UNIT – I

MACHINE TOOLS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In an industry, metal components are made into different shapes and dimensions by using
various metal working processes.
Metal working processes are classified into two major groups. They are:
Non-cutting shaping or chips less or metal forming process - forging, rolling, pressing, etc.
Cutting shaping or metal cutting or chip forming process - turning, drilling, milling, etc.

1.2 MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

1.2.1 Definition of machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to the desired
dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the preformed blank in
the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

1.2.2 Principle of machining

Fig. 1.1 typically illustrates the basic principle of machining. A metal rod of irregular shape,
size and surface is converted into a finished product of desired dimension and surface finish by
machining by proper relative motions of the tool-work pair.

Fig. 1.1 Principle of machining (Turning) Fig. 1.2 Requirements for machining

1.2.3 Purpose of machining

Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and nuts
etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their purposes.
Preforming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired accuracy and finish. For that
such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is done by machining and
grinding. Grinding is also basically a machining process.
Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product:
Fulfill its functional requirements.
Improve its performance.
Prolong its service.

1.2.4 Requirements of machining

The essential basic requirements for machining a work are schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.2.
 The blank and the cutting tool are properly mounted (in fixtures) and moved in a powerful
device called machine tool enabling gradual removal of layer of material from the work surface
resulting in its desired dimensions and surface finish. Additionally some environment called cutting
fluid is generally used to ease machining by cooling and lubrication.

1.3 TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS

1.3.1 Definition of machine tool
A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued device or system of
devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish by
removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools
moved past the work surface(s).

1.3.2 Basic functions of machine tools

Machine tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any contour on
the preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
The physical functions of a machine tool in machining are:
Firmly holding the blank and the tool.
Transmit motions to the tool and the blank.
Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.
Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.

1.3.3 Classification of machine tools

th
Number of types of machine tools gradually increased till mid 20 century and after that
started decreasing based on group technology.
However, machine tools are broadly classified as follows:
According to direction of major axis:
 Horizontal - center lathe, horizontal boring machine etc.
 Vertical - vertical lathe, vertical axis milling machine etc.
 Inclined - special (e.g. for transfer machines).
According to purpose of use:
 General purpose - e.g. center lathes, milling machines, drilling, machines etc.
 Single purpose - e.g. facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
 Special purpose - for mass production.
According to degree of automation:
 Non-automatic - e.g. center lathes, drilling machines etc.
 Semi-automatic - capstan lathe, turret lathe, hobbing machine etc.
 Automatic - e.g., single spindle automatic lathe, swiss type automatic lathe, CNC
milling machine etc.
According to size:
 Heavy duty - e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. ≥ 55 kW), boring mills, planning machine,
horizontal boring machine etc.
Medium duty - e.g., lathes - 3.7 ~ 11 kW, column drilling machines, milling machines etc.
 Small duty - e.g., table top lathes, drilling machines, milling machines.
 Micro duty - e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.
According to blank type:
 Bar type (lathes).
 Chucking type (lathes).
 Housing type.

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UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

According to precision:
 Ordinary - e.g., automatic lathes.
 High precision - e.g., Swiss type automatic lathes.
According to number of spindles:
 Single spindle - center lathes, capstan lathes, milling machines etc.
 Multi spindle - multi spindle (2 to 8) lathes, gang drilling machines etc.
According to type of automation:
 Fixed automation - e.g., single spindle and multi spindle lathes.
 Flexible automation - e.g., CNC milling machine.
According to configuration:
 Stand alone type - most of the conventional machine tools.
 Machining system (more versatile) - e.g., transfer machine, machining center, FMS etc.

1.3.4 Specification of machine tools

A machine tool may have a large number of various features and characteristics. But only some
specific salient features are used for specifying a machine tool. All the manufacturers, traders and
users must know how machine tools are specified.
The methods of specification of some basic machine tools are as follows:
Centre lathe:
 Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can be accommodated.
 Power of the main drive (motor).
 Range of spindle speeds and range of feeds.
 Space occupied by the machine.
Shaper:
 Length, breadth and depth of the bed.
 Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical travel of the bed / tool.
 Maximum length of the stroke (of the ram / tool).
 Range of number of strokes per minute.
 Range of table feed.
 Power of the main drive.
 Space occupied by the machine.
Drilling machine (column type):
 Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used.
 Size and taper of the hole in the spindle.
 Range of spindle speeds.
 Range of feeds.
 Power of the main drive.
 Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed.
 Floor space occupied by the machine.
Milling machine (knee type and with arbor):
 Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type.
 Size of the work table.
 Range of travels of the table in X - Y - Z directions.
 Arbor size (diameter).
 Power of the main drive.
 Range of spindle speed.
 Range of table feeds in X - Y - Z directions.
 Floor space occupied.

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1.4 MACHINE TOOLS
1.4.1 Types of cutting tools
Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points) involved
as follows:
 Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
Double (two) point: e.g., drills.
Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

1.4.2 Geometry of single point cutting (turning) tools

Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their performances
in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of machining.

1.4.2.1 Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient
faces and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle are the most
significant for all the cutting tools. The concept of rake angle and clearance angle will be clear from
some simple operations shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

Definition
Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane.
Clearance angle (α): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished surface.
Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining. Rake angle may be
positive, or negative or even zero as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a, b and c).

(a) Positive rake (b) Zero rake (c) Negative rake Fig. 1.4 Three
possible types of rake angles
Relative advantages of such rake angles are:
Positive rake - helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
Zero rake - to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools.
Negative rake - to increase edge-strength and life of the tool.
Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the machined
surface which causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job surface. Hence, clearance
0 0
angle is a must and must be positive (3 ~ 15 ) depending upon tool-work materials and type of the
machining operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.4.2.2 Systems of description of tool geometry

Tool-in-Hand System - where only the salient features of the cutting tool point are identified or
visualized as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a). There is no quantitative information, i.e., value of the angles.
 Machine Reference System - ASA system.
 Tool Reference System - Orthogonal Rake System - ORS.
- Normal Rake System - NRS.
 Work Reference System - WRS.

1.4.2.3 Description of tool geometry in Machine Reference System

This system is also called as ASA system; ASA stands for American Standards Association.
Geometry of a cutting tool refers mainly to its several angles or slopes of its salient working surfaces
and cutting edges. Those angles are expressed with respect to some planes of reference.
In Machine Reference System (ASA), the three planes of reference and the coordinates are
chosen based on the configuration and axes of the machine tool concerned. The planes and axes used
for expressing tool geometry in ASA system for turning operation are shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).

Fig 1.5 (a) Basic features of single point Fig. 1.5 (b) Planes and axes of reference cutting
(turning) tool in ASA system
The planes of reference and the coordinates used in ASA system for tool geometry are:
ΠR - ΠX - ΠY and Xm - Ym - Zm; where,
ΠR = Reference plane; plane perpendicular to the velocity vector. Shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).
ΠX = Machine longitudinal plane; plane perpendicular to ΠR and taken in the direction of
assumed longitudinal feed.
ΠY = Machine transverse plane; plane perpendicular to both ΠR and ΠX. [This plane is taken in
the direction of assumed cross feed]
The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting
velocity (vector) respectively. The main geometrical features and angles of single point tools in ASA
systems and their definitions will be clear from Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Tool angles in ASA system

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 5

Definition of:
Shank: The portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges and is rectangular in cross
section. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Face: The surface against which the chip slides upward. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Flank: The surface which face the work piece. There are two flank surfaces in a single point cutting
tool. One is principal flank and the other is auxiliary flank. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Heel: The lowest portion of the side cutting edges. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Nose radius: The conjunction of the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. It provides strengthening
of the tool nose and better surface finish. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Base: The underside of the shank. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Rake angles: [Fig. 1.6]
γx = Side rake angle (axial rake): angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference
plane (ΠR) and measured on machine reference plane, ΠX.
γy = Back rake angle: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane and
measured on machine transverse plane, ΠY.
Clearance angles: [Fig. 1.6]
αx = Side clearance angle (Side relief angle): angle of inclination of the principal flank from the
machined surface (or CV) and measured on ΠX plane.
αy = Back clearance angle (End relief angle): same as αx but measured on ΠY plane.
Cutting angles: [Fig. 1.6]
φs = Side cutting edge angle (Approach angle): angle between the principal cutting edge (its
projection on ΠR) and ΠY and measured on ΠR.
φe = End cutting edge angle: angle between the end cutting edge (its projection on ΠR) from ΠX
and measured on ΠR.

1.4.3 Designation of tool geometry

The geometry of a single point tool is designated or specified by a series of values of the salient
angles and nose radius arranged in a definite sequence as follows:
Designation (Signature) of tool geometry in ASA System - γy, γx, αy, αx, φe, φs, r (in inch)
Example: A tool having 7, 8, 6, 7, 5, 6, 0.1 as designation (Signature) in ASA system will have
the following angles and nose radius.
0
Back rack angle = 7
0
Side rake angle = 8
0
Back clearance angle = 6
0
Side clearance angle = 7
0
End cutting edge angle = 5
0
Side cutting edge angle = 6
Nose radius = 0.1 inch

1.4.4 Types of metal cutting processes

The metal cutting process is mainly classified into two types. They are:
 Orthogonal cutting process (Two - dimensional cutting) - The cutting edge or face of the
0
tool is 90 to the line of action or path of the tool or to the cutting velocity vector. This
cutting involves only two forces and this makes the analysis simpler.
 Oblique cutting process (Three - dimensional cutting) - The cutting edge or face of the tool
0
is inclined at an angle less than 90 to the line of action or path of the tool or to the cutting
velocity vector. Its analysis is more difficult of its three dimensions.

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UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.4.4.1 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

It is appears from the diagram shown in Fig. 1.7 (a and b) that while turning ductile material by
a sharp tool, the continuous chip would flow over the tool’s rake surface and in the direction
apparently perpendicular to the principal cutting edge, i.e., along orthogonal plane which is normal to
the cutting plane containing the principal cutting edge. But practically, the chip may not flow along the
orthogonal plane for several factors like presence of inclination angle, λ, etc.
The role of inclination angle, λ on the direction of chip flow is schematically shown in Fig. 1.8
which visualizes that:
0 0
When λ = 0 , the chip flows along orthogonal plane, i.e, ρc = 0 .
0
When λ ≠ 0 , the chip flow is deviated from πo and ρc = λ where ρc is chip flow deviation (from
πo) angle.

Fig. 1.7 (a) Setup of orthogonal and oblique cutting Fig. 1.7 (b) Ideal direction of chip flow in turning

Fig. 1.8 Role of inclination angle, λ on chip flow direction

0
Orthogonal cutting: When chip flows along orthogonal plane, πo, i.e., ρc = 0 .
0
Oblique cutting: When chip flow deviates from orthogonal plane, i.e. ρc ≠ 0 .
0 0
But practically ρc may be zero even if λ = 0 and ρc may not be exactly equal to λ even if λ ≠ 0 .
Because there is some other (than λ) factors also may cause chip flow deviation.

1.4.4.2 Pure orthogonal cutting

0
This refers to chip flow along πo and φ = 90 as typically shown in Fig. 1.9. Where a pipe like
job of uniform thickness is turned (reduced in length) in a center lathe by a turning tool of geometry; λ
0 0
= 0 and φ = 90 resulting chip flow along πo which is also πx in this case.

Fig. 1.9 Pure orthogonal cutting (pipe turning)

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1.5 CHIP FORMATION
1.5.1 Mechanism of chip formation
Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process essentially done to impart required or
stipulated dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish to enable the product to:
Fulfill its basic functional requirements.
Provide better or improved performance.
Render long service life.
Machining is a process of gradual removal of excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of
chips. The form of the chips is an important index of machining because it directly or indirectly
indicates:
Nature and behaviour of the work material under machining condition.
Specific energy requirement (amount of energy required to remove unit volume of work
material) in machining work.
Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool interfaces.

Work material.
Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on depth of cut.
Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature and friction at the chip-tool and
Work-tool interfaces.
Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to understand the characteristics of chips
and to attain favourable chip forms.

1.5.1.1 Mechanism of chip formation in machining ductile materials

During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of the cutting tool
(edge) is subjected to almost all sided compression as indicated in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip
The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises out of the normal force, N and frictional force,
F as indicated in Fig. 1.10. Due to such compression, shear stress develops, within that compressed
region, in different magnitude, in different directions and rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever
and wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material
in the deformation region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that region and
the plane of maximum shear stress. But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip
quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that region moves along the tool rake surface towards
and then goes beyond the point of chip-tool engagement.
As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In the
mean time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and
shear. This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer by
*1
layer. This phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by Piispannen using a card analogy as
shown in Fig. 1.11 (a).

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UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

(a) Shifting of the postcards by partial sliding against each other (b) Chip formation by shear in
lamella Fig. 1.11 Piispannen model of card analogy to explain chip formation in machining ductile
materials
In actual machining chips also, such serrations are visible at their upper surface as indicated in
Fig. 1.11 (b). The lower surface becomes smooth due to further plastic deformation due to intensive
rubbing with the tool at high pressure and temperature. The pattern of shear deformation by lamellar
sliding, indicated in the model, can also be seen in actual chips by proper mounting, etching and
polishing the side surface of the machining chip and observing under microscope.
The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due to the primary and the secondary
shear deformations of the chips ahead and along the tool face, as indicated in Fig. 1.12, depend upon:
Work material.
Tool; material and geometry.
The machining speed (VC) and feed (so).
Cutting fluid application.

Fig. 1.12 Primary and secondary deformation zones in the chip

The overall deformation process causing chip formation is quite complex and hence needs
thorough experimental studies for clear understanding the phenomena and its dependence on the
*2
affecting parameters. The feasible and popular experimental methods for this purpose are:
Study of deformation of rectangular or circular grids marked on side surface as shown in Fig.
1.13 (a and b).
Microscopic study of chips frozen by drop tool or quick stop apparatus.
Study of running chips by high speed camera fitted with low magnification microscope.
It has been established by several analytical and experimental methods including circular grid
Deformation that though the chips are initially compressed ahead of the tool tip, the final deformation
is accomplished mostly by shear in machining ductile materials. However, machining of ductile
materials generally produces flat, curved or coiled continuous chips.

(a) Rectangular grids (b) Circular grids

Fig. 1.13 Pattern of grid deformation during chip formation
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1.5.1.2 Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle materials
The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are:
Yielding - generally for ductile materials.
Brittle fracture - generally for brittle materials.
During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. 1.14 due to
wedging action of the cutting edge. At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration takes place. In case of
ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at the crack-tip and reduces the effect of stress
concentration and prevents its propagation as crack. But in case of brittle materials the initiated crack
quickly propagates, under stressing action, and total separation takes place from the parent work piece
through the minimum resistance path as indicated in Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.14 Development and propagation of crack causing chip separation.

Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and mostly of irregular size and
shape. The process of forming such chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.15 (a, b, c, d and e).

Separation (b) Swelling (c) Further swelling (d) Separation (e) Swelling again
Fig. 1.15 Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle materials

1.5.2 Chip thickness ratio

Geometry and characteristics of chip forms
The geometry of the chips being formed at the cutting zone follow a particular pattern
especially in machining ductile materials. The major sections of the engineering materials being
machined are ductile in nature; even some semi-ductile or semi-brittle materials behave ductile under
the compressive forces at the cutting zone during machining.
The pattern and degree of deformation during chip formation are quantitatively assessed and
expressed by some factors, the values of which indicate about the forces and energy required for a
particular machining work.

Chip reduction coefficient or cutting ratio

The usual geometrical features of formation of continuous chips are schematically shown in
Fig. 1.16. The chip thickness (a2) usually becomes larger than the uncut chip thickness (a1). The reason
can be attributed to:
 Compression of the chip ahead of the tool.
 Frictional resistance to chip flow.
 Lamellar sliding according to Piispannen.

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UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

Fig. 1.16 Geometrical features of continuous chip formation.

The significant geometrical parameters involved in chip formation are shown in Fig. 1.16 and
those parameters are defined (in respect of straight turning) as:
t = depth of cut (mm) - perpendicular penetration of the cutting tool tip in work surface.
f = feed (mm/rev) - axial travel of the tool per revolution of the job.
b1 = width (mm) of chip before cut.
b2 = width (mm) of chip after cut.
a1 = thickness (mm) of uncut layer (or chip before cut).
a2 = chip thickness (mm) - thickness of chip after cut.
A1 = cross section (area, mm2) of chip before cut.
The degree of thickening of the chip is expressed by
rc = a2 / a1 > 1.00 (since a2 > a1) 1.1
where, rc = chip reduction coefficient.
a1= f sinφ 1.2
where φ = principal cutting edge angle.
Larger value of rc means more thickening i.e., more effort in terms of forces or energy required
to accomplish the machining work. Therefore it is always desirable to reduce a2 or rc without
sacrificing productivity, i.e. metal removal rate (MRR).
Chip thickening is also often expressed by the reciprocal of rc as,
1 / rc = r = a1 / a2 1.3
where r = cutting ratio.
The value of chip reduction coefficient, rc (and hence cutting ratio) depends mainly upon
Tool rake angle, γ Chip-tool interaction, mainly friction, µ
*3
Roughly in the following way,
rc = (for orthogonal cutting) 1.4
and γ are in radians.
The simple but very significant expression 1.4 clearly depicts that the value of rc can be
desirably reduced by
Using tool having larger positive rake.
Reducing friction by using lubricant.
The role of rake angle and friction at the chip-tool interface on chip reduction coefficient are
also schematically shown in Fig. 1.17.
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II

Fig. 1.17 Role of rake angle and friction on Fig. 1.18 Shear plane and shear angle in
chip reduction coefficient chip formation
Chip reduction coefficient, rc is generally assessed and expressed by the ratio of the chip
thickness, after cut (a2) and before cut (a1) as in equation 1.1. But rc can also be expressed or assessed
by the ratio of:
 Total length of the chip before cut (L1) and after cut (L2).
 Cutting velocity, VC and chip velocity, Vf.
Considering total volume of chip produced in a given time,
a1b1L1 = a2b2L2 1.5
The width of chip, b generally does not change significantly during machining unless there is
side flow for some adverse situation. Therefore assuming, b1=b2 in equation 1.5, rc comes up to be,
rc = a2 / a1 = L1 / L2 1.6
Again considering unchanged material flow (volume) ratio, Q
Q = (a1b1)VC = (a2b2)Vf 1.7
Taking b1=b2,
rc = a2 / a1 = VC / Vf 1.8
Equation 5.8 reveals that the chip velocity, Vf will be lesser than the cutting velocity, VC and
the ratio is equal to the cutting ratio, r = 1 / rc

Shear angle
It has been observed that during machining, particularly ductile materials, the chip sharply
changes its direction of flow (relative to the tool) from the direction of the cutting velocity, VC to that
along the tool rake surface after thickening by shear deformation or slip or lamellar sliding along a
plane. This plane is called shear plane and is schematically shown in Fig. 1.18.

