Fabrics, like cotton, silk or polyester, can be bought at many stores.
iv. Contrast

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 Writers often clarify their discussion by showing how one thing differs from
another or by telling what something is not. The signals that help locate
contrasting expressions are: but, however, although, whereas, not, on the other
hand, yet, etc.
For example:
1. Gudeta loves reading novels but Bridget despises it.
2. My sister thought the rock concert was scintillating, but I thought it was
very dull.

v. Cause and Effect

Writers may also use cause and effect relationships to help readers find the
meaning of unknown words even though the meaning is not directly given.
The expressions which indicate cause and effect relationships of situations
or events are: because, consequently, so, therefore, etc.

For example:

After a year in Scotland, she ran out of money; therefore, she had to look for a job.

At the party, I saw Susan sitting by herself. Probably it was because she did not feel like
mingling with the other guests.

vi. Inference

Sometimes context clues are not so clearly recognizable because they do not have clear
signals. We must infer to determine the meaning of an unknown word by its relationship to
familiar words.

For example:

My neighbor is so affluent that he can afford an expensive sports car every year.

Here the “so + adjective + that clause” is a reason + result. So affluent must mean rich.

Cohesive Devises of Contrasting and Comparing

i. Although, even though, in spite of and despite are all used to link two contrasting
ideas. They can all be used at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

Example: Despite the rain, we enjoyed the festival.

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We enjoyed the festival despite the rain.

The main difference between although, even though, in spite of and despite is that they are
used with different structures.

ii. in spite of / despite After in spite of and despite, we use a noun, gerund (-ing form of
a verb) or a pronoun
Example: They never made much money, in spite of their success.
In spite of the pain in his leg, he completed the marathon.
Despite having a headache, I had a great birthday.
The train was cancelled. In spite of that, we arrived on time.

Grammar Skills

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are word or group of words that are used to relate/join/ combine ideas/
sentence that have similar ideas or contrast ideas.

There are four types of conjunctions in English language, namely:

Common Mistakes in Sentence Constructions or Erroneous Sentences

Erroneous Sentences or Common mistakes in sentence construction, which can lead to

erroneous sentences. Each type is followed by examples and tips for correction.

1. Fragmented Sentences

 Definition: A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that lacks a subject, verb,

or complete thought.
 Examples:
o Fragment: Because he was tired.
o Correction: He went to bed early because he was tired.

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  Tip: Ensure every sentence has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea.

2. Run-On Sentences

 Definition: A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are
joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions.
 Examples:
o Run-on: She loves coffee she drinks it every morning.
o Correction: She loves coffee, so she drinks it every morning.
 Tip: Use commas with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, so) or break into separate
sentences.

3. Comma Splices

 Definition: A comma splice is a type of run-on sentence where two independent

clauses are joined with just a comma.
 Examples:
o Comma splice: It’s raining outside, I forgot my umbrella.
o Correction: It’s raining outside. I forgot my umbrella. or It’s raining outside,
and I forgot my umbrella.
 Tip: Replace the comma with a period, semicolon, or add a conjunction.

4. Subject-Verb Agreement Errors

 Definition: These errors occur when the subject and verb do not agree in number
(singular/plural).
 Examples:
o Incorrect: The list of items are on the table.
o Correct: The list of items is on the table.
 Tip: Identify the main subject and ensure the verb matches in number.

5. Misplaced Modifiers

 Definition: A misplaced modifier is a word or phrase that is placed too far from the
word it modifies, causing confusion.
 Examples:
o Misplaced: She almost drove her kids to the store every day.
o Correct: She drove her kids to the store almost every day.
 Tip: Place modifiers as close as possible to the word they describe.

6. Dangling Modifiers

 Definition: A dangling modifier lacks a clear subject to modify within the sentence.
 Examples:
o Dangling: Walking down the street, the flowers were beautiful.
o Correct: Walking down the street, she noticed the flowers were beautiful.
 Tip: Ensure the modifier clearly refers to the correct subject.