Shear plane
Shear plane is the plane of separation of work material layer in the form of chip from the parent
body due to shear along that plane.

Shear angle
Angle of inclination of the shear plane from the direction of cutting velocity as shown in Fig.
1.18.
The value of shear angle, denoted by β (taken in orthogonal plane) depends upon:
Chip thickness before cut and after cut i.e. rc.
Rake angle, γ (in orthogonal plane).
From Fig. 1.18,
AC = a2 = OA cos(β – γ) and AB = a1 = OA sinβ dividing a2 by a1
a2 / a1 = rc = cos(β – γ) / sinβ 1.9
or tanβ = cosγ / rc – sinγ 1.10

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UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

Replacing chip reduction coefficient, rc by cutting ratio, r, the equation 1.10 changes to,
tanβ = rcosγ / 1 – rsinγ 1.11 Equation 1.10 depicts that with the increase in
rc, shear angle decreases and vice-versa. It is also evident from equation 1.10 as well as equation 1.4
that shear angle increases both directly and indirectly with the increase in tool rake angle. Increase in
shear angle means more favorable machining condition
requiring lesser specific energy.

Cutting strain
The magnitude of strain, that develops along the shear plane due to machining action, is called
cutting strain (shear). The relationship of this cutting strain, ε with the governing parameters can be
derived from Fig. 1.19.

Fig. 1.19 Cutting strain in machining

Due to presence of the tool as an obstruction the layer 1 has been shifted to position 2 by
sliding along the shear plane. From Fig. 1.19,
Cutting strain (average), ε = ∆s / Y = PM / ON or ε = PN + NM / ON
ε = PN / ON + NM / ON or ε = cot β + tan(β – γ) 1.12

1.5.3 Built-up-Edge (BUE) formation

Causes of formation
In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact length, lot of stress and
temperature develops in the secondary deformation zone at the chip-tool interface. Under such high
stress and temperature in between two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take place
due to adhesion similar to welding. Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip tool
materials have mutual affinity or solubility.
The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the most favorable location and thus gradually
grows as schematically shown in Fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20 Scheme of built-up-edge formation

With the growth of the BUE, the force, F (shown in Fig. 1.20) also gradually increases due to
wedging action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it. Whenever the force, F exceeds the
bonding force of the BUE, the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by the flowing chip. Then
again BUE starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedly.

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Characteristics of BUE
Built-up-edges are characterized by its shape, size and bond strength, which depend upon:
Work tool materials.
Stress and temperature, i.e., cutting velocity and feed.
Cutting fluid application governing cooling and lubrication.
BUE may develop basically in three different shapes as schematically shown in Fig. 1.21 (a, b and c).

(a) Positive wedge (b) Negative wedge (c) Flat type Fig. 1.22 Overgrowing and Fig. 1.21 Different
forms of built-up-edge. overflowing of BUE causing surface roughness

In machining too soft and ductile metals by tools like high speed steel or uncoated carbide the
BUE may grow larger and overflow towards the finished surface through the flank as shown in Fig.
1.22. While the major part of the detached BUE goes away along the flowing chip, a small part of the
BUE may remain stuck on the machined surface and spoils the surface finish. BUE formation needs
certain level of temperature at the interface depending upon the mutual affinity of the work-tool
materials. With the increase in VC and so the cutting temperature rises and favors BUE formation.
But if VC is raised too high beyond certain limit, BUE will be squashed out by the flowing chip
before the BUE grows. Fig. 1.23 shows schematically the role of increasing VC and so on BUE
formation (size). But sometime the BUE may adhere so strongly that it remains strongly bonded at the
tool tip and does not break or shear off even after reasonably long time of machining. Such harmful
situation occurs in case of certain tool-work materials and at speed-feed conditions which strongly
favor adhesion and welding.

Fig. 1.23 Role of cutting velocity and feed on BUE formation

Effects of BUE formation
Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such as:
It unfavorably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase in cutting forces and
power consumption.
Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting forces and thus
induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the machine tool.
Surface finish gets deteriorated.
May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by adhesion and flaking
occasionally, formation of thin flat type stable BUE may reduce tool wear at the rake face.

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UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.5.4 Types of chips

Different types of chips of various shape, size, colour etc. are produced by machining depending
upon:
Type of cut, i.e., continuous (turning, boring etc.) or intermittent cut (milling).
Work material (brittle or ductile etc.).
Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting angles etc.).
Levels of the cutting velocity and feed (low, medium or high).
Cutting fluid (type of fluid and method of application).
The basic major types of chips and the conditions generally under which such types of chips form are
given below:

Continuous chips without BUE

When the cutting tool moves towards the work piece, there occurs a plastic deformation of the
work piece and the metal is separated without any discontinuity and it moves like a ribbon. The chip
moves along the face of the tool. This mostly occurs while cutting a ductile material. It is desirable to
have smaller chip thickness and higher cutting speed in order to get continuous chips. Lesser power is
consumed while continuous chips are produced. Total life is also mortised in this process. The
formation of continuous chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.24.

Fig. 1.24 Formation of continuous chips Fig. 1.25 Formation of discontinuous chips
The following condition favors the formation of continuous chips without BUE chips:
Work material - ductile.
Cutting velocity - high.
Feed - low.
Rake angle - positive and large.
Cutting fluid - both cooling and lubricating.

Discontinuous chips
This is also called as segmental chips. This mostly occurs while cutting brittle material such as
cast iron or low ductile materials. Instead of shearing the metal as it happens in the previous process,
the metal is being fractured like segments of fragments and they pass over the tool faces. Tool life can
also be more in this process. Power consumption as in the previous case is also low. The formation of
continuous chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.25.
The following condition favors the formation of discontinuous chips:
Of irregular size and shape: - work material - brittle like grey cast iron.
Of regular size and shape: - work material ductile but hard and work hardenable.
Feed rate - large.
Tool rake - negative.
Cutting fluid - absent or inadequate.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 15

Continuous chips with BUE
When cutting a ductile metal, the compression of the metal is followed by the high heat at
tool
face. This in turns enables part of the removed metal to be welded into the tool. This is known as
built up
edge, a very hardened layer of work material attached to the tool face, which tends to act as a
cutting
edge itself replacing the real cutting tool edge.
The built-up edge tends to grow until it reaches a critical size (~0.3 mm) and then passes off
with
the chip, leaving small fragments on the machining surface. Chip will break free and cutting forces
are
smaller, but the effect is a rough machined surface. The built-up edge disappears at high
cutting speeds.
The weld metal is work hardened or strain hardened. While the cutting process is
continued,
some of built up edge may be combined with the chip and pass along the tool face. Some of the
built up
edge may be permanently fixed on the tool face. This produces a rough surface finish and the tool
life
may be reduced. The formation of continuous chips with BUE is schematically shown in Fig. 1.26.

Fig. 1.26 Formation of continuous chips with BUE The

following condition favors the formation of continuous chips with BUE chips:
Work material - ductile.
Cutting velocity - low (~0.5 m/s,).
Small or negative rake angles.
Feed - medium or large.
Cutting fluid - inadequate or absent.
Often in machining ductile metals at high speed, the chips are deliberately broken into
small segments of
regular size and shape by using chip breakers mainly for convenience and reduction of chip-
tool contact
length.

1.5.5 Chip breakers

1.5.5.1 Need and purpose of chip-breaking
Continuous machining like turning of ductile metals, unlike brittle metals like grey cast
iron,
produce continuous chips, which leads to their handling and disposal problems. The problems
become
acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are machined at high cutting velocity for high MRR
by
 MACHINE TOOLS
UNIT - I

flat rake face type carbide or ceramic inserts. The sharp edged hot continuous chip that comes out at

very high speed:

Becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the vicinity.
May impair the finished surface by entangling with the rotating job.
Creates difficulties in chip disposal.
Therefore it is essentially needed to break such continuous chips into small regular pieces for:
Safety of the working people.
Prevention of damage of the product.
Easy collection and disposal of chips.
Chip breaking is done in proper way also for the additional purpose of improving machinability by

reducing the chip-tool contact area, cutting forces and crater wear of the cutting tool.

1.5.5.2 Principles of chip-breaking

In respect of convenience and safety, closed coil type chips of short length and ‘coma’ shaped
broken-to-half turn chips are ideal in machining of ductile metals and alloys at high speed.
The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows:
Self chip breaking - This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as an
attachment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.
Forced chip breaking - This is accomplished by additional tool geometrical features or devices.

Self breaking of chips

Ductile chips usually become curled or tend to curl (like clock spring) even in machining by
tools with flat rake surface due to unequal speed of flow of the chip at its free and generated (rubbed)
surfaces and unequal temperature and cooling rate at those two surfaces. With the increase in cutting
velocity and rake angle (positive) the radius of curvature increases, which is more dangerous.
In case of oblique cutting due to presence of inclination angle, restricted cutting effect etc. the
curled chips deviate laterally resulting helical coiling of the chips. The curled chips may self break:
By natural fracturing of the strain hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling and spring
back as indicated in Fig. 1.27 (a). This kind of chip breaking is generally observed under the
condition close to that which favors formation of jointed or segmented chips.
By striking against the cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig. 1.27 (b), mostly under pure
orthogonal cutting.
By striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig. 1.27 (c).

(a) Natural (b) Striking on job (c) Striking at tool flank

Fig. 1.27 Principles of self breaking of chips
The possibility and pattern of self chip-breaking depend upon the work material, tool material
and tool geometry (γ, λ, φ and r), levels of the process parameters (VC and fo) and the machining
environment (cutting fluid application) which are generally selected keeping in view the overall
machinability.
 The basic principle of forced chip breaking is schematically shown in Fig. 1.28. When the strain
hardened and brittle running chip strikes the heel, the cantilever chip gets forcibly bent and then breaks.

W = width, H = height, β = shear angle

Fig. 1.28 Principle of forced chip breaking
Fig. 1.29 (a, b, c and d) schematically shows some commonly used step type chip breakers:
Parallel step.
Angular step; positive and negative type.
Parallel step with nose radius - for heavy cuts.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 1.29 Step type in-built chip breaker (a) Parallel step
(b) Parallel and radiused (c) Positive angular (d) Negative angular
Fig. 1.30 (a and b) schematically shows some commonly used groove type in-built chip breakers:
Circular groove.
Tilted Vee groove.

Circular groove (b) Tilted Vee groove

Fig. 1.30 Groove type in-built chip breaker

The outer end of the step or groove acts as the heel that forcibly bends and fractures the
running chip.
Simple in configuration, easy manufacture and inexpensive.
The geometry of the chip-breaking features is fixed once made. (i.e., cannot be controlled)
Effective only for fixed range of speed and feed for any given tool-work combination.

Clamped type chip-breaker

Clamped type chip breakers work basically in the principle of stepped type chip-breaker but
have the provision of varying the width of the step and / or the angle of the heel.
Fig. 1.31 (a, b and c) schematically shows three such chip breakers of common use:
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

With fixed distance and angle of the additional strip - effective only for a limited domain of
parametric combination.
With variable width (W) only - little versatile.
With variable width (W), height (H) and angle (β) - quite versatile but less rugged and more
expensive.

(b)
(a)

(c)

Fixed geometry (b) Variable width (c) Variable width and

angle Fig. 1.31 Clamped type chip breakers

Chip breakers in solid HSS tools

Despite advent of several modern cutting tool materials, HSS is still used for its excellent TRS
(transverse rupture strength) and toughness, formability, grindability and low cost. The cutting tools
made of solid HSS blanks, such as form tools, twist drills, slab milling cutters, broaches etc, are also
often used with suitable chip breakers for breaking the long or wide continuous chips.
The handling of wide and long chips often becomes difficult particularly while drilling large
diameter and deep holes. Grooves, either on the rake faces or on the flanks as shown in Fig. 1.32 help
to break the chips both along the length and breadth in drilling ductile metals. The locations of the
grooves are offset in the two cutting edges.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.32 Chip breaking grooves. Crisp design of chip-breaking drill

US industrial design of chip-breaking drill
Fig. 1.33 Designs of chip-breaking drill
Fig. 1.33 (a and b) schematically shows another principle of chip-breaking when the drilling
chips are forced to tighter curling followed by breaking of the strain hardened chips into pieces.
Plain milling and end milling inherently produces discontinuous ‘coma’ shaped chips of favorably
shorter length. But the chips become very wide while milling wide surfaces and may offer problem of chip
disposal. To reduce this problem, the milling cutters are provided with small peripheral grooves on the
cutting edges as shown in Fig. 1.34. Such in-built type chip breakers break the wide chips into a number of
chips of much shorter width. Similar groove type chip-breakers are also often provided along the teeth of
broaches, for breaking the chips to shorter width and ease of disposal.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 19

 Fig. 1.34 Chip breaking grooves on a plain helical milling cutter

(e) Dynamic chip breaker

Dynamic turning is a special technique, where the cutting tool is deliberately vibrated along the
direction of feed as indicated in Fig. 1.35 at suitable frequency and amplitude. Such additional
controlled tool oscillation caused by mechanical, hydraulic or electro-magnetic (solenoid) shaker
improves surface finish. This also reduces the cutting forces and enhances the tool life due to more
effective cooling and lubrication at the chip tool and work tool interfaces for intermittent break of the
tool-work contact. Such technique, if further slightly adjusted, can also help breaking the chips. When
0
the two surfaces of the chip will be waved by phase difference of about 90 , the chip will either break
immediately or will come out in the form of bids, which will also break with slight bending or pressure
as indicated in Fig. 1.35. This technique of chip breaking can also be accomplished in dynamic
drilling and dynamic boring. Fig. 1.36 schematically shows another possible dynamic chip-breaking
device suitable for radially fed type lathe operations, e.g., facing, grooving and parting.

Fig 1.35 Self chip breaking in dynamic turning Fig 1.36 Dynamic chip breaking in radial
operations in lathe
1.5.5.3 Overall effects of chip breaking
Favorable effects:
Safety of the operator(s) from the hot, sharp continuous chip flowing out at high speed.
Convenience of collection and disposal of chips.
A chance of damage of the finished surface by entangling or rubbing with the chip is eliminated.
More effective cutting fluid action due to shorter and varying chip tool contact length.
Unfavorable effects:
Chances of harmful vibration due to frequent chip breaking and hitting at the heel or flank of the
tool bit.
More heat and stress concentration near the sharp cutting edge and hence chances of its rapid
failure.
Surface finish may deteriorate.
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.6 ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING

1.6.1 Benefit of knowing and purpose of determining cutting forces
The aspects of the cutting forces concerned:
Magnitude of the cutting forces and their components.
Directions and locations of action of those forces.
Pattern of the forces: static and / or dynamic.

Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables selection of the power source(s)
during design of the machine tools.
Structural design of the machine - fixture - tool system.
Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (process - VC, fo, t, tool - material and
geometry, environment - cutting fluid) on cutting forces.
Study of behaviour and machinability characterization of the work materials.
Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.

1.6.2 Cutting force components and their significances

The single point cutting tools being used for turning, shaping, planing, slotting, boring etc. are
characterized by having only one cutting force during machining. But that force is resolved into two or
three components for ease of analysis and exploitation. Fig. 1.37 visualizes how the single cutting
force in turning is resolved into three components along the three orthogonal directions; X, Y and Z.
The resolution of the force components in turning can be more conveniently understood from
their display in 2-D as shown in Fig. 1.38.

Fig. 1.37 Cutting force R resolved into PX, PY and PZ Fig. 1.38 turning force resolved into PZ, PX and PY
The resultant cutting force, R is resolved as,
R = PZ + PXY 1.13
and PXY = PX + PY 1.14
where, PX = PXY sinφ 1.15
and PY = PXY cosφ 1.16
PZ - Tangential component taken in the direction of Zm axis.
PX - Axial component taken in the direction of longitudinal feed or Xm axis.
PY - Radial or transverse component taken along Ym axis.
In Fig. 1.37 and Fig. 1.38 the force components are shown to be acting on the tool. A similar set of
forces also act on the job at the cutting point but in opposite directions as indicated by PZ', PXY', PX'
and PY' in Fig. 1.38.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 21

Significance of PZ, PX and PY
PZ: Called the main or major component as it is the largest in magnitude. It is also called power
component as it being acting along and being multiplied by VC decides cutting power (PZ.VC)
consumption.
PY: May not be that large in magnitude but is responsible for causing dimensional inaccuracy and
vibration.
PX: It, even if larger than PY, is least harmful and hence least significant.

1.6.3 Merchant’s Circle Diagram and its use

In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, π0, the cutting force
(resultant) and its components PZ and PXY remain in the orthogonal plane. Fig. 1.39 is schematically
showing the forces acting on a piece of continuous chip coming out from the shear zone at a constant
speed. That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium.

Fig 1.39 Development of Merchant’s Fig. 1.40 Merchant’s Circle Diagram

circle diagram with cutting forces
The forces in the chip segment are:
From job-side:
Ps - Shear force.
Pn - force normal to the shear force.
From the tool side:
 R1 = R (in state of equilibrium) where, R1 = F + N
N - Force normal to rake face.
F - Friction force at chip tool interface.

R1 = PZ + PXY where, PZ - Force along the velocity vector.

PXY - force along orthogonal plane.
The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called Merchant’s circle which contains all the force
components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one circle having all the
forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant’s Circle Diagram
(MCD) in Fig. 1.40.
The significance of the forces displayed in the Merchant’s Circle Diagram is:
Ps - The shear force essentially required to produce or separate the chip from the parent body by shear.
Pn - Inherently exists along with Ps.
F - Friction force at the chip tool interface.

22
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

N - Force acting normal to the rake surface.

PZ = PXY – PX + PY = main force or power component acting in the direction of cutting velocity.
The magnitude of PS provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the cutting
action. The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate the nature and degree of interaction like
friction at the chip tool interface. The force components PX, PY, PZ are generally obtained by direct
measurement. Again PZ helps in determining cutting power and specific energy requirement. The force
components are also required to design the cutting tool and the machine tool.

1.6.4 Advantageous use of Merchant’s circle diagram

Proper use of MCD enables the followings:
Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a few known
forces involved in machining.
Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily determined.
Equations relating the different forces are easily developed.

Merchant’s circle diagram (MCD) is only valid for orthogonal cutting.

By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.
It is based on single shear plane theory.

1.6.5 Development of equations for estimation of cutting forces

The two basic methods of determination of cutting forces and their characteristics are:
Analytical method: Enables estimation of cutting forces.
Characteristics:
Easy, quick and inexpensive.
Very approximate and average.
Effect of several factors like cutting velocity, cutting fluid action etc. are not revealed.
Unable to depict the dynamic characteristics of the forces.
Experimental methods: Direct measurement.

Quite accurate and provides true picture.

Can reveal effect of variation of any parameter on the forces.
Depicts both static and dynamic parts of the forces.
Needs measuring facilities, expertise and hence expensive.
The equations for analytical estimation of the salient cutting force components are conveniently
developed using Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD) when it is orthogonal cutting by any single point
cutting tool like, in turning, shaping, planing, boring etc.

1.6.6 Development of mathematical expressions for cutting forces

Tangential or main component, PZ
This can be very conveniently done by using Merchant’s Circle Diagram, as shown in Fig.
1.40. From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
PZ = Rcos(η – γ) 1.17
Ps = Rcos(β + η – γ) 1.18
Dividing Eqn. 1.17 by Eqn. 1.18,
PZ = Ps cos(η – γ) / cos(β + η – γ) 1.19
It was already shown that, Ps = t.f. τs / sinβ 1.20
where, τs - Dynamic yield shear strength of the work material.
Thus, PZ = t.f. τs cos(η – γ) / sinβ cos(β + η – γ) 1.21

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 23

 0
For brittle work materials, like grey cast iron, usually, 2β + η – γ = 90 and τs remains almost
unchanged.
Then for turning brittle material,
0 0
PZ = t.f. τs cos(90 – 2β) / sinβ cos(90 – β) 1.22
orPZ = 2 t.f. τs cotβ 1.23
Where, cotβ = rc – tanγ
rc = a2 / a1 = a2 / f sinφ
It is difficult to measure chip thickness and evaluate the values of ζ while machining brittle materials and
the value of τs is roughly estimated from
τs = 0.175 BHN 1.24
where, BHN - Brinnel’s Hardness number.
But most of the engineering materials are ductile in nature and even some semi-brittle materials
behave ductile under the cutting condition. The angle relationship reasonably accurately applicable for
ductile metals is
0
β + η – γ = 45 1.25
and the value of τs is obtained from,
τs = 0.186 BHN (approximate) 1.26
0.6
or τs = 0.74σuε (more suitable and accurate) 1.27
where, σu - Ultimate tensile strength of the work material
ε - Cutting strain, ε ≅ rc – tanγ

- % elongation
Substituting Eqn. 1.25 in Eqn. 1.21,
PZ = t.f. τs(cot β + 1) 1.28
Again cotβ ≅ rc – tanγ

So, PZ = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ + 1) 1.29

Axial force, PX and transverse force, PY

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
PXY = PZ tan(η – γ) 1.30
Combining Eqn. 1.21 and Eqn. 1.30,
PXY = t.f.τs sin(η – γ) / sinβ cos(β + η – γ) 1.31
0
Again, using the angle relationship β + η – γ = 45 , for ductile material
PXY = t.f.τs(cotβ – 1) 1.32
or PXY = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ – 1) 1.33
0.6
where, τs = 0.74σuε or τs = 0.186 BHN
It is already known,
PX = PXYsinφ and PY = PXYcosφ
Therefore, PX = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ – 1)sinφ 1.34
and PY = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ – 1) cosφ 1.35

Friction force, F, normal force, N and apparent coefficient of friction µa

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
F = PZ sinγ + PXY cosγ 1.36
and N = PZ cosγ – PXY sinγ 1.37
µ a = F / N = PZ sinγ + PXY cosγ / PZ cosγ – PXY sinγ 1.38
or µa = PZ tanγ + PXY / PZ – PXY tanγ 1.39
Therefore, if PZ and PXY are known or determined either analytically or experimentally the values
of F, N and µ a can be determined using equations only.

24
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

Shear force Ps and Pn

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
Ps = PZ cosβ – PXY sinβ 1.40
and Pn = PZ sinβ + PXY cosβ 1.41
From Ps, the dynamic yield shear strength of the work material, τs can be determined by using the
relation,
Ps = Asτs
where, As = t.f / sinβ = Shear area
Therefore, τs = Ps sinβ / t.f
τs = (PZ cosβ – PXY sinβ)sinβ / t.f 1.42

1.6.7 Metal cutting theories

1.6.7.1 Earnst - Merchant theory
Earnst and Merchant have developed a relationship between the shear angle β, the cutting rake
angle γ, and the angle of friction η as follows:
2β + η – γ = C where C is a machining constant for the work material dependent on the rate of
change of the shear strength of the metal with applied compressive stress, besides taking the internal
coefficient of friction into account.

1.6.7.2 Modified - Merchant theory

According to this theory the relation between the shear angle β, the cutting rake angle γ, and the
angle of friction η as follows:
β= - +
Shear will take place in a direction in which energy required for shearing is minimum.
Shear stress is maximum at the shear plane and it remains constant.

1.6.7.3 Lee and Shaffer’s theory

This theory analysis the process of orthogonal metal cutting by applying the theory of plasticity
for an ideal rigid plastic material. The principle assumptions are:
The work piece material ahead of the cutting tool behaves like an ideal plastic material.
The deformation of the metal occurs on a single shear plane.
This is a stress field within the produced chip which transmits the cutting force from the shear
plane to the tool face and therefore, the chip does not get hardened.
The chip separates from the parent material at the shear plane.
Based on this, they developed a slip line field for stress zone, in which no deformation would
occur even if it is stressed to its yield point. From this, they derived the following relationship.
β= -η+γ

1.6.8 Velocity relationship

The velocity relationships for orthogonal cutting are illustrated in fig. 2.7 where VC is the
cutting velocity, Vs is the velocity of shear and Vf is the velocity of chip flow up the tool face.
Vs = VC cosγ / cos(β – γ) 1.43
and Vf = sinβ / cos(β – γ) 1.44
From equation Vf = VC / rc
It can be inferred from the principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of two bodies (here tool
and the chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body
(the workpiece). So, VC = Vs + Vf 1.45

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 25

1.6.9 Metal removal rate
It is defined as the volume of metal removed in unit time. It is used to calculate the time required
to remove specified quantity of material from the work piece.
Metal removal rate (MRR) = t. f.VC 1.46
where, t - Depth of cut (mm), f - Feed (mm / rev) and VC - Cutting speed (mm / sec).
If the MRR is optimum, we can reduce the machining cost. To achieve this:
The cutting tool material should be proper.
Cutting tool should be properly ground.
Tool should be supported rigidly and therefore, there should be any vibration.
For turning operation, MRR = t.f.VC 1.47
For facing and spot milling operation, MRR = B.t.T 1.48
where B - Width of cut (mm) and T- Table travel (mm /sec).
For planing and shaping, MRR = t.f.L.S 1.49
where L - length of workpiece (mm) and S - Strokes per minute.

1.6.10 Evaluation of cutting power consumption and specific energy requirement

Cutting power consumption is a quite important issue and it should always be tried to be reduced
but without sacrificing MRR.
Cutting power consumption (PC) can be determined from, PC = PZ.VC + PX.Vf 1.50
where, Vf = feed velocity = Nf / 1000 m/min [N = rpm]
1.51
Since both P X and V f, specially V f are very small, PX.V f can be neglected and then P C ≅ P Z.VC

Specific energy requirement (Us) which means amount of energy required to remove unit
volume of material, is an important machinability characteristics of the work material. Specific energy
requirement, Us, which should be tried to be reduced as far as possible, depends not only on the work
material but also the process of the machining, such as turning, drilling, grinding etc. and the
machining condition, i.e., VC, f, tool material and geometry and cutting fluid application.
Compared to turning, drilling requires higher specific energy for the same work-tool materials
and grinding requires very large amount of specific energy for adverse cutting edge geometry (large
negative rake). Specific energy, Us, is determined from,
Us = PZ.VC / MRR = PZ/ t.f 1.52

1.7 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

1.7.1 Essential properties of cutting tool materials
The cutting tools need to be capable to meet the growing demands for higher productivity and
economy as well as to machine the exotic materials which are coming up with the rapid progress in
science and technology. The cutting tool material of the day and future essentially require the
following properties to resist or retard the phenomena leading to random or early tool failure:
High mechanical strength; compressive, tensile, and TRA.
Fracture toughness - high or at least adequate.
High hardness for abrasion resistance.
High hot hardness to resist plastic deformation and reduce wear rate at elevated temperature.
Chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric gases and cutting fluids.
Resistance to adhesion and diffusion.
Thermal conductivity - low at the surface to resist incoming of heat and high at the core to quickly
dissipate the heat entered.
High heat resistance and stiffness.
Manufacturability, availability and low cost.

26
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.7.2 Needs and chronological development of cutting tool materials

With the progress of the industrial world it has been needed to continuously develop and
improve the cutting tool materials and geometry:
To meet the growing demands for high productivity, quality and economy of machining.
To enable effective and efficient machining of the exotic materials those are coming up with
the rapid and vast progress of science and technology.
For precision and ultra-precision machining.
For micro and even nano machining demanded by the day and future.
It is already stated that the capability and overall performance of the cutting tools depend upon:
The cutting tool materials.
The cutting tool geometry.
Proper selection and use of those tools.
The machining conditions and the environments.
Out of which the tool material plays the most vital role. The relative contribution of the cutting tool
materials on productivity, for instance, can be roughly assessed from Fig. 1.41.
The chronological development of cutting tool materials is briefly indicated in Fig. 1.42.

Fig. 1.41 Productivity raised by cutting tool materials

Fig 1.42 Chronological development of cutting tool materials

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 27

1.7.3 Characteristics and applications of cutting tool materials
a) High Speed Steel (HSS)
Advent of HSS in around 1905 made a break through at that time in the history of cutting tool
materials though got later superseded by many other novel tool materials like cemented carbides and
ceramics which could machine much faster than the HSS tools.
The basic composition of HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest Fe. Such HSS tool
could machine (turn) mild steel jobs at speed only up to 20 ~ 30 m/min (which was quite substantial
those days)
However, HSS is still used as cutting tool material where:
The tool geometry and mechanics of chip formation are complex, such as helical twist drills,
reamers, gear shaping cutters, hobs, form tools, broaches etc.
Brittle tools like carbides, ceramics etc. are not suitable under shock loading.
The small scale industries cannot afford costlier tools.
The old or low powered small machine tools cannot accept high speed and feed.
The tool is to be used number of times by resharpening.
With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS (tools) and their application range were gradually
enhanced by improving its properties and surface condition through:
Refinement of microstructure.
Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to increase hot hardness and wear resistance
respectively.
Manufacture by powder metallurgical process.
Surface coating with heat and wear resistive materials like TiC, TiN, etc. by Chemical Vapour
Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD).
The commonly used grades of HSS are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Compositions and types of popular high speed steels

Type C W Mo Cr V Co RC
T-1 0.70 18 4 1
T-4 0.75 18 4 1 5
T-6 0.80 20 4 2 12
M-2 0.80 6 5 4 2 64.7
M-4 1.30 6 5 4 4
M - 15 1.55 6 3 5 5 5
M - 42 1.08 1.5 9.5 4 1.1 8 62.4
Addition of large amount of Co and V, refinement of microstructure and coating increased
strength and wear resistance and thus enhanced productivity and life of the HSS tools remarkably.

b) Stellite
This is a cast alloy of Co (40 to 50%), Cr (27 to 32%), W (14 to 19%) and C (2%). Stellite is
quite tough and more heat and wear resistive than the basic HSS (18 - 4 - 1) But such stellite as cutting
tool material became obsolete for its poor grindability and especially after the arrival of cemented
carbides.

c) Sintered Tungsten carbides

The advent of sintered carbides made another breakthrough in the history of cutting tool
materials.

28
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

i) Straight or single carbide

First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts were powder metallurgically produced by
mixing, compacting and sintering 90 to 95% WC powder with cobalt. The hot, hard and wear resistant
WC grains are held by the binder Co which provides the necessary strength and toughness. Such tools
are suitable for machining grey cast iron, brass, bronze etc. which produce short discontinuous chips
and at cutting velocities two to three times of that possible for HSS tools.

ii) Composite carbides

The single carbide is not suitable for machining steels because of rapid growth of wear,
particularly crater wear, by diffusion of Co and carbon from the tool to the chip under the high stress
and temperature bulk (plastic) contact between the continuous chip and the tool surfaces.
For machining steels successfully, another type called composite carbide have been developed by
adding (8 to 20%) a gamma phase to WC and Co mix. The gamma phase is a mix of TiC, TiN, TaC, NiC
etc. which are more diffusion resistant than WC due to their more stability and less wettability by steel.

iii) Mixed carbides

Titanium carbide (TiC) is not only more stable but also much harder than WC. So for
machining ferritic steels causing intensive diffusion and adhesion wear a large quantity (5 to 25%) of
TiC is added with WC and Co to produce another grade called mixed carbide. But increase in TiC
content reduces the toughness of the tools. Therefore, for finishing with light cut but high speed, the
harder grades containing up to 25% TiC are used and for heavy roughing work at lower speeds lesser
amount (5 to 10%) of TiC is suitable.

Gradation of cemented carbides and their applications

The standards developed by ISO for grouping of carbide tools and their application ranges are
given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Broad classifications of carbide tools
ISO Code Colour Code Application
For machining long chip forming common materials like plain carbon and
P Sky blue
low alloy steels.

For machining long or short chip forming ferrous materials like Stainless
M Yellow
steel.

For machining short chipping, ferrous and non-ferrous material and non-
K Red
metals like Cast Iron, Brass etc.

K-group is suitable for machining short chip producing ferrous and non-ferrous metals and also
some non metals.

P-group is suitably used for machining long chipping ferrous metals i.e. plain carbon and low
alloy steels.

M-group is generally recommended for machining more difficult-to-machine materials like

strain hardening austenitic steel and manganese steel etc.
Each group again is divided into some subgroups like P10, P20 etc., as shown in Table 1.3
depending upon their properties and applications.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 29

 Table 1.3 Detail grouping of cemented carbide tools
ISO
App. Material Process
group
P01 Steel, Steel castings Precision and finish machining, high speed
P10 Steel, steel castings Turning, threading and milling high speed, small chips
Steel, steel castings, malleable
P20 Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip section
cast iron
Steel, steel castings, malleable
P30 Turning, milling, low cutting speed, large chip section
cast iron forming long chips
Steel and steel casting with
P40 Turning, planning, low cutting speed, large chip section
sand inclusions
Steel and steel castings of Operations requiring high toughness turning, planning,
P50
medium or low tensile strength shaping at low cutting speeds
Hard grey C.I., chilled casting,
K01 Turning, precision turning and boring, milling, scraping
Al. alloys with high silicon
Grey C.I. hardness > 220 HB.
K10 Malleable C.I., Al. alloys Turning, milling, boring, reaming, broaching, scraping
containing Si
Grey C.I. hardness up to 220
K20 Turning, milling, broaching, requiring high toughness
HB
Soft grey C.I. Low tensile
K30 Turning, reaming under favourable conditions
strength steel
K40 Soft non-ferrous metals Turning milling etc.
Steel, steel castings, Turning at medium or high cutting speed, medium chip
M10
manganese steel, grey C.I. section
Steel casting, austenitic steel,
Turning, milling, medium cutting speed and medium
M20 manganese steel, spherodized
chip section
C.I., Malleable C.I.
Steel, austenitic steel,
Turning, milling, planning, medium cutting speed,
M30 spherodized C.I. heat resisting
medium or large chip section
alloys
Free cutting steel, low tensile
Turning, profile turning, especially in automatic
M40 strength steel, brass and light
machines.
alloy

The smaller number refers to the operations which need more wear resistance and the larger
numbers to those requiring higher toughness for the tool.

d) Plain ceramics
Inherently high compressive strength, chemical stability and hot hardness of the ceramics led to powder
metallurgical production of indexable ceramic tool inserts since 1950. Table 1.4 shows the advantages and
limitations of alumina ceramics in contrast to sintered carbide. Alumina (Al2O3) is preferred to silicon nitride
(Si3N4) for higher hardness and chemical stability. Si3N4 is tougher but again more difficult to process. The plain
ceramic tools are brittle in nature and hence had limited applications.