7. Faulty Parallelism

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  Definition: Occurs when parts of a sentence are not in the same grammatical form,
disrupting readability.
 Examples:
o Incorrect: She likes cooking, to read, and jogging.
o Correct: She likes cooking, reading, and jogging.
 Tip: Use the same grammatical structure for items in a list or paired elements.

8. Incorrect Pronoun Usage

 Definition: Mistakes happen when pronouns do not agree in number or clarity with
their antecedents.
 Examples:
o Incorrect: Everyone should bring their books.
o Correct: Everyone should bring his or her book.
 Tip: Match the pronoun in number and clarity with the antecedent.

9. Incorrect Tense or Verb Form

 Definition: Errors in verb tense or form can cause confusion about the timing or
continuity of actions.
 Examples:
o Incorrect: She has went to the store.
o Correct: She has gone to the store.
 Tip: Pay attention to tense consistency, especially in narratives or timelines.

10. Lack of Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

 Definition: This occurs when a pronoun doesn’t agree with the noun it refers to in
number or gender.
 Examples:
o Incorrect: Each of the players must bring their own equipment.
o Correct: Each of the players must bring his or her own equipment.
 Tip: Ensure singular antecedents have singular pronouns and plural antecedents have
plural pronouns.

11. Ambiguous Pronouns

 Definition: Pronouns can be ambiguous when it’s unclear which noun they refer to.
 Examples:
o Ambiguous: John told Bill that he should leave.
o Clear: John told Bill, “You should leave.”
 Tip: Replace ambiguous pronouns with the actual noun to clarify the subject.

12. Redundancy and Wordiness/Choppy

 Definition: Using unnecessary words or repeating information can make sentences

unclear.
 Examples:
o Redundant: He returned back to the office.
o Clear: He returned to the office.

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  Tip: Use concise language, and avoid repeating ideas or words unnecessarily.

UNIT TWO: TIME MANAGEMENT

Analogies help clarify relationships between ideas by comparing two sets of things that have
similar relationships. Understanding types of analogies is useful in improving reasoning,
enhancing language skills, and mastering problem-solving. Here’s a detailed breakdown of
the types of analogies:

1. Synonym Analogies

 Definition: Synonym analogies pair words that have similar or identical meanings.
 Explanation: In these analogies, both terms in the pair share the same or closely
related meanings, highlighting similarities.
 Example: Happy : Joyful as Sad : Gloomy
 Usage: Synonym analogies are used to test vocabulary and recognize subtle
differences between similar words.

2. Antonym Analogies

 Definition: Antonym analogies link words that have opposite meanings.

 Explanation: These analogies emphasize contrast, helping learners understand how
two words represent opposing concepts.
 Example: Hot : Cold as Love : Hate
 Usage: Antonym analogies test understanding of opposites and help clarify
distinctions in meaning.

3. Cause and Effect Analogies

 Definition: Cause and effect analogies show a relationship where one word is the
cause and the other is its effect.
 Explanation: These analogies highlight causal relationships, demonstrating how one
event or action results in another.
 Example: Fire : Burn as Rain : Flood
 Usage: Recognizing cause and effect is important for reasoning skills and
understanding sequences of events.
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4. Part to Whole Analogies

 Definition: Part to whole analogies relate a part of something to the whole it belongs
to.
 Explanation: These analogies emphasize the concept of inclusion, where a smaller
part contributes to a larger entity.
 Example: Finger : Hand as Petal : Flower
 Usage: Part to whole analogies are helpful for understanding how components relate
to systems or structures.

5. Whole to Part Analogies

 Definition: Whole to part analogies show a relationship where the first term is a
whole and the second term is a part of it.
 Explanation: This is the reverse of part-to-whole analogies and focuses on breaking
down larger items into components.
 Example: Tree : Leaf as Car : Tire
 Usage: Whole to part analogies are useful in showing how systems or entities are
composed of individual parts.

6. Function Analogies

 Definition: Function analogies relate a tool or object to its purpose or function.