30
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

Table 1.4 Cutting tool properties of alumina ceramics

Advantages Shortcoming
Very high hardness Poor toughness
Very high hot hardness Poor tensile strength
Chemical stability Poor TRS
Antiwelding Low thermal conductivity
Less diffusivity Less density
High abrasion resistance
High melting point
Very low thermal conductivity*
Very low thermal expansion coefficient
Cutting tool should resist penetration of heat but should disperse the heat throughout the core.

Basically three types of ceramic tool bits are available in the market:
Plain alumina with traces of additives - these white or pink sintered inserts are cold pressed and
are used mainly for machining cast iron and similar materials at speeds 200 to 250 m/min.
Alumina; with or without additives - hot pressed, black colour, hard and strong - used for
machining steels and cast iron at VC = 150 to 250 m/min.
Carbide ceramic (Al2O3 + 30% TiC) cold or hot pressed, black colour, quite strong and enough
tough - used for machining hard cast irons and plain and alloy steels at 150 to 200 m/min.
The plain ceramic outperformed the existing tool materials in some application areas like high speed
machining of softer steels mainly for higher hot hardness as indicated in Fig. 1.43.

Fig. 1.43 Hot hardness of the different commonly used tool materials (Ref. Book by A. Bhattacharya)
However, the use of those brittle plain ceramic tools, until their strength and toughness could
be substantially improved since 1970, gradually decreased for being restricted to:
Uninterrupted machining of soft cast irons and steels only
Relatively high cutting velocity but only in a narrow range (200 ~ 300 m/min)
Requiring very rigid machine tools
Advent of coated carbide capable of machining cast iron and steels at high velocity made the ceramics
almost obsolete.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 31

1.7.4 Development and applications of advanced tool materials
a) Coated carbides
The properties and performance of carbide tools could be substantially improved by:
Refining microstructure.
Manufacturing by casting - expensive and uncommon.
Surface coating - made remarkable contribution.
Thin but hard coating of single or multilayer of more stable and heat and wear resistive materials like
TiC, TiCN, TiOCN, TiN, Al2O3 etc on the tough carbide inserts (substrate) (Fig. 1.44) by processes
like chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) etc at controlled pressure
and temperature enhanced MRR and overall machining economy remarkably enabling:
Reduction of cutting forces and power consumption.
Increase in tool life (by 200 to 500 %) for same VC or increase in VC (by 50 to 150 %) for same
tool life.
Improvement in product quality.
Effective and efficient machining of wide range of work materials.
Pollution control by less or no use of cutting fluid, through -
Reduction of abrasion, adhesion and diffusion wear.
Reduction of friction and BUE formation.
Heat resistance and reduction of thermal cracking and plastic deformation.

VC

Fig. 1.44 Machining by coated carbide insert. Fig. 1.45 Role of coating even after its wear and rupture
The contribution of the coating continues even after rupture of the coating as indicated in Fig. 1.45.
The cutting velocity range in machining mild steel could be enhanced from 120 ~ 150 m/min to
300 ~ 350 m/min by properly coating the suitable carbide inserts.
About 50% of the carbide tools being used at present are coated carbides which are obviously
to some extent costlier than the uncoated tools.
Different varieties of coated tools are available. The appropriate one is selected depending
upon the type of the cutting tool, work material and the desired productivity and product quality.
The properties and performances of coated inserts and tools are getting further improved by:
Refining the microstructure of the coating.
Multilayering (already up to 13 layers within 12 ~ 16 µm).
Direct coating by TiN instead of TiC, if feasible.
Using better coating materials.

Cermets
These sintered hard inserts are made by combining ‘cer’ from ceramics like TiC, TiN or TiCN
and ‘met’ from metal (binder) like Ni, Ni-Co, Fe etc. Since around 1980, the modern cermets
providing much better performance are being made by TiCN which is consistently more wear resistant,
less porous and easier to make.

32
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

The characteristic features of such cermets, in contrast to sintered tungsten carbides, are:
The grains are made of TiCN (in place of WC) and Ni or Ni-Co and Fe as binder (in place of Co)
Harder, more chemically stable and hence more wear resistant.
More brittle and less thermal shock resistant.
Wt% of binder metal varies from 10 to 20%.
Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in coated carbide inserts.
Can machine steels at higher cutting velocity than that used for tungsten carbide, even coated
carbides in case of light cuts.
Application wise, the modern TiCN based cermets with beveled or slightly rounded cutting edges are
suitable for finishing and semi-finishing of steels at higher speeds, stainless steels but are not suitable
for jerky interrupted machining and machining of aluminium and similar materials. Research and
development are still going on for further improvement in the properties and performance of cermets.

c) Coronite
It is already mentioned earlier that the properties and performance of HSS tools could have been
sizably improved by refinement of microstructure, powder metallurgical process of making and surface
coating. Recently a unique tool material, namely Coronite has been developed for making the tools like
small and medium size drills and milling cutters etc. which were earlier essentially made of HSS.
Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and toughness and tungsten carbides
for heat and wear resistance. Micro fine TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix.
Unlike solid carbide, the coronite based tool is made of three layers:
The central HSS or spring steel core.
A layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool diameter.
A thin (2 to 5 µm) PVD coating of TiCN.
Such tools are not only more productive but also provide better product quality. The coronite tools
made by hot extrusion followed by PVD-coating of TiN or TiCN outperformed HSS tools in respect of
cutting forces, tool life and surface finish.

d) High Performance ceramics (HPC)

Ceramic tools as such are much superior to sintered carbides in respect of hot hardness,
chemical stability and resistance to heat and wear but lack in fracture toughness and strength as
indicated in Fig. 1.46.

Fig. 1.46 Comparison of important properties of ceramic and tungsten carbide tools

33
 Through last few years’ remarkable improvements in strength and toughness and hence overall
performance of ceramic tools could have been possible by several means which include:
Sinterability, microstructure, strength and toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were improved to some
extent by adding TiO2 and MgO.
Transformation toughening by adding appropriate amount of partially or fully stabilized zirconia in
Al2O3 powder.
Isostatic and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) - these are very effective but expensive route.
Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering technique - this material is very tough
but prone to built-up-edge formation in machining steels.
Developing SIALON - deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3 and Si3N4.
Adding carbide like TiC (5 ~ 15%) in Al2O3 powder - to impart toughness and thermal
conductivity.
Reinforcing oxide or nitride ceramics by SiC whiskers, which enhanced strength, toughness and
life of the tool and thus productivity spectacularly. But manufacture and use of this unique tool
need especially careful handling.
Toughening Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like silver which also impart thermal conductivity and
self lubricating property; this novel and inexpensive tool is still in experimental
stage.
The enhanced qualities of the unique high performance ceramic tools, specially the whisker and
zirconia based types enabled them machine structural steels at speed even beyond 500 m/min and also
intermittent cutting at reasonably high speeds, feeds and depth of cut. Such tools are also found to
machine relatively harder and stronger steels quite effectively and economically.
The successful and commonly used high performance ceramic tools have been discussed here:
The HPC tools can be broadly classified into two groups as:

HPC Tools

Nitride Ceramics Oxide Ceramics

Silicon Nitride Alumina toughened by

(i) Plain (i) Zirconia
(ii) SIALON (ii) SiC whiskers
(iii) Whisker toughened (iii) Metal (Silver, etc.)
Nitride based ceramic tools
i) Plain nitride ceramics tools
Compared to plain alumina ceramics, Nitride (Si3N4) ceramic tools exhibit more resistance to
fracturing by mechanical and thermal shocks due to higher bending strength, toughness and higher
conductivity. Hence such tool seems to be more suitable for rough and interrupted cutting of various
material excepting steels, which cause rapid diffusion wear and BUE formation. The fracture
toughness and wear resistance of nitride ceramic tools could be further increased by adding zirconia
and coating the finished tools with high hardness alumina and titanium compound.
Nitride ceramics cannot be easily compacted and sintered to high density. Sintering with the aid
of ‘reaction bonding’ and ‘hot pressing’ may reduce this problem to some extent.

ii) SIALON tools

Hot pressing and sintering of an appropriate mix of Al2O3 and Si3N4 powders yielded an
excellent composite ceramic tool called SIALON which are very hot hard, quite tough and wear
resistant.

34
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

These tools can machine steel and cast irons at high speeds (250 - 300 m/min). But machining
of steels by such tools at too high speeds reduces the tool life by rapid diffusion.

iii) SiC reinforced Nitride tools

The toughness, strength and thermal conductivity and hence the overall performance of nitride
ceramics could be increased remarkably by adding SiC whiskers or fibers in 5 - 25 volume %. The SiC
whiskers add fracture toughness mainly through crack bridging, crack deflection and fiber pull-out.
Such tools are very expensive but extremely suitable for high production machining of various
soft and hard materials even under interrupted cutting.

iv) Zirconia (or partially stabilized Zirconia) toughened alumina (ZTA) ceramic
The enhanced strength, TRS and toughness have made these ZTAs more widely applicable and
more productive than plain ceramics and cermets in machining steels and cast irons. Fine powder of
partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) is mixed in proportion of ten to twenty volume percentage with pure
0 0
alumina, then either cold pressed and sintered at 1600 C - 1700 C or hot isostatically pressed (HIP)
under suitable temperature and pressure. The phase transformation of metastable tetragonal zirconia (t-
Z) to monoclinic zirconia (m-Z) during cooling of the composite (Al2O3 + ZrO2) inserts after sintering
or HIP and during polishing and machining imparts the desired strength and fracture toughness
through volume expansion (3 - 5%) and induced shear strain (7%). The mechanisms of toughening
effect of zirconia in the basic alumina matrix are stress induced transformation toughening as
indicated in Fig. 1.47 and micro crack nucleation toughening.

Fig. 1.47 The method of crack shielding by a transformation zone

Their hardness has been raised further by proper control of particle size and sintering process.
Hot pressing and HIP raise the density, strength and hot hardness of ZTA tools but the process
becomes expensive and the tool performance degrades at lower cutting speeds. However such ceramic
tools can machine steel and cast iron at speed range of 150 - 500 m/min.

v) Alumina ceramic reinforced by SiC whiskers

The properties, performances and application range of alumina based ceramic tools have been
improved spectacularly through drastic increase in fracture toughness (2.5 times), TRS and bulk
thermal conductivity, without sacrificing hardness and wear resistance by mechanically reinforcing the
brittle alumina matrix with extremely strong and stiff silicon carbide whiskers. The randomly oriented,
strong and thermally conductive whiskers enhance the strength and toughness mainly by crack
deflection and crack-bridging and also by reducing the temperature gradient within the tool.
After optimization of the composition, processing and the tool geometry, such tools have been
found too effectively and efficiently machine wide range of materials, over wide speed range (250 -
600 m/min) even under large chip loads. But manufacturing of whiskers need very careful handling
and precise control and these tools are costlier than zirconia toughened ceramic tools.

35
vi) Silver toughened alumina ceramic
Toughening of alumina with metal particle became an important topic since 1990 though its
possibility was reported in 1950s. Alumina-metal composites have been studied primarily using addition of
metals like aluminium, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, iron and silver. Compared to zirconia and
carbides, metals were found to provide more toughness in alumina ceramics. Again compared to other
metal-toughened ceramics, the silver-toughened ceramics can be manufactured by simpler and more
economical process routes like pressureless sintering and without atmosphere control.
All such potential characteristics of silver-toughened alumina ceramic have already been
exploited in making some salient parts of automobiles and similar items. Research is going on to
develop and use silver-toughened alumina for making cutting tools like turning inserts.. The
toughening of the alumina matrix by the addition of metal occurs mainly by crack deflection and crack
bridging by the metal grains as schematically shown in Fig. 1.48.

Fig. 1.48 Toughening mechanism of alumina by metal dispersion

Addition of silver further helps by increasing thermal conductivity of the tool and self
lubrication by the traces of the silver that oozes out through the pores and reaches at the chip-tool
interface. Such HPC tools can suitably machine with large MRR and VC (250 - 400 m/min) and long
tool life even under light interrupted cutting like milling. Such tools also can machine steels at speed
from quite low to very high cutting velocities (200 to 500 m/min).

e) Cubic Boron Nitride

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest material presently available. Only in 1970
and onward CBN in the form of compacts has been introduced as cutting tools. It is made by bonding a
0.5 - 1 mm layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to cobalt based carbide substrate at very high
temperature and pressure. It remains inert and retains high hardness and fracture toughness at elevated
machining speeds. It shows excellent performance in grinding any material of high hardness and
strength. The extreme hardness, toughness, chemical and thermal stability and wear resistance led to
the development of CBN cutting tool inserts for high material removal rate (MRR) as well as precision
machining imparting excellent surface integrity of the products. Such unique tools effectively and
beneficially used in machining wide range of work materials covering high carbon and alloy steels,
non-ferrous metals and alloys, exotic metals like Ni-hard, Inconel, Nimonic etc and many non-metallic
materials which are as such difficult to machine by conventional tools. It is firmly stable at
0
temperatures up to 1400 C. The operative speed range for CBN when machining grey cast iron is 300
~ 400 m/min. Speed ranges for other materials are as follows:
 Hard cast iron (> 400 BHN): 80 - 300 m/min.
 Superalloys (> 35 RC): 80 - 140 m/min.
 Hardened steels (> 45 RC): 100 - 300 m/min.

36
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

In addition to speed, the most important factor that affects performance of CBN inserts is the
preparation of cutting edge. It is best to use CBN tools with a honed or chamfered edge preparation,
especially for interrupted cuts. Like ceramics, CBN tools are also available only in the form of
indexable inserts. The only limitation of it is its high cost.

(f) Diamond Tools

Single stone, natural or synthetic, diamond crystals are used as tips/edge of cutting tools.
Owing to the extreme hardness and sharp edges, natural single crystal is used for many applications,
particularly where high accuracy and precision are required. Their important uses are:
Single point cutting tool tips and small drills for high speed machining of non-ferrous metals,
ceramics, plastics, composites, etc. and effective machining of difficult-to-machine materials.
Drill bits for mining, oil exploration, etc.
Tool for cutting and drilling in glasses, stones, ceramics, FRPs etc.
Wire drawing and extrusion dies.
Superabrasive wheels for critical grinding.
Limited supply, increasing demand, high cost and easy cleavage of natural diamond demanded a more
reliable source of diamond. It led to the invention and manufacture of artificial diamond grits by ultra-high
temperature and pressure synthesis process, which enables large scale manufacture of diamond with some
control over size, shape and friability of the diamond grits as desired for various applications.

i) Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)

The polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a layer (0.5 to 1.5 mm) of fine grain size,
randomly oriented diamond particles sintered with a suitable binder (usually cobalt) and then
metallurgically bonded to a suitable substrate like cemented carbide or Si3N4 inserts. PCD exhibits
excellent wear resistance, hold sharp edge, generates little friction in the cut, provide high fracture
strength, and had good thermal conductivity. These properties contribute to PCD tooling’s long life in
conventional and high speed machining of soft, non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, copper
etc), advanced composites and metal-matrix composites, superalloys, and non-metallic materials.
PCD is particularly well suited for abrasive materials (i.e. drilling and reaming metal matrix
composites) where it provides 100 times the life of carbides. PCD is not usually recommended for
ferrous metals because of high solubility of diamond (carbon) in these materials at elevated
temperature. However, they can be used to machine some of these materials under special conditions;
for example, light cuts are being successfully made in grey cast iron. The main advantage of such PCD
tool is the greater toughness due to finer microstructure with random orientation of the grains and
reduced cleavage.
But such unique PCD also suffers from some limitations like:
High tool cost.
Presence of binder, cobalt, which reduces wear resistance and thermal stability.
Complex tool shapes like in-built chip breaker cannot be made.
Size restriction, particularly in making very small diameter tools.
The above mentioned limitations of polycrystalline diamond tools have been almost overcome by
developing Diamond coated tools.

ii) Diamond coated carbide tools

Since the invention of low pressure synthesis of diamond from gaseous phase, continuous
effort has been made to use thin film diamond in cutting tool field. These are normally used as thin
(<50 µm) or thick (> 200 µm) films of diamond synthesized by CVD method for cutting tools, dies,
wear surfaces and even abrasives for Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and grinding.

37
 Thin film is directly deposited on the tool surface. Thick film (> 500 µm) is grown on an easy
substrate and later brazed to the actual tool substrate and the primary substrate is removed by
dissolving it or by other means. Thick film diamond finds application in making inserts, drills,
reamers, end mills, routers.
CVD coating has been more popular than single diamond crystal and PCD mainly for:
Free from binder, higher hardness, resistance to heat and wear more than PCD and properties close
to natural diamond.
Highly pure, dense and free from single crystal cleavage.
Permits wider range of size and shape of tools and can be deposited on any shape of the tool
including rotary tools.
Relatively less expensive.
However, achieving improved and reliable performance of thin film CVD diamond coated tools;
(carbide, nitride, ceramic, SiC etc) in terms of longer tool life, dimensional accuracy and surface finish
of jobs essentially need:
Good bonding of the diamond layer.
Adequate properties of the film, e.g. wear resistance, micro-hardness, edge coverage, edge
sharpness and thickness uniformity.
Ability to provide work surface finish required for specific applications.
While CBN tools are feasible and viable for high speed machining of hard and strong steels and
similar materials, Diamond tools are extremely useful for machining stones, slates, glass, ceramics,
composites, FRPs and non ferrous metals specially which are sticky and BUE former such as pure
aluminium and its alloys. CBN and Diamond tools are also essentially used for ultra precision as well
as micro and nano machining.