 Explanation: These analogies focus on what something is used for or its primary
purpose.
 Example: Pen : Write as Knife : Cut
 Usage: Function analogies are commonly used to show understanding of the purpose
behind objects or actions.

7. Location Analogies

 Definition: Location analogies link an item to its typical place or setting.

 Explanation: These analogies clarify where certain things are usually found or
located.
 Example: Fish : Water as Bird : Sky
 Usage: Location analogies enhance spatial awareness and help visualize associations
between objects and environments.

8. Degree or Intensity Analogies

 Definition: These analogies compare things based on their degree, strength, or

intensity.
 Explanation: By showing variations in scale or intensity, these analogies help clarify
nuanced differences between similar concepts.
 Example: Warm : Hot as Breeze : Gale
 Usage: These analogies aid in understanding subtle distinctions in qualities or levels
of intensity.

9. Type or Kind Analogies

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  Definition: Type or kind analogies relate a specific item to a broader category it
belongs to.
 Explanation: This analogy type demonstrates how particular items fit into general
categories.
 Example: Eagle : Bird as Rose : Flower
 Usage: These analogies help with categorization and understanding hierarchical
relationships.

10. Characteristic Analogies

 Definition: Characteristic analogies relate an object or subject to a defining feature or

attribute.
 Explanation: These analogies highlight a distinctive quality that inherently belongs
to the subject.
 Example: Snow : Cold as Sun : Bright
 Usage: Useful for describing attributes, these analogies improve descriptive and
comparative skills.

11. Performer and Action Analogies

 Definition: This type links a person or animal to an action they commonly perform.
 Explanation: By associating a subject with a typical activity, these analogies
demonstrate roles or habitual actions.
 Example: Chef : Cook as Teacher : Teach
 Usage: Performer and action analogies are helpful in understanding roles and typical
behaviors associated with specific figures.

12. Tool and User Analogies

 Definition: These analogies connect a tool to the person or entity that typically uses
it.
 Explanation: They emphasize the relationship between the user and the tool designed
for a particular purpose.
 Example: Painter : Brush as Carpenter : Hammer
 Usage: These analogies illustrate specific relationships between professions and their
tools, enhancing understanding of occupational associations.

13. Object and Material Analogies

 Definition: Object and material analogies connect an object with the material it is
typically made from.
 Explanation: These analogies help clarify the composition or origin of objects.
 Example: Table : Wood as Shirt : Cotton
 Usage: Useful in understanding materials, these analogies improve knowledge of how
common items are composed.

14. Symbol and Representation Analogies

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  Definition: Symbol and representation analogies relate a symbol or icon to what it
stands for or represents.
 Explanation: They show how certain symbols hold meanings or represent ideas.
 Example: Dove : Peace as Heart : Love
 Usage: Understanding symbols is essential for interpreting abstract ideas and
recognizing cultural or universal meanings.

These types of analogies are essential for developing reasoning and cognitive skills. By
recognizing the relationships between terms, learners can improve both verbal and analytical
thinking skills, making analogies a valuable tool in language, logic, and problem-solving
activities.

Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with one or more particles (prepositions or adverbs)
that create a new meaning, often quite different from the original verb. They are widely used
in English, especially in informal contexts, and can be tricky to learn because their meanings
are often idiomatic. Here’s a breakdown of common types and examples of phrasal verbs,
along with brief explanations.

1. Types of Phrasal Verbs

 Transitive Phrasal Verbs: These require a direct object.

o Example: She put off the meeting. (The meeting is the object.)
 Intransitive Phrasal Verbs: These do not take a direct object.
o Example: He woke up early. (No object needed.)
 Separable Phrasal Verbs: The object can go between the verb and the particle.
o Example: She looked up the word. or She looked the word up.
 Inseparable Phrasal Verbs: The object must come after the complete phrasal verb.
o Example: He ran into his friend. (Not ran his friend into.)

2. Common Phrasal Verbs with Examples

A. Phrasal Verbs for Everyday Actions

 Get up: To rise from bed.

o I usually get up at 7 a.m.
 Wake up: To stop sleeping.
o She woke up when her alarm went off.
 Sit down: To take a seat.
o Please sit down and make yourself comfortable.