1.8 TOOL WEAR

1.8.1 Failure of cutting tools
Smooth, safe and economic machining necessitates:
Prevention of premature and terrible failure of the cutting tools.
Reduction of rate of wear of tool to prolong its life.
To accomplish the aforesaid objectives one should first know why and how the cutting tools fail.
Cutting tools generally fail by:
Mechanical breakage due to excessive forces and shocks. Such kind of tool failure is random and
catastrophic in nature and hence is extremely detrimental.
Quick dulling by plastic deformation due to intensive stresses and temperature. This type of failure
also occurs rapidly and is quite detrimental and unwanted.
Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.
The first two modes of tool failure are very harmful not only for the tool but also for the job and the
machine tool. Hence these kinds of tool failure need to be prevented by using suitable tool materials
and geometry depending upon the work material and cutting condition.
But failure by gradual wear, which is inevitable, cannot be prevented but can be slowed down
only to enhance the service life of the tool. The cutting tool is withdrawn immediately after it fails or,
if possible, just before it totally fails. For that one must understand that the tool has failed or is going
to fail shortly.
It is understood or considered that the tool has failed or about to fail by one or more of the
following conditions:
(a) In R&D laboratories
 Total breakage of the tool or tool tip(s).
 Massive fracture at the cutting edge(s).

38
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

Excessive increase in cutting forces and/or vibration.

Average wear (flank or crater) reaches its specified limit(s).
In machining industries
Excessive (beyond limit) current or power consumption.
Excessive vibration and/or abnormal sound (chatter).
Total breakage of the tool.
Dimensional deviation beyond tolerance.
Rapid worsening of surface finish.
Adverse chip formation.

1.8.2 Mechanisms and pattern (geometry) of cutting tool wear

For the purpose of controlling tool wear one must understand the various mechanisms of wear
that the cutting tool undergoes under different conditions.
The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are:
Mechanical wear
Thermally insensitive type; like abrasion, chipping and de-lamination.
Thermally sensitive type; like adhesion, fracturing, flaking etc.
Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge which eliminates some clearance or relief. It takes
place when machining brittle materials. Wear at the tool-chip interface occurs in the form of a depression
or crater. It is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of the cutting tool. Both flank and
crater wear take place when feed is greater than 0.15 mm/rev at low or moderate speeds.

Thermo chemical wear

Macro-diffusion by mass dissolution.
Micro-diffusion by atomic migration.
In diffusion wear the material from the tool at its rubbing surfaces, particularly at the rake surface
gradually diffuses into the flowing chips either in bulk or atom by atom when the tool material has
chemical affinity or solid solubility towards the work material. The rate of such tool wears increases
with the increase in temperature at the cutting zone. This wear becomes predominant when the cutting
temperature becomes very high due to high cutting velocity and high strength of the work material.

(c) Chemical wear

Chemical wear, leading to damages like grooving wear may occur if the tool material is not
enough chemically stable against the work material and/or the atmospheric gases.

(d) Galvanic wear

Galvanic wear, based on electrochemical dissolution, seldom occurs when the work and tool
materials are electrically conductive, cutting zone temperature is high and the cutting fluid acts as an
electrolyte.
The usual pattern or geometry of wear of face milling inserts, turning tools and turning inserts
are typically shown in Fig. 1.49 (a, b, c and d).

Fig. 1.49 (a) Schematic view of wear pattern of face milling insert

39
 Fig. 1.49 (b) Geometry and major features Fig. 1.49 (c) Photographic view of the
of wear of turning tools wear pattern of a turning tool insert

Fig. 1.49 (d) Different types of wears of turning tools

In addition to ultimate failure of the tool, the following effects are also caused by the growing tool-wear:
Increase in cutting forces and power consumption mainly due to the principal flank wear.
Increase in dimensional deviation and surface roughness mainly due to wear of the tool-tips and
auxiliary flank wear (Vs).
Odd sound and vibration.
Worsening surface integrity.
Mechanically weakening of the tool tip.

1.8.3 Measurement of tool wear

The various methods are:
By loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time - this method is crude and is
generally applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels.
By grooving and indentation method - in this approximate method wear depth is measured
indirectly by the difference in length of the groove or the indentation outside and inside the
worn area.
Using optical microscope fitted with micrometer - very common and effective method.
Using scanning electron microscope (SEM) - used generally, for detailed study; both qualitative
and quantitative.
Talysurf, especially for shallow crater wear.
40
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.9 TOOL LIFE

Definition:
Tool life generally indicates the amount of satisfactory performance or service rendered by a
fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed. Tool life is defined in two ways:

In R & D: Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or point)
satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or reconditioning. The modern tools hardly fail
prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid plastic deformation. Those fail mostly by
wearing process which systematically grows slowly with machining time. In that case, tool life means
the span of actual machining time by which a fresh tool can work before attaining the specified limit of
tool wear. Mostly tool life is decided by the machining time till flank wear, VB reaches 0.3 mm or
crater wear, KT reaches 0.15 mm.
In industries or shop floor: The length of time of satisfactory service or amount of
acceptable output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required to replace or recondition.

Assessment of tool life

For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of machining time in
minutes, whereas, in industries besides machining time in minutes some other means are also used to
assess tool life, depending upon the situation, such as:
Number of pieces of work machined.
Total volume of material removed.
Total length of cut.

1.9.1 Taylor’s tool life equation

Wear and hence tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by the level of
the machining parameters i.e., cutting velocity (VC), feed (f) and depth of cut (t). Cutting velocity
affects maximum and depth of cut minimum.
The usual pattern of growth of cutting tool wear (mainly VB), principle of assessing tool life
and its dependence on cutting velocity are schematically shown in Fig. 1.50.

Fig. 1.50 Growth of flank wear and assessment of tool life

The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other conditions
unaltered as indicated in Fig. 1.51. If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc are plotted against the
corresponding cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in Fig. 1.51, a smooth curve like a
rectangular hyperbola is found to appear. When F. W. Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V
and T in log-scale, a more distinct linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig. 1.52.

41
Fig. 1.51 Cutting velocity - tool life relationship Fig. 1.52 Cutting velocity - tool life on a log-log scale
With the slope, n and intercept, c, Taylor derived the simple equation as,
1.53
where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent. The values of both ‘n’ and ‘c’ depend mainly upon
the tool-work materials and the cutting environment (cutting fluid application). The value of C depends
also on the limiting value of VB undertaken (i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.).

1.9.2 Modified Taylor’s tool life equation

In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity, VC on tool life has
been considered. But practically, the variation in feed (f) and depth of cut (t) also play role on tool life
to some extent. Taking into account the effects of all those parameters, the Taylor’s tool life equation
has been modified as,
T= / . . 1.54 where, T = tool life in minutes, CT � a constant
depending mainly upon the tool - work materials and the limiting value of VB undertaken. x, y and z
� exponents so called tool life exponents depending

upon the tool - work materials and the machining environment. Generally, x > y > z as VC affects tool
life maximum and t minimum. The values of the constants, CT, x, y and z are available in Machining
Data Handbooks or can be evaluated by machining tests.

1.9.3 Effect of tool geometry on tool life

The tool life is also affected by tool geometry. The nose radius (R) tends to improve tool life and
is evident from the relation: . . 1.55

1.9.4 Effect of side cutting edge angle on tool life

The side cutting edge angle (φs) may improve tool life under non-chatter conditions:
. .
1.56

1.9.5 Tool life in terms of metal removal

The volume of metal removal from the work piece between tool sharpening for definite depth
of cut, feed and cutting speed can be determined as follows. For example in case of turning:
Cutting speed VC = πDN / 1000 m/min 1.57
where D - Diameter of work piece (mm).
N - Rotation speed of work piece (rpm).
Let t - Depth of cut (mm).
f - Feed rate (mm/min).
ttf - Time of tool failure (min).
3
T - Tool life in 1 mm of metal removal.

42
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

3
Volume of metal removed per revolution = π.D.t.f mm 1.58
3
Volume of metal removed per minute = π.D.t.f.N mm 1.59
3
Volume of metal removed in ‘ttf’ minute = π.D.t.f.N.ttf mm 1.60
3
Therefore, Volume of metal removed between tool grinds = π.D.t.f.N.ttf mm 1.61
3 3
T = π.D.t.f.N.ttf mm = 1000.VC.t.f.ttf mm 1.62
3
T = VC.t.f.ttf cm 1.63
1.9.6 Factors affecting tool life
The life of the cutting tool is affected by the following factors:
Cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut.
Tool geometry.
Tool material.
Cutting fluid.
Work piece material.
Rigidity of work, tool and machine.

1.9.7 Machinability
1.9.7.1 Concept, definition and criteria of judgement of machinability
The term; ‘Machinability’ has been introduced for gradation of work materials with respect to
machining characteristics. But truly speaking, there is no unique or clear meaning of the term
machinability. People tried to describe “Machinability” in several ways such as:
It is generally applied to the machining properties of work material.
It refers to material (work) response to machining.
It is the ability of the work material to be machined.
It indicates how easily and fast a material can be machined.
But it has been agreed, in general, that it is difficult to clearly define and quantify Machinability. For
instance, saying ‘material A is more machinable than material B’ may mean that compared to ‘B’:
‘A’ causes lesser tool wear or longer tool life.
‘A’ requires lesser cutting forces and power.
‘A’ provides better surface finish.
Attempts were made to measure or quantify machinability and it was done mostly in terms of:
Tool life which substantially influences productivity and economy in machining.
Magnitude of cutting forces which affects power consumption and dimensional accuracy.
Surface finish which plays role on performance and service life of the product.
Often cutting temperature and chip form are also considered for assessing machinability.

Machinability rating (MR) = x 100 1.64

The free cutting steel, AISI - 1112, when machined (turned) at 100 fpm, provided 60 min of
tool life. If the work material to be tested provides 60 min of tool life at cutting velocity of 60 fpm
(say), as indicated in Fig. 1.53, under the same set of machining condition, then machinability (rating)
of that material would be,
MR = 100 60 % or simply 60 (based on 100% for the standard material) or, simply the

value of the cutting velocity expressed in fpm at which a work material provides 60 min tool life was
directly considered as the MR of that work material. In this way the MR of some materials, for
instance, were evaluated as,

43
 Metal MR
Ni 200
Br 300
Al 200
CI 70
Inconel 30
But usefulness and reliability of such practice faced several genuine doubts and questions:
Tool life cannot or should not be considered as the only criteria for judging machinability.
Under a given condition a material can yield different tool life even at a fixed speed (cutting
velocity); exact composition, microstructure, treatments etc. of that material may cause
significant difference in tool life.
The tool life - speed relationship of any material may substantially change with the variation in:
Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
Level of process parameters (Vc, f, t).
Machining environment (cutting fluid application).
Machine tool condition.

Fig. 1.53 Machinability rating in terms of Fig. 1.54 Role of cutting tool material cutting
velocity giving 60 min tool life on machinability (tool life)
Keeping all such factors and limitations in view, Machinability can be tentatively defined as “ability
of being machined” and more reasonably as “ease of machining”.
Such ease of machining or machinability characteristics of any tool-work pair is to be judged by:
Magnitude of the cutting forces.
Tool wear or tool life.
Surface finish.
Magnitude of cutting temperature.
Chip forms.
Machinability will be considered desirably high when cutting forces, temperature, surface roughness
and tool wear are less, tool life is long and chips are ideally uniform and short enabling short chip-tool
contact length and less friction.

1.9.7.2 Role of the properties of the work material on machinability

The work material properties that generally govern machinability in varying extent are:
 The basic nature - brittleness or ductility etc.
 Microstructure.
 Mechanical strength - fracture or yield.
 Hardness and hot hardness, hot strength.
 Work hardenability.
 Thermal conductivity.
 Chemical reactivity.
 Stickiness / self lubricity.
44
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

1.10 SURFACE FINISH

Generally, surface finish of any product depends on the following factors:
Cutting speed.
Feed.
Depth of cut.

Cutting speed
Better surface finish can be obtained at higher cutting speeds. Rough cutting takes place at
lower cutting speeds.

Feed
Surface finish will not be good when coarse feed is applied. But better finish can be obtained in
fine feeds.

Depth of cut
Lighter cuts provide good surface finish to the work piece. If depth of cut increases during
machining, the quality of surface finish will reduce.
Therefore, higher cutting speeds, fine feeds and low depth of cuts or applied to ensure good
surface finish. Usually, it is done in finishing cuts. But, lower cutting speeds, coarse feeds and heavier
depth of cuts are applied in rough cutting operations.

1.11 CUTTING FLUIDS

1.11.1 Purposes and application of cutting fluid
The basic purposes of cutting fluid application are:
Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting temperature on the
job and the tool.
Lubrication at the chip - tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting forces and friction
and thus the amount of heat generation.
Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip - particles and debris which, if present,
spoils the finished surface and accelerates damage of the cutting edges.
Protection of the nascent finished surface - a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks to the machined surface
and thus prevents its harmful contamination by the gases like SO2, O2, H2S, and NXOY
present in the atmosphere.
However, the main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through reduction of
cutting forces and temperature, improvement by surface integrity and enhancement of tool life.

1.11.2 Essential properties of cutting fluids

To enable the cutting fluid fulfill its functional requirements without harming the Machine -
Fixture - Tool - Work (M-F-T-W) system and the operators, the cutting fluid should possess the
following properties:
For cooling:
High specific heat, thermal conductivity and film coefficient for heat transfer.
Spreading and wetting ability.
For lubrication:
High lubricity without gumming and foaming.
Wetting and spreading.
High film boiling point.
Friction reduction at extreme pressure (EP) and temperature.

45
 Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the M-F-T-W system.
Less volatile and high flash point.
High resistance to bacterial growth.
Odourless and also preferably colourless.
Non toxic in both liquid and gaseous stage.
Easily available and low cost.

1.11.3 Principles of cutting fluid action

The chip-tool contact zone is usually comprised of two parts; plastic or bulk contact zone and
elastic contact zone as indicated in Fig. 1.55.

Fig. 1.55 Cutting fluid action in machining Fig. 1.56 Apportionment of plastic and elastic
contact zone with increase in cutting velocity
The cutting fluid cannot penetrate or reach the plastic contact zone but enters in the elastic
contact zone by capillary effect. With the increase in cutting velocity, the fraction of plastic contact
zone gradually increases and covers almost the entire chip-tool contact zone as indicated in Fig. 1.56.
Therefore, at high speed machining, the cutting fluid becomes unable to lubricate and cools the tool
and the job only by bulk external cooling.
The chemicals like chloride, phosphate or sulphide present in the cutting fluid chemically reacts
with the work material at the chip under surface under high pressure and temperature and forms a thin layer
of the reaction product. The low shear strength of that reaction layer helps in reducing friction.
To form such solid lubricating layer under high pressure and temperature some extreme
pressure additive (EPA) is deliberately added in reasonable amount in the mineral oil or soluble oil.
For extreme pressure, chloride, phosphate or sulphide type EPA is used depending upon the
0 0 0 0 0
working temperature, i.e. moderate (200 C ~ 350 C), high (350 C ~ 500 C) and very high (500 C
0
~ 800 C) respectively.

1.11.4 Types of cutting fluids and their application

Generally, cutting fluids are employed in liquid form but occasionally also employed in gaseous
form. Only for lubricating purpose, often solid lubricants are also employed in machining and grinding.
The cutting fluids, which are commonly used, are:

Air blast or compressed air only

Machining of some materials like grey cast iron become inconvenient or difficult if any cutting
fluid is employed in liquid form. In such case only air blast is recommended for cooling and cleaning.

Solid or semi-solid lubricant

Paste, waxes, soaps, graphite, Moly-disulphide (MoS2) may also often be used, either applied
directly to the workpiece or as an impregnant in the tool to reduce friction and thus cutting forces,
temperature and tool wear.

46
UNIT - I MACHINE TOOLS

Water
For its good wetting and spreading properties and very high specific heat, water is considered
as the best coolant and hence employed where cooling is most urgent.

Soluble oil
Water acts as the best coolant but does not lubricate. Besides, use of only water may impair the
machine-fixture-tool-work system by rusting. So oil containing some emulsifying agent and additive
like EPA, together called cutting compound, is mixed with water in a suitable ratio ( 1 ~ 2 in 20 ~ 50).
This milk like white emulsion, called soluble oil, is very common and widely used in
machining and grinding.

Cutting oils
Cutting oils are generally compounds of mineral oil to which are added desired type and
amount of vegetable, animal or marine oils for improving spreading, wetting and lubricating
properties. As and when required some EP additive is also mixed to reduce friction, adhesion and BUE
formation in heavy cuts.

Chemical fluids
These are occasionally used fluids which are water based where some organic and or inorganic
materials are dissolved in water to enable desired cutting fluid action.
There are two types of such cutting fluid:
Chemically inactive type - high cooling, anti-rusting and wetting but less lubricating.
Active (surface) type - moderate cooling and lubricating.

Cryogenic cutting fluid

Extremely cold (cryogenic) fluids (often in the form of gases) like liquid CO2 or N2 are used in
some special cases for effective cooling without creating much environmental pollution and health
hazards.