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B. Phrasal Verbs for Relationships and Socializing

 Get along (with): To have a friendly relationship.

o They get along well with each other.
 Break up: To end a relationship.
o They decided to break up after five years together.
 Make up: To reconcile after a fight.
o They had a fight, but they made up later.

C. Phrasal Verbs for Work and Study

 Put off: To postpone or delay.

o He put off doing his homework until the last minute.
 Take up: To start a new activity.
o She took up painting as a hobby.
 Look over: To review or examine.
o She looked over her notes before the exam.

D. Phrasal Verbs for Movement

 Come back: To return to a place.

o He will come back from vacation next week.
 Run into: To meet someone unexpectedly.
o I ran into an old friend at the supermarket.
 Go away: To leave a place.
o They told him to go away and come back later.

E. Phrasal Verbs for Handling Situations

 Deal with: To manage or handle.

o She knows how to deal with stressful situations.
 Figure out: To solve or understand something.
o They finally figured out the answer to the problem.
 Carry on: To continue doing something.
o He decided to carry on despite the challenges.

F. Phrasal Verbs for Communication

 Bring up: To mention or introduce a topic.

o She brought up the topic of vacation during the meeting.
 Speak up: To talk louder.
o Please speak up; I can’t hear you.
 Call off: To cancel.
o They called off the event due to rain.

G. Phrasal Verbs for Changes and Transformations

 Grow up: To mature or become an adult.

o She grew up in a small town.

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  Turn into: To transform into something else.
o The caterpillar turned into a butterfly.
 Give up: To quit or stop trying.
o He didn’t give up even when things got tough.

H. Phrasal Verbs for Managing Things

 Set up: To arrange or establish.

o They set up the meeting room before the conference.
 Pick up: To collect or lift.
o Can you pick up the kids from school?
 Take over: To assume control.
o He took over the project after the manager left.

3. Tips for Learning Phrasal Verbs

 Context Matters: Phrasal verbs often have multiple meanings depending on context.
Practice understanding each in context to get a clearer grasp of meaning.
 Use in Sentences: Create sentences with each phrasal verb to reinforce their
meanings and remember them more effectively.
 Group by Verb or Theme: Organize phrasal verbs by their main verb or by theme
(e.g., work, travel) to make learning more manageable.
 Practice Often: Regular usage in conversation and writing will make them feel more
natural and easier to recall.

Phrasal verbs add richness and nuance to English and are important for sounding natural
in both spoken and written language. Understanding and practicing them in context is the
best way to master their usage.

Unit 3: Evidence on Road Traffic Accidents

Misplaced Participles/ Misplaced Modifiers

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  Participles are verbs ending in -ing (present participle) or –ed/ past form (past
participle) functioning as modifiers (adjectives/adverbs).
 When past participles (usually -ed) are used like adjectives or adverbs.
Example: What an interesting art.
Filled with horror at what he had just seen, he sat in his chair.
 Participles after a noun define and identify in the same way as relative clauses.
Example: 1 met a woman riding a horse. (= who was riding ...)
 Participles can be used as adverbs. They can describe:
 Two actions happening at the same time.
Example: She sat by the fire reading a book.
 Two actions that happen one after another.
Example: Opening his case, he took out a gun.
 If it is important to show that the first action is completed before the second action
begins, we use the perfect participle.
Example: Having finished lunch, we set off on our journey.
Having had a shower, she got dressed.
 two actions that happen one because of another.
Example: Being mean, he never bought anyone a Christmas present.
Not knowing what to do, I waited patiently.
A participial phrase should come immediately before or after the noun it refers. If any
structure comes between the participle and the noun it refers to, it becomes a confused or
misplaced participle.
Example: a. Having had a shower, she got dressed. The participial phrase ‘Having had
a shower’ refers to the subject ‘She’
If you put it the other way: She got dressed having had shower. (now it is not clear
what the participial phrase refers to)
b. Being mean, he never bought anyone a Christmas present. (Clear)
Being mean, Christmas present was never been bought for anyone.
(Misplaced/confused)

Tenses for Narration

Past Simple and Present Perfect are used to talk about the past.