1.11.5 Methods of application of cutting fluid

The effectiveness and expense of cutting fluid application significantly depend also on how it is
applied in respect of flow rate and direction of application. In machining, depending upon the requirement
and facilities available, cutting fluids are generally employed in the following ways (flow):
Drop-by-drop under gravity.
Flood under gravity.
In the form of liquid jet(s).
Mist (atomized oil) with compressed air.
Z-Z method - centrifugal through the grinding wheels (pores) as indicated in Fig. 1.57.

Fig 1.57 Z-Z method of cutting fluid application in grinding Fig. 1.58 Application of cutting fluid
at high pressure through the hole in the tool

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 47

 The direction of application also significantly governs the effectiveness of the cutting fluid in
respect of reaching at or near the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces. Depending upon the requirement
and accessibility the cutting fluid is applied from top or side(s). In operations like deep hole drilling
the pressurized fluid is often sent through the axial or inner spiral hole(s) of the drill.
For effective cooling and lubrication in high speed machining of ductile metals having wide
and plastic chip-tool contact, cutting fluid may be pushed at high pressure to the chip-tool interface
through hole(s) in the cutting tool, as schematically shown in Fig. 1.58.

1.11.6 Selection of cutting fluid

The benefits of application of cutting fluid largely depend upon proper selection of the type of
the cutting fluid depending upon the work material, tool material and the machining condition. As for
example, for high speed machining of not-difficult-to-machine materials greater cooling type fluids are
preferred and for low speed machining of both conventional and difficult-to-machine materials greater
lubricating type fluid is preferred.
Selection of cutting fluids for machining some common engineering materials and operations
are presented as follows:

Grey cast iron:

Generally dry for its self lubricating property.
Air blast for cooling and flushing chips.
Soluble oil for cooling and flushing chips in high speed machining and grinding.

Steels:
If machined by HSS tools, sol. Oil (1: 20 ~30) for low carbon and alloy steels and neat oil with
EPA for heavy cuts.
If machined by carbide tools thinner sol. Oil for low strength steel, thicker sol. Oil ( 1:10 ~ 20) for
stronger steels and straight sulphurised oil for heavy and low speed cuts and EP cutting oil for
high alloy steel.
Often steels are machined dry by carbide tools for preventing thermal shocks.

Aluminium and its alloys:

Preferably machined dry.
Light but oily soluble oil.
Straight neat oil or kerosene oil for stringent cuts.

Copper and its alloys:

Water based fluids are generally used.
Oil with or without inactive EPA for tougher grades of Cu-alloy.

Stainless steels and Heat resistant alloys:

High performance soluble oil or neat oil with high concentration with chlorinated EP additive. The
brittle ceramics and cermets should be used either under dry condition or light neat oil in
case of fine finishing.
Grinding at high speed needs cooling (1: 50 ~ 100) soluble oil. For finish grinding of metals
and alloys low viscosity neat oil is also used.

48
UNIT - II CENTRE LATHE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES

UNIT - II
CENTRE LATHE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES

2.1 CENTRE LATHE

Lathe is the oldest machine tool invented, starting with the Egyptian tree lathes. It is the father
of all machine tools. Its main function is to remove material from a work piece to produce the required
shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work piece securely and rigidly on the machine
and then turning it against the cutting tool which will remove material from the work piece in the form
of chips. It is used to machine cylindrical parts. Generally single point cutting tool is used. In the year
1797 Henry Maudslay, an Englishman, designed the first screw cutting lathe which is the forerunner of
the present day high speed, heavy duty production lathe.

2.1.1 Classification of lathes

Lathes are very versatile of wide use and are classified according to several aspects:
According to configuration:
 Horizontal - Most common for ergonomic conveniences.
 Vertical - Occupies less floor space, only some large lathes are of this type.
According to purpose of use:
 General purpose - Very versatile where almost all possible types of operations are carried
out on wide ranges of size, shape and materials of jobs; e.g.: centre lathes.
 Single purpose - Only one (occasionally two) type of operation is done on limited ranges
of size and material of jobs; e.g.: facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
 Special purpose - Where a definite number and type of operations are done repeatedly over
long time on a specific type of blank; e.g.: capstan lathe, turret lathe, gear blanking lathe etc.
According to size or capacity:
 Small (low duty) - In such light duty lathes (up to 1.1 kW), only small and medium
size jobs of generally soft and easily machinable materials are machined.
 Medium (medium duty) - These lathes of power nearly up to 11 kW are most versatile and
commonly used.
 Large (heavy duty)
 Mini or micro lathe - These are tiny table-top lathes used for extremely small size jobs
and precision work; e.g.: Swiss type automatic lathe.
According to configuration of the jobs being handled:
 Bar type - Slender rod like jobs being held in collets.
 Chucking type - Disc type jobs being held in chucks.
 Housing type - Odd shape jobs, being held in face plate.
According to precision:
Ordinary
Precision (lathes) - These sophisticated lathes meant for high accuracy and finish and are
relatively more expensive.
According to number of spindles:
 Single spindle - Common.
 Multi-spindle (2, 4, 6 or 8 spindles) - Such uncommon lathes are suitably used for fast and mass
production of small size and simple shaped jobs.
According to type of automation:
 Fixed automation - Conventional; e.g.: single spindle automat & Swiss type automatic lathe
 Flexible automation - Modern; e.g.: CNC lathe, turning centre etc.

49
UNIT - II

According to degree of automation:

Non-automatic - Almost all the handling operations are done manually; e.g.: centre lathes.
Semi-automatic - Nearly half of the handling operations, irrespective of the processing
operations, are done automatically and rest manually; e.g.: copying lathe, relieving lathe etc.
 Automatic - Almost all the handling operations (and obviously all the processing operations)
are done automatically; e.g.: single spindle automat, Swiss type automatic lathe, etc.

2.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

2.2.1 Major parts of a centre lathe
Amongst the various types of lathes, centre lathes are the most versatile and commonly used.
Fig. 2.1 shows the basic configuration of a center lathe. The major parts are:

Fig. 2.1 Schematic view of a center lathe

Headstock It holds the spindle and through that power and rotation are transmitted to the job at
different speeds. Various work holding attachments such as three jaw chucks, collets, and centres can
be held in the spindle. The spindle is driven by an electric motor through a system of belt drives and
gear trains. Spindle rotational speed is controlled by varying the geometry of the drive train.

Tailstock The tailstock can be used to support the end of the work piece with a center, to support
longer blanks or to hold tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in
position along the ways to accommodate different length work pieces. The tailstock barrel can be fed
along the axis of rotation with the tailstock hand wheel.

Bed Headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. Tailstock has a provision to slide and facilitate
operations at different locations. The bed is fixed on columns and the carriage travels on it.

Carriage It is supported on the lathe bed-ways and can move in a direction parallel to the lathe axis.
The carriage is used for giving various movements to the tool by hand and by power. It carries saddle,
cross-slide, compound rest, tool post and apron.
Saddle It carries the cross slide, compound rest and tool post. It is an
H-shaped casting fitted over the bed. It moves alone to guide ways.
Cross-slide It carries the compound rest and tool post. It is mounted on the top
of the saddle. It can be moved by hand or may be given power feed through apron mechanism.

50
UNIT - II

Compound rest It is mounted on the cross slide. It carries a circular base called
swivel plate which is graduated in degrees. It is used during taper turning to set the tool for angular cuts.
The upper part known as compound slide can be moved by means of a hand wheel.
Tool post It is fitted over the compound rest. The tool is clamped in it.
Apron Lower part of the carriage is termed as the apron. It is attached to
the saddle and hangs in front of the bed. It contains gears, clutches and levers for moving the carriage
by a hand wheel or power feed.

Feed mechanism The movement of the tool relative to the work piece is termed as “feed”. The lathe
tool can be given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and angular.
When the tool moves parallel to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called longitudinal feed.
This is achieved by moving the carriage.
When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called cross feed.
This is achieved by moving the cross slide.
When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called angular feed.
This is achieved by moving the compound slide, after swiveling it at an angle to the lathe axis.

Feed rod The feed rod is a long shaft, used to move the carriage or cross-slide for turning, facing,
boring and all other operations except thread cutting. Power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the
apron gears through the feed rod via a large number of gears.

Lead screw The lead screw is long threaded shaft used as a master screw and brought into operation
only when threads have to cut. In all other times the lead screw is disengaged from the gear box and
remains stationary. The rotation of the lead screw is used to traverse the tool along the work to produce
screw. The half nut makes the carriage to engage or disengage the lead screw.

2.2.2 Kinematic system and working principle of a centre lathe

Fig. 2.2 schematically shows the kinematic system of a 12 speed centre lathe.

Fig. 2.2 Kinematic system of a 12 speed centre lathe

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each
other. The tool-work motions are:
Formative motions: - cutting motion, feed motion.
Auxiliary motions: - indexing motion, relieving motion.

51
UNIT - II

In lathes: Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job and feed motion is attained by linear
travel of the tool either axially for longitudinal feed or radially for cross feed.
It is noted, in general, from Fig. 2.2. The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor through the
belt-pulley, clutch and then the speed gear box which splits the input speed into a number (here 12) of
speeds by operating the cluster gears.
The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation of the spindle via the gear
quadrant, feed gear box and then the apron mechanism where the rotation of the feed rod is transmitted:
Either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed.
Or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.
While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating lead screw to positively
cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.
The feed-rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed by operating the Norton gear
and the Meander drive systems existing in the feed gear box (FGB). The range of feeds can be
augmented by changing the gear ratio in the gear quadrant connecting the FGB with the spindle.
As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping
bolt and the tailstock quill is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location. The
versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented by using several special attachments.

2.2.3 Headstock driving mechanisms

There are two types of headstock driving mechanisms as follows:
Back geared headstock.
All geared headstock.

2.2.3.1 Back geared headstock

Back gear arrangement is used for reducing the spindle speed, which is necessary for thread
cutting and knurling. The back gear arrangement is shown in Fig.2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Back gear arrangement

There is one stepped cone pulley in the lathe spindle. This pulley can freely rotate on the
spindle. A pinion gear P1 is connected to small end of the cone pulley. P1 will rotate when cone pulley
rotates. Bull gear G1 is keyed to lathe spindle such that the spindle will rotate when Gear G1 rotates.
Speed changes can be obtained by changing the flat belt on the steps. A bull gear G1 may be locked or
unlocked with this cone pulley by a lock pin.
There are two back gears B1 and B2 on a back shaft. It is operated by means of hand lever L;
back gears B1 and B2 can be engaged or disengaged with G1 and P1. For getting direct speed, back gear
is not engaged. The step cone pulley is locked with the main spindle by using the lock pin. The flat
belt is changed for different steps. Thus three or four ranges of speed can be obtained directly.

52
UNIT - II

For getting slow or indirect speeds, back gear is engaged by lever L and lock pin is disengaged.
Now, power will flow from P1 to B1. B1 to B2 (same shaft), B2 to G1 to spindle. As gear B1 is larger
than P1, the speed will further be reduced at B1. B1 and B2 will have the same speeds. The speed will
further be reduced at G1 because gear G1 is larger than B2. So, the speed of spindle is reduced by
engaging the back gear.

2.2.3.2 All geared headstock

All geared headstock is commonly used in modern lathes because of the following advantages:
It gives wider range of spindle speeds.
It is more efficient and compact than cone pulley mechanism.
Power available at the tool is almost constant for all spindle speeds.
Belt shifting is eliminated.
The vibration of the spindle is reduced.
More power can be transmitted.
The all geared headstock is shown in Fig 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 All geared headstock

The power from the constant speed motor is delivered to the spindle through a belt drive. Speed
changing is made by levers. The different spindle speeds are obtained by shifting the levers into different
positions to obtain different gear combinations. This mechanism has a splined spindle, intermediate shaft
and a splined shaft. The splined shaft receives power from motor through a belt drive.
This shaft has 3 gears namely G1, G2 and G3. These gears can be shifted with the help of lever
along the shaft. Gears G4, G5 and G6 are mounted on intermediate shaft and cannot be moved axially.
Gears G7, G8 and G9 are mounted on splined headstock spindle and can be moved axially be levers.
Gears G1, G2 and G3 can be meshed with the gears G4, G5 and G6 individually. Similarly, gears G7, G8,
G9 can be meshed with gear G4, G5 and G6 individually. Thus, it provides nine different speeds.

2.2.4 Feed mechanisms

The feed mechanism is used to transmit power from the spindle to the carriage. Therefore, it
converts rotary motion of the spindle into linear motion of the carriage. The feed can be given either
by hand or automatically. For automatic feeding, the following feed mechanisms are used:
Tumbler gear reversing mechanism.
Quick-change gearbox.
Tumbler gear quick-change gearbox.
Apron mechanism.
Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.

53
UNIT - II

2.2.4.1 Tumbler gear reversing mechanism

Tumbler gear mechanism is used to change the direction of lead screw and feed rod. By engaging
tumbler gear, the carriage can be moved along the lathe axis in either direction during thread cutting or
automatic machining. Fig. 2.5 shows the schematic arrangement of tumbler gear reversing mechanism.

Fig. 2.5 Tumbler gear reversing mechanism

The tumbler gear unit has two pinions (A and B) of same size and is mounted on a bracket. The
bracket is pivoted at a point and can be moved up and down by a lever L. The bracket may be placed
in three positions i.e., upward, downward and neutral. Gear ‘C’ is a spindle gear attached to the lathe
spindle. Gear ‘D’ is the stud gear. The stud gear is connected to the lead screw gear through a set of
intermediate gears.
When the lever is shifted upward position, the gear ‘A’ is engaged with spindle gear ‘C’ and
the power is transmitted through C-A-D-E-F. During this position, lead screw will rotate in the same
direction as spindle rotates (i.e. both anticlockwise). Now, the carriage moves towards the headstock.
When the lever is shifted downward, the gear ‘B’ is engaged with spindle gear ‘C’ and the power is
transmitted through C-B-A-D-E-F. Hence, the lead screw will rotate in the opposite direction of the
spindle. Now, the carriage moves towards tailstock.
When the bracket is in neutral position, the engagement of tumbler gears is disconnected with
the spindle gear. Hence, there is no power transmission to lead screw.

2.2.4.2 Quick-change gear box

Quick-change gearbox is used to get various power feeds in the lathe. Fig. 2.6 shows the
schematic arrangement of quick-change gear box.

Fig. 2.6 quick-change gear box

54
UNIT - II

Power from the lathe spindle is transmitted to feed shaft through tumbler gear, change gear
train and quick-change gearbox. Shaft A (Cone gear shaft) contains 9 different sizes of gears keyed
with it. Shaft B (Sliding gear shaft) has a gear and it receives 9 different speeds from shaft A by the
use of sliding gear. Shaft B is connected to shaft C (Driven shaft) through 4 cone years. Therefore,
Shaft C can get 9 X 4 = 36 different speeds. The shaft C is connected to lead screw by a clutch and
feed rod by a gear train. Lead screw is used for thread cutting and feed rod is used for automatic feeds.

2.2.4.3 Tumbler gear quick-change gear box

The different speed of the driving shaft is obtained by a tumbler gear and cone gear arrangement.
Fig. 2.7 shows the schematic arrangement of tumbler gear quick-change gear box.

Fig. 2.7 Tumbler gear quick-change gearbox

It is simpler than quick-change gearbox. A tumbler gear and a sliding gear are attached to the
bracket as shown in Fig. 2.7. Driving shaft has a cone gear made up of different sizes of gears. The
sliding gear is keyed to the driven shaft which is connected by the lead screw or feed rod. The sliding
gear can be made to slide and engaged at any desired position. By sliding the sliding gear to various
positions and engaging the tumbler gear, various speeds can be obtained.

2.2.4.4 Apron mechanism

Fig. 2.8 shows the schematic arrangement of apron mechanism.

Fig. 2.8 Apron mechanism

Lead screw and feed rod is getting power from spindle gear through tumbler gears. Power is
transmitted from feed rod to the worm wheel through gears A, B, C, D and worm.

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UNIT - II

A splined shaft is attached with worm wheel. The splined shaft is always engaged with the
gears F and G which are keyed to the feed check shaft. A knob ‘E’ is fitted with feed check shaft. Feed
check knob ‘E’ can be placed in three positions such as neutral, push-in and pull-out.
When the feed check knob ‘E’ is in neutral position, power is not transmitted either to cross
feed screw or to the carriage since gears F and G have no connection with H and K. Therefore, hand
feed is given as follows. When the longitudinal feed hand wheel rotates, pinion I will also be rotated
through I and H. pinion I will move on rack for taking longitudinal feed. For getting cross feed, cross
slide screw will be rotated by using cross slide hand wheel.
When the feed check knob ‘E’ is push-in, rotating gear G will be engaged to H. then the power
will be transmitted to pinion I. pinion I will rotate on rack. So, automatic longitudinal feed takes place.
When the feed check knob ‘E’ is pulled-out, the rotating gear F will be engaged to K. Hence, the
power will be transmitted to cross feed screws through L. This leads to automatic cross feed.
For thread cutting, half nut is engaged by half nut lever after putting knob ‘E’ neutral position.
Half nut is firmly attached with the carriage. As the lead screw rotates, the carriage will automatically
move along the axis of the lathe. Both longitudinal and cross feed can be reversed by operating the
tumbler gear mechanism.

2.2.4.5 Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism

The tumbler gear mechanism being a non-rigid construction cannot be used in a modern heavy
duty lathe. The clutch operated bevel gear feed reversing mechanism incorporated below the head
stock or in apron provides sufficient rigidity in construction. Fig. 2.9 shows the schematic
arrangement of bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.