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  The Past Simple refers to finished past. Present Perfect links the past with the
present.
Example: Mengistu Lemma wrote wonderful plays. He is dead. I have written two
books. I’m alive so, I will write more.
 There is no present result in Past Simple: the Present Perfect tense refers to
present effect of past action.
Example: I hurt my back. (But it’s better now.) I have hurt my back. (And it still hurts.)
 The Past Simple refers to definite past used together with definite time adverbs,
last night, two weeks ago, on Monday, at 8:00. With the present perfect indefinite
adverbs (recently, before, since, never, for some time) are used.
Example: Last night. I saw him two weeks ago. I didn’t see him for a week.
I have not seen him recently/for years

UNIT 4: Natural Resource Management

Syllables and stress

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Syllables and stress are key elements in English pronunciation. They play an essential role in
making speech clear and understandable, and understanding them helps improve spoken
English and reading skills. Here’s a breakdown of syllables and stress, with definitions, types,
and rules.

1. Syllables

Definition

 A syllable is a unit of sound in a word that usually contains a vowel sound. Words
can have one or multiple syllables, and each syllable forms a beat when spoken.

Types of Syllables

1. Monosyllabic Words: Words with only one syllable.

o Example: cat, book, dog
2. Polysyllabic Words: Words with two or more syllables.
o Example: ta-ble, fan-ta-sy, in-for-ma-tion

Identifying Syllables

 To identify the syllables in a word, clap or tap as you say the word slowly. Each clap
or tap corresponds to one syllable.
 Example: For the word banana (ba-na-na), you would clap three times.

2. Stress

Definition

 Stress refers to the emphasis placed on a particular syllable in a word or on a word in

a sentence. In stressed syllables, vowels are pronounced more strongly, and they may
sound longer or louder.

Types of Stress

 Word Stress: Emphasis on a specific syllable within a word.

 Sentence Stress: Emphasis on particular words within a sentence, usually to convey
meaning or emotion.

Rules for Word Stress

 One-syllable words are typically not stressed. Examples: cat, sun

 Two-syllable nouns and adjectives often have the first syllable stressed.
o TA-ble, MO-ther

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  Two-syllable verbs and prepositions often have the second syllable stressed.
o be-LIEVE, a-RISE
 Words with three or more syllables: Stress often falls on the first or second syllable,
depending on the word’s origin and structure.
o FAN-ta-sy, com-PU-ter, IN-for-ma-tion

Rules for Sentence Stress

 Content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) are usually stressed, as
they carry the main meaning.
o Example: She went to the market.
 Function words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs) are usually
unstressed.
o Example: I am going to the store.

Primary and Secondary Stress

 Primary Stress: The main emphasis in a word.

o Example: ex-AM-ple (primary stress on the second syllable).
 Secondary Stress: A lighter stress that may appear in longer words.
o Example: ED-u-CA-tion (primary stress on "CA," secondary stress on "ED").

3. Importance of Syllables and Stress in English

 Clarity: Proper syllable and stress placement makes words clearer.

 Rhythm: English has a natural rhythm based on stressed and unstressed syllables.
 Meaning: Stress can change the meaning of words, especially with heteronyms.
o Example: CON-duct (noun, behavior) vs. con-DUCT (verb, to lead).

4. Tips for Practicing Syllables and Stress

 Listen to Native Speakers: Pay attention to the rhythm and stress in their speech.
 Practice with a Dictionary: Dictionaries often mark stressed syllables with an accent
(e.g., əˈbaʊt).
 Use Clapping Technique: Clap or tap out the syllables of a word to find the rhythm.
 Record Yourself: Play back recordings of yourself to check your pronunciation and
stress.

Understanding syllables and stress is essential for effective communication, especially in

English. With regular practice, mastering these aspects of pronunciation can lead to clearer
and more natural speech.

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