Fig. 2.9 Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism

The motion is communicated from the spindle gear 2 to the gear on the stud shaft through the
intermediate gear. The bevel gear 8 is attached to the gear on the stud shaft and both of them can freely
rotate on shaft 7. The bevel gear 8 meshes with bevel gear 12 and 12 mesh with 10. 12, 10 and 8 are
having equal number of teeth. The bevel gear 10 can also rotate freely on shaft 7.
A clutch 11 is keyed to the shaft 7 by a feather key and may be shifted to left or right, by the
lever 9 to be engaged with the gear 8 or 10 or it remains in the neutral position. When the clutch
engages with bevel gear 8, gear 3 which is keyed to the shaft 7 and the lead screw, rotates in the same
direction as the gear 2. The direction of rotation is reversed when the clutch 11 engages with gear 10.

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2.2.5 Mounting of jobs in centre lathe

2.2.5.1 Without additional support from the tailstock
Chucks - 3 jaw self centering chuck or universal chuck and 4 jaw independent chuck
Fig. 2.10 (a and b) visualizes 3-jaw and 4-jaw chucks which are mounted at the spindle nose
and firmly hold the job in centre lathes. Premachined round bars are quickly and coaxially mounted by
simultaneously moving the three jaws radially by rotating the scroll (disc with radial threads) by a key
as can be seen in the diagram 2.10 (a)
The four jaw chucks, available in varying sizes, are generally used for essentially more strongly
holding non-circular bars like square, rectangular, hexagonal and even odder sectional jobs in addition
to cylindrical bars, both with and without pre machining at the gripping portion. The jaws are moved
radially independently by rotating the corresponding screws which push the rack provided on the back
side of each jaw as can be seen in the diagram 2.10 (b).

Fig. 2.10 (a) 3-jaw self centring chuck or universal chuck

Fig. 2.10 (b) 4-jaw independent chuck

Magnetic chuck
This is used for holding thin jobs. When the pressure of jaws is to be prevented, this chuck is
used. The chuck gets magnetic power from an electro-magnet. Only magnetic materials can be held on
this chuck. Fig. 2.11 shows the magnetic chuck.

Fig. 2.11 Magnetic chuck Fig. 2.12 Face plate

Face plate
A face plate as shown in Fig. 2.12 consists of a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit the nose
of lathe spindle. This has radial, plain and T slots for holding work by bolts and clamps. Face plates are
used for holding work pieces which cannot be conveniently held between centres or by chucks.

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UNIT - II

Angle plate
Angle plate is a cast iron plate that has two faces at right angles to each other. Holes and slots
are provided on both faces as shown in Fig. 2.13 (a). An angle plate is used along with the face plate
when holding eccentric or unsymmetrical jobs that are difficult to grip directly on the face plate as
shown in Fig. 2.13 (b).

Fig. 2.13 (a) Angle plate Fig. 2.13 (b) Angle plate used along with face plate

2.2.5.2 With additional support from the

tailstock Catch plate or driving plate
It is circular plate of steel or cast iron having a projected boss at its rear. The boss has a
threaded hole and it can be screwed to the nose of the headstock spindle. The driving is fitted to the
plate. It is used to drive the work piece through a carrier or dog when the work piece is held between
the centres. Fig. 2.14 shows the catch plate.

Fig. 2.14 Catch plate Fig. 2.15 Types of carriers

Carriers or Dogs
It is used to transfer motion from the driving plate to the work piece held between centres. The
work piece is inserted into the hole of the dog and firmly secured in position by means of set screw.
The different types of carriers are shown in Fig 2. 15.

Mandrels
A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow work piece that has been
previously drilled or bored. The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted between two
centres. The mandrel should be true with accurate centre holes for machining outer surface of the work
piece concentric with its bore. To avoid distortion and wear it is made of high carbon steel.
The ends of a mandrel are slightly smaller in diameter and flattened to provide effective
gripping surface of the lathe dog set screw. The mandrel is rotated by the lathe dog and the catch plate
and it drives the work by friction. Different types of mandrels are employed according to specific
requirements. Fig. 2.16 shows the different types of mandrels in common use.

In-between centres (by catch plate and carriers)

Fig. 2.17 schematically shows how long slender rods are held in between the live centre fitted
into the headstock spindle and the dead centre fitted in the quill of the tailstock. The torque and
rotation are transmitted from the spindle to the job with the help of a lathe dog or catcher which is
again driven by a driving plate fitted at the spindle nose.

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Depending upon the situation or requirement, different types of centres are used at the tailstock
end as indicated in Fig. 2.18. A revolving centre is preferably used when desired to avoid sliding
friction between the job and the centre which also rotates along with the job.

Fig. 2.16 Types of mandrels

Fig. 2.17 Work held between centres

Fig. 2.18 Types of centres

Ordinary centre: It is used for general works.
Insert type centre: In this the steel “insert” can be replaced instead of replacing the whole centre.
Half centre: It is similar to ordinary centre and used for facing bar ends without removal of the centre.
Pipe centre: It is used for supporting pipes and hollow end jobs.
Ball centre: It has ball shaped end to minimize the wear and strain. It is suitable for taper turning.
Tipped centre: Hard alloy tip is brazed into steel shank. The hard tip has high wear resistant.
Revolving centre: The ball and roller bearings are fitted into the housing to reduce friction and to take
up end thrust. This is used in tail stock for supporting heavy work revolving at a high speed.

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In-between chuck and centre

Heavy and reasonably long jobs of large diameter and requiring heavy cuts (cutting forces) are
essentially held strongly and rigidly in the chuck at headstock with support from the tailstock through
a revolving centre as can be seen in Fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.19 Work held between chuck and revolving centre

In-between headstock and tailstock with additional support of rest

To prevent deflection of the long slender jobs like feed rod, lead screw etc. due to sagging and
cutting forces during machining, some additional supports are provided as shown in Fig. 2.20. Such
additional support may be a steady rest which remains fixed at a suitable location or a follower rest
which moves along with the cutting tool during long straight turning without any steps in the job’s
diameter. Fig. 2.21 (a and b) shows the steady rest and follower rest.

Fig. 2.20 Slender job held with extra support by steady rest

Fig. 2.21 (a) Steady rest and (b) Follower rest

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2.2.6 Mounting of tools in centre lathe

Different types of tools, used in centre lathes, are usually mounted in the following ways:
HSS tools (shank type) in tool post.
HSS form tools and threading tools in tool post.
Carbide and ceramic inserts in tool holders.
Drills and reamers, if required, in tailstock.
Boring tools in tool post.
Fig. 2.22 (a and b) is typically showing mounting of shank type HSS single point tools in rotatable
(only one tool) and indexable (up to four tools) tool posts. Fig. 2.22 (c) typically shows how a circular
form or thread chasing HSS tool is fitted in the tool holder which is mounted in the tool post.

Fig. 2.22 Mounting of (a and b) shank type tools in tool post and (c) form tool in tool post

Carbide, ceramic and cermet inserts of various size and shape are mechanically clamped in the
seat of rectangular sectioned steel bars which are mounted in the tool post. Fig. 2.23 (a, b, c and d)
shows the common methods of clamping such inserts. After wearing out of the cutting point, the insert
is indexed and after using all the corner tips the insert is thrown away.

Fig. 2.23 Mounting of tool inserts in tool holders by mechanical clamping

For originating axial hole in centre lathe, the drill bit is fitted into the tailstock which is slowly
moved forward against the rotating job as indicated in Fig. 2.24. Small straight shank drills are fitted in a
drill chuck whereas taper shank drill is fitted directly into the tailstock quill without or with a socket.

Fig. 2.24 Holding drill chuck and drill in tailstock

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Often boring operation is done in centre lathe for enlarging and finishing holes by simple shank
type HSS boring tool. The tool is mounted on the tool post and moved axially forward, along with the
saddle, through the hole in the rotating job as shown in Fig. 2.25 (a). For precision boring in centre lathe,
the tool may be fitted in the tailstock quill supported by bush in the spindle as shown in Fig. 2.25 (b).

Fig. 2.25 (a) Boring tool mounted in the tool post Fig. 2.25 (b) Precision boring in centre lathe

2.3 CUTTING TOOLS

For general purpose work, a single point cutting tool is used in centre lathes. But for special
operations multi point tools may be used. Single point lathe tools are classified as follows:
According to the method of manufacturing the tool
Forged tool.
Tipped tool brazed to the carbon steel shank.
Tipped tool fastened mechanically to the carbon steel shank.
According to the method of holding the tool
Solid tool.
Tool bit inserted in the tool holder.
According to the method of using the tool
Turning tool, facing tool, forming tool, chamfering tool, finishing turning tool, round nose tool,
external threading tool, internal threading tool, boring tool, parting tool, knurling tool, etc.
According to the method of applying feed
Right hand tool.
Left hand tool.
Round nose tool.

2.3.1 According to the method of manufacturing the tool

Forged tool
These tools are manufactured from high carbon steel or high speed steel. The required shape of
the tool is given by forging the end of a solid tool steel shank. The cutting edges are then ground to the
shape to provide necessary tool angles. Fig. 2.26 (a) shows a forged tool.

Fig. 2.26 (a) Forged tool (b) Furnace bracing of a tool tip (c) Induction brazing of a tool tip

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Tipped tool brazed to the carbon steel shank

Stellite and cemented carbide tool materials, in view of the very high cost, brittleness, and low
tensile strength, are used in the form of small tips. They are made to the various shapes to form different
types of tools and are attached permanently to the end of a carbon steel shank by a brazing operation. High
speed steel due to its high cost is also sometimes used in the form of tips brazed on carbon steel shank. Fig.
2.26 (b and c) shows the furnace and induction brazing of a tool tip on carbon steel shank.

Tipped tool fastened mechanically to the carbon steel shank

To ensure rigidity that a brazed tool does not offer, tips are sometimes clamped at the end of a
tool shank by means of a clamp and bolt. Ceramic tips which are difficult to braze are clamped at the
end of a shank. Fig. 2.27 shows a mechanically fastened tipped tool.

Fig. 2.27 Mechanically fastened tool tip Fig. 2.28 Tool holder and tool bit

2.3.2 According to the method of holding the tool

Solid tool
Solid tools are made of high carbon steel forged and ground to the required shape. They are
mounted directly on the tool post of a lathe. Fig. 2.26 (a) shows a solid tool.

Tool bit inserted in the tool holder

A tool bit is a small piece of cutting material having a very short shank which is inserted in a
forged carbon steel tool holder and clamped in position by bolt or screw. A tool bit may be of solid
type or tipped one according to the type of the cutting tool material. Tool holders are made of different
designs according to the shape and purpose of the cutting tool. Fig. 2.28 illustrates a common type of
tool holder using high speed steel tool bit.

2.3.3 According to the method of using the tool

Fig. 2.29 shows the various tools used in centre lathe according to the method of using the tool.

Fig. 2.29 Various tools used in centre lathe according to the method of using the tool

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2.4 VARIOUS OPERATIONS

The machining operations generally carried out in centre lathe are:
Rough and finish turning - The operation of producing cylindrical surface.
Facing - Machining the end of the work piece to produce flat surface.
Centering - The operation of producing conical holes on both ends of the work piece.
Chamfering - The operation of beveling or turning a slope at the end of the work piece.
Shouldering - The operation of turning the shoulders of the stepped diameter work piece.
Grooving - The operation of reducing the diameter of the work piece over a narrow surface. It
is also called as recessing, undercutting or necking.
Axial drilling and reaming by holding the cutting tool in the tailstock barrel.
Taper turning by - Offsetting the tailstock.
Swiveling the compound slide.
Using form tool with taper over short length.
Using taper turning attachment if available.
Combining longitudinal feed and cross feed, if feasible.

Boring (internal turning); straight and taper – The operation of enlarging the diameter of a hole.
Forming; external and internal.
Cutting helical threads; external and internal.
Parting off - The operation of cutting the work piece into two halves.
Knurling - The operation of producing a diamond shaped pattern or impression on the surface.
In addition to the aforesaid regular machining operations, some more operations are also occasionally
done, if desired, in centre lathes by mounting suitable attachments available in the market. Some of
those common operations carried out in centre lathe are shown in Fig. 2.30.

Fig. 2.30 Some common machining operations carried out in a centre lathe

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2.5 TAPER TURING METHODS

A taper may be defined as a uniform change in the diameter of a work piece measured along its
length. Taper may be expressed in two ways:
Ratio of difference in diameter to the length.
In degrees of half the included angle.
Fig. 2.31 shows the details of a taper.
D - Large diameter of the taper.
d - Small diameter of the taper.
l - Length of tapered part.
α - Half angle of taper. Fig. 2.31 Details of a taper Generally, taper is specified by the term
conicity. Conicity is defined as the ratio of the difference in
diameters of the taper to its length. Conicity, K = 2.1
Taper turning is the operation of producing conical surface on the cylindrical work piece on lathe.

2.5.1 Taper turning by a form tool

Fig. 2.32 illustrates the method of turning taper by a form tool. A broad nose tool having
straight cutting edge is set on to the work at half taper angle, and is fed straight into the work to
generate a tapered surface. In this method the tool angle should be properly checked before use. This
method is limited to turn short length of taper only. This is due to the reason that the metal is removed
by the entire cutting edge will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to
vibration and spoil the work surface.

Fig. 2.32 Taper turning by a form tool Fig. 2.33 Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest

2.5.2 Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest

Fig. 2.33 illustrates the method of turning taper by swiveling the compound rest. This method
is used to produce short and steep taper. In this method, work is held in a chuck and is rotated about
the lathe axis. The compound rest is swiveled to the required angle and clamped in position.
The angle is determined by using the formula, tanα = 2.2
Then the tool is fed by the compound rest hand wheel. This method is used for producing both
internal and external taper. This method is limited to turn a short taper owing to the limited movement
0
of the compound rest. The compound rest may be swiveled at 45 on either side of the lathe axis
enabling it to turn a steep taper. The movement of the tool in this method being purely controlled by
hand, this gives a low production capacity and poorer surface finish.

2.5.3 Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

Fig. 2.34 illustrates the method of turning taper by offsetting the tailstock. The principle of
turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation of the work piece, at an angle to the lathe
axis, which is equal to half angle of the taper, and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.

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This is done when the body of the tailstock is made to slide on its base towards or away from
the operator by a set over screw. The amount of set over being limited, this method is suitable for
turning small taper on long jobs. The main disadvantage of this method is that live and dead centres
are not equally stressed and the wear is not uniform. Moreover, the lathe carrier being set at an angle,
the angular velocity of the work is not constant.

Fig. 2.34 Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

The amount of set over required to machine a particular taper may be calculated as:
From the right angle triangle ABC in Fig.2.34; BC =AB sinα, where BC = set over
Set over = L sinα 2.3
If the half angle of taper (α), is very small, for all practical purposes, sinα = tanα
Set over = L tanα = L x in mm. 2.4
If the taper is turned on the entire length of the work piece, then l= L, and the equation (2.4) becomes:
Set over = L x = 2.5
being termed as the conicity or amount of taper, the formula (2.4) may be written in the following
form: Set over = 2.6

2.5.4 Taper turning by using taper turning attachment

Fig. 2.35 schematically shows a taper turning attachment. It consists of a bracket or frame which is
attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar pivoted at the centre. The guide bar
having graduations in degrees may be swiveled on either side of the zero graduation and is set at the desired
angle with the lathe axis. When this attachment is used the cross slide is delinked from the saddle by
removing the binder screw. The rear end of the cross slide is then tightened with the guide block by means
of a bolt. When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the cross slide will follow the angular
path, as the guide block will slide on the guide bar set at an angle to the lathe axis.
The required depth of cut is given by the compound slide which is placed at right angles to the
lathe axis. The guide bar must be set at half taper angle and the taper on the work must be converted in
0 0
degrees. The maximum angle through which the guide bar may be swiveled is 10 to 12 on either side
of the centre line. The angle of swiveling the guide bar can be determined from the equation 2.2.

The advantages of using a taper turning attachment are:

The alignment of live and dead centres being not disturbed; both straight and taper turning may
be performed on a work piece in one setting without much loss of time.
Once the taper is set, any length of work piece may be turned taper within its limit.
Very steep taper on a long work piece may be turned, which cannot be done by any other
method.
Accurate taper on a large number of work pieces may be turned.
Internal tapers can be turned with ease.

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING TECHNIQUES
Modern machining methods are also named as non-conventional machining methods. These methods form a group of
processes which removes excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical chemical
energy or combination of these energies. There is no cutting of metal with the help of metallic tools having sharp cutting
edges. The major reasons of development and popularity of modern machining methods are listed below.
(a) For machining newly developed metals and non-metals with special properties like high strength, high hardness and
high toughness. Materials possessing the above mentioned properties are difficult to be machined by the
conventional machining methods.
(b) Sometimes it is required to produce complex part geometries that cannot be produced by conventional machining
techniques. Non-conventional machining methods also provide very good quality of surface finish which may also be
an encouragement in using these methods.
USE OF ENERGY PRINCIPLES
Use of Mechanical Energy: Mechanical energy is used for removing material from workpiece. In this process, cutting tool
with sharp edge is not used but material is removed by the abrasive action of high velocity stream of hard, tiny abrasive
particles. The particles are kept vibrating with very high velocity and ultra high frequency to remove the material.
Use of Electrical Energy: In this category of non-traditional machining, electrical energy is used in the form of
electrochemical energy or electro-heat energy to erode the material or to melt and vapourized it respectively.
Electrochemical machining, electroplating or electro discharge machining are the examples of this principle.
Use of Thermal Energy: According to this principle, heat is generated by electrical energy. The generated thermal energy
is focused to a very small portion of workpiece. This heat is utilized in melting and evaporation of metal. An example
based on this principle is electric discharge machining.
Use of Chemical Energy: According to this principle, chemicals are used to erode material from the workpiece. Selection
of a chemical depends upon the workpiece material. Example of this type of machining is electrochemical machining.
The same principle can also be applied in the reverse way during electrochemical plating.
Classification of non-conventional machining processes based on mechanisms of metal removal:
Abrasion and Shear: When small and hard metallic particles are made to vibrate against the workpiece to be machined,
the material is removed by shear action and abrasion. These phenomenon take place in case of ultrasonic machining.
Chemical Ablation and Ionic Dissolution: This is the dissolution of workpiece material in an electrolyte solution
(chemical) which takes place atom by atom. This happens in case of electrochemical machining.
Vapourization by Spark Erosion: Concentrated heat is focused at a point of the workpiece by electric spark which melts
and evaporates the workpiece material like in electric discharge machining and Laser Beam Machining.
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
It is also known as spark erosion machining or spark machining. Material in the workpiece is removed due to erosion
caused by electric spark.
Working Principle of Electric Discharge Machining
Electric discharge machining process is carried out in presence of a dielectric fluid which creates path for discharge.
When potential difference is created across the two surfaces of the dielectric fluid, it gets ionized. An electric
spark/discharge is generated across the two terminals. The potential difference is developed by a pulsating direct
current power supply connected across the two terminals. One of the terminals is positive which is given to workpiece
and the tool is made negative terminal. Two third of the total heat generated is generated at positive terminal, hence
the workpiece is generally given positive polarity. The discharge develops at the location where two terminals are very
close. So tool helps in focusing the discharge or intensity of generated heat at the point of metal removal. Application of
focused heat raises the temperature of workpiece locally at a point, this way two metal is melted and evaporated.
EDM Process Details
Base and Container: container of non-conducting, transparent material is used for carrying out EDM. The container is
filled with dielectric solution. A base to keep workpiece is installed at the bottom of container. The base is made of
conducting material and given positive polarity.
Tool: Tool is given negative polarity. It is made of electrically conducting material like brass, copper or tungsten. The tool
material selected should be easy to machine & high wear resistant. Tool is made slightly under size for inside machining
and over sized for outside machining. Tool is designed and manufactured according to the geometry to be machined.
Dielectric Solution: Dielectric solution is a liquid which should be electrically conductive. This solution provides two main
functions; firstly, it drives away the chips and prevents their sticking to workpiece and tool, and secondly, it enhances
the intensity of discharge by getting ionized and hence, accelerates metal removal rate.
Power Supply: A DC power supply is used, 50 V to 450 V is applied. Due to ionization of dielectric solution an electrical
breakdown occurs. The electric discharge so caused directly impinges on the surface of workpiece. It takes only a few
micro seconds to complete the cycle and remove the material. The circuit can be adjusted for auto off after pre-decided
time interval.
Tool Feed Mechanism: In case of EDM, feeding the tool means controlling gap between workpiece and the tool. This
gap is maintained and controlled with the help of servo mechanism. To maintain a constant gap throughout the
operation, tool is moved towards the machining zone very slowly. The movement speed is maintained by the help of
gear and rack and pinion arrangement. The servo system senses the change in gap due to metal removal and
immediately corrects it by moving the tool accordingly. The spark gap normally varies from 0.005 mm to 0.50 mm.
Workpiece Geometry: Any workpiece which is an electrical conductor can be machined through this process, whatever
is its hardness. The geometry which is to be machined into the workpiece decides the shape and size of the tool.
Application of Electric Discharge Machining
This process is highly economical for machining of very hard material as tool wear is independent of hardness of
workpiece material. It is very useful in tool manufacturing. It is also used for broach making, making holes with straight
or curved axes, and for making complicated cavities which cannot be produced by conventional machining operations.
EDM is widely used for die making as complex cavities are to be made in the die making. However, it is capable to do all
operations that can be done by conventional machining.
Advantages of EDM:
(a) This process is very much economical for machining very hard material.
(b) Maintains high degree of dimensional accuracy so it is recommended for tool and die making.
(c) Complicated geometries can be produced which are very difficult otherwise.
(d) Highly delicate sections and weak materials can also be processed without any risk of their distortion, because
in this process tool never applies direct pressure on the workpiece.
(e) Fine holes can be drilled easily and accurately.
(f) Appreciably high value of MRR can be achieved as compared to other non-conventional machining processes.
Disadvantages and Limitations of EDM Process:
(a) This process cannot be applied on very large sized workpieces as size of workpiece is constrained by the size of
set up.
(b) Electrically non-conducting materials cannot be processed by EDM.
(c) Due to the application of very high temperature at the machining zone, there are chances of distortion of
workpiece in case of these sections.
(d) EDM process is not capable to produce sharp corners.
(e) MRR achieved in EDM process is considerably lower than the MRR in case of conventional machining process
so it cannot be taken as an alternative to conventional machining processes at all.

WIRE CUT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (WCEDM)

This is a special type of electric discharge machining that uses a small diameter wire as a cutting tool on the work.
Working principle of wire cut electric discharge machining is same as that of electric discharge machining.
Process Details of WCEDM
Process details of WCEDM are almost similar to EDM with slight difference. Its major difference than EDM process are
described below.

Tool Details: The tool used in WCEDM process is a small diameter wire as the electrode to cut narrow kerf in the
workpiece. During the process of cutting the wire continuously moves between a supply spool and a wire collector. This
continuous feeding of wire makes the machined geometry insensitive to distortion of tool due to its erosion. Material of
wire can be brass, copper, tungsten or any other suitable material to make EDM tool. Normally, wire diameter ranges
from 0.076 to 0.30 mm depending upon the width of kerf.
Tool Feed Mechanism: Two type of movements are generally given to the tool (wire). One is continuous feed from wire
supply spool to wire collector. Other is movement of the whole wire feeding system, and wire along the kerf to be cut
into the workpiece. Both movements are accomplished with ultra accuracy and pre-determined speed with the help of
numerical control mechanism.
Dielectric Fluid and Spray Mechanism: Like EDM process dielectric fluid is continuously sprayed to the machining zone.
This fluid is applied by nozzles directed at the tool work interface or workpiece is submerged in the dielectric fluid
container.
Rest of the process details in case of WCEDM process are same as that in case of EDM process.
Application of WCEDM
WCEDM is similar to hand saw operation in applications with good precision. It is used to make narrow kerf with sharp
corners. It does not impose any force to workpiece so used for very delicate and thin workpieces. It is considered ideal
for making components for stamping dies. It is also used to make intricate shapes in punch, dies and other tools.
Advantages of WCEDM
(a) Accuracy and precision of dimensions are of very good quality.
(b) No force is experienced by the workpiece.
(c) Hardness and toughness of workpiece do not create problems in machining operation.
Disadvantages and Limitations of WCEDM
The major disadvantages of this process are that only electrically conducting materials can be machined. This process is
costly so recommended for use specifically at limited operations.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

Working principle of this process resembles conventional metal cutting as in this process; abrasives contained in slurry
are driven at high velocity against the workpiece by a tool vibrating at low amplitude and high frequency. Amplitude is
kept in the order of 0.07 mm and frequency is maintained at approximately 20,000 Hz. The workpiece material is
removed in the form of extremely small chips. Normally very hard particle dust is included in the slurry like, Aluminium
oxide, silicon carbide, boron carbide or diamond dust.
Working principle of USM is same as that of conventional machining i.e. material of workpiece is removed by
continuous abrasive action of hard particles vibrating in the slurry. Abrasive slurry acts as a multipoint cutting tool and
does the similar action as done by a cutting edge.

Process Details
Abrasive Slurry: Abrasive slurry consists of dust of very hard particles. It is filled into the machining zone. Abrasive slurry
can be recycled with the help of pump.
Workpiece: Workpiece of hard and brittle material can be machined by USM. Workpiece is clamped on the fixture of the
setup.
Cutting Tool: Tool of USM does not do the cutting directly but it vibrates with small amplitude and high frequency. So it
is suitable to name the tool as vibrating tool rather than cutting tool. The tool is made of relatively soft material and
used to vibrate abrasive slurry to cut the workpiece material. The tool is attached to the arbor (tool holder) by brazing
or mechanical means. Sometimes hollow tools are also used which feed the slurry focusing on the machining zone.
Ultrasonic Oscillator: This operation uses high frequency electric current which passes to an ultrasonic oscillator and
ultrasonic transducer. The function of the transducer is to convert electric energy into mechanical energy developing
vibrations into the tool.
Feed Mechanism: Tool is fed to the machining zone of workpiece. The tool is shaped as per the cavity that is required to
be produced into the workpiece. The tool is fed to the machining area. The feed rate is maintained equal to the rate of
enlargement of the cavity to be produced.
Applications of USM
This process is generally applied for the machining of hard and brittle materials like carbides, glass, ceramics, precious
stones, titanium, etc. It is used for tool making and punch and die making. The workpeice material is normally removed
in the form of very find chips and hence the resulting surface quality is extremely good. It is widely used for several
machining operations like turning, grinding, milling, etc. It can make hole of round shape and other shapes.
Advantages of USM
(a) Its main advantage is the workpiece after machining is free from any residual stress as opposed to the
concentrated force or heat it is subjected to, during other machining processes.
(b) Extremely hard and brittle materials can be machined; their machining is very difficult by conventional
methods.
(c) Very good dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be obtained.
(d) Operational cost is low.
(e) The process is environmental friendly as it is noiseless and no chemical or heating is used.
Disadvantages of USM
(a) Its metal removal rate (MRR) is very low and it cannot be used for large machining cavities.
(b) Its initial setup cost and cost of tool is very high, frequent tool replacement is required as tool wear takes place
in this operation.
(c) Not recommended for soft and ductile material due to their ductility.
(d) Power consumption is quite high.
(e) Slurry may have to be replaced frequently.

CHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESSES (CHM)

Chemical machining is one of the non-conventional machining processes where material is removed by bringing it in
contact of a strong chemical etchant. There are different chemical machining methods base on this like chemical milling,
chemical blanking, photochemical machining, etc.
Working Principle of CHM
The main working principle of chemical machining is chemical etching. The part of the workpiece, whose material is to
be removed, is brought into the contact of chemical called etchant. The metal is removed by the chemical attack of
etchant. The method of avoiding contact of the remaining metal with the etchant is called masking. The portion of
workpiece where no material is to be removed is masked before chemical etching.

Process Details of CHM

Cleaning: The first step of the process is cleaning of the workpiece; this is required to ensure that material will be
removed uniformly from the surfaces to be processed.
Masking: This is the action of selecting material which is to be removed and which is not to be removed. The material
which is not to be removed is applied with a protective coating called maskent - made of materials like neoprene,
polyvinylchloride, polyethylene or any other polymer. Thickness of maskent is maintained upto 0.125 mm. The portion
of workpiece having no maskent is etched during the process of etching.
Etching: In this step the material is finally removed. The workpiece is immersed in the etchant where the material of
workpiece having no protective coating is removed by the chemical action of etchant. Etchant is selected depending on
the workpiece material, rate of material removal and surface finish required. There is a necessity to ensure that maskant
and enchant should be chemically inactive. Common etchants are H2SO4, FeCl3, HNO3. Selection of etchant also affects
MRR. As in CHM process, MRR is indicated in terms of penetration rates (mm/min).
Demasking: After the process is completed demasking is done. Demasking is an act of removing maskent after
machining.
Application of CHM
Chemical Milling: It is widely used in aircraft industry. It is the preparation of complicated geometry on the workpiece
using CHM process.
Chemical Blanking: In this application cutting is done on sheet metal workpieces. Metal blanks can be cut from very thin
sheet metal; this cutting may not be possible by conventional methods.
Photochemical Machining: It is used in metal working when close (tight) tolerances and intricate patterns are to be
made. This is used to produce intricate circuit designs on semiconductor wafers.
Advantages of CHM
(a) Low tooling cost.
(b) Multiple machining can be done on a workpiece simultaneously.
(c) No application of force so on risk of damage to delicate or low strength workpiece.
(d) Complicated shapes/patterns can be machined.
(e) Machining of hard and brittle material is possible.
Disadvantages and Limitations of CHM
(a) Slower process, very low MRR so high cost of operation.
(b) Small thickness of metal can be removed.
(c) Sharp corners cannot be prepared.
(d) Requires skilled operators.

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

Electrochemical machining (ECM) process uses electrical energy in combination with chemical energy to remove the
material of workpiece. This works on the principle of reverse electroplating.
Working Principle of ECM
Electrochemical machining removes material from electrically conducting workpiece. The workpiece is made the anode
of the setup and material is removed by anodic dissolution. Tool is made cathode and kept in close proximity to the
workpiece and current is passed through the circuit. Both electrodes are immersed into the electrolyte solution. This
works on the basis of Faraday’s law of electrolysis. The cavity machined is the mirror image of the tool. MRR in this
process can easily be calculated according to Faraday’s law.

Process Details of ECM

Workpiece: Workpiece is made anode, electrolyte is pumped between workpiece and the tool. Material of workpiece is
removed by anodic dissolution. Only electrically conducting materials can be processed by ECM.
Tool: A special design shaped tool is used for ECM, which forms cathode in the ECM setup. The tool is usually made of
copper, brass, stainless steel, and it is a mirror image of the desired machined cavity. Proper allowances are given in the
tool size to get the dimensional accuracy of the machined surface.
Power Supply: DC power source should be used to supply the current. Tool is connected with the negative terminal and
workpiece with the positive terminal of the power source. Power supply supplies low voltage (3 to 4 volts) and high
current to the circuit.
Electrolyte: Water is used as base of electrolyte in ECM. Normally water soluble NaCl and NaNO3 are used as electrolyte.
Electrolyte also serves as a carrier of dissolved workpiece material. It is recycled by a pump after filtration.
Tool Feed Mechanism: Servo motor is used to feed the tool to the machining zone. It is necessary to maintain a constant
gap between the workpiece and tool so tool feed rate is maintained accordingly while machining.
In addition to the above, whole process is carried out in a tank filled with electrolyte. The tank is made of
transparent plastic which should be non-reactive to the electrolyte. Connecting wires are required to connect electrodes
to the power supply.
Applications of ECM Process
(a) Electrochemical Grinding: This can also be named as electrochemical deburring. This is used for anodic
dissolution of burrs or roughness on a surface to make it smooth. Any conducting material can be machined by
this process. The quality of finish largely depends on the quality of finish of the tool.
(b) This is applied in internal finishing of surgical needles and also for their sharpening.
(c) Machining of hard, brittle, heat resistant materials without any problem.
(d) Drilling of small and deeper holes with very good quality of internal surface finish.
(e) Machining of cavities and holes of complicated and irregular shapes.
(f) It is used for making inclined and blind holes and finishing of conventionally machined surfaces.
Advantages of ECM Process
(a) Machining of hard and brittle material is possible with good quality of surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
(b) Complex shapes can also be easily machined.
(c) There is almost negligible tool wear so cost of tool making is only one time investment for mass production.
(d) There is no application of force, no direct contact between tool and work and no application of heat so there is
no scope of mechanical and thermal residual stresses in the workpiece.
(e) Very close tolerances can be obtained.
Disadvantages and Limitations of ECM
(a) All electrically non-conducting materials cannot be machined.
(b) Tool material and workpiece material should be chemically stable with the electrolyte solution.
(c) Designing and making tool is difficult but its life is long so recommended only for mass production.
(d) Accurate feed rate of tool is required to be maintained.

LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

Laser beams have wide industrial applications including some in machining processes. A laser is an optical transducer
that converts electrical energy into a highly coherent light beam. One must know the full name of laser; it stands for
“light amplification of stimulated emission of radiation”. Laser being coherent in nature has a specific property; if it is
focused by conventional optical lenses it can generate high power density.
Working Principle of LBM
LBM uses the light energy of a laser beam to remove material by vaporization and ablation. In this process the energy of
coherent light beam is focused optically for pre-decided periods of time. The beam is pulsed so that the released energy
results in an impulse against the work surface that does melting and evaporation. Here the way of metal removing is
same as that of EDM process but method of generation of heat is different. The application of heat is very finely focused
in case of LBM as compared to EDM.
Process Details of ECM

Laser Tube and Lamp Assembly: This is the main part of LBM setup. It consists of a laser tube, a pair of reflectors, one at
each end of the tube, a flash tube or lamp, an amplification source, a power supply unit and a cooling system. This
whole setup is fitted inside an enclosure, which carries good quality reflecting surfaces inside. In this setup the flash
lamp goes to laser tube, that excites the atoms of the inside media, which absorb the radiation of incoming light energy.
This enables the light to travel to and fro between two reflecting mirrors. The partial reflecting mirror does not reflect
the total light back and a part of it goes out in the form of a coherent stream of monochromatic light. This highly
amplified stream of light is focused on the workpiece with the help of converging lens. The converging lens is also the
part of this assembly.
Workpiece: The range of workpiece material that can be machined by LBM includes high hardness and strength
materials like ceramics, glass to softer materials like plastics, rubber wood, etc. A good workpiece material has high light
energy absorption power, poor reflectivity, poor thermal conductivity, low specific heat, low melting point and low
latent heat.
Cooling Mechanism: A cooling mechanism circulates coolant in the laser tube assembly to avoid its overheating in long
continuous operation.
Tool Feed Mechanism: There is no tool used in the LBM process. Focusing laser beam at a pre-decided point in the
workpiece serve the purpose of tool. As the requirement of being focused shifts during the operation, its focus point can
also be shifted gradually and accordingly by moving the converging lens in a controlled manner. This movement of the
converging lens is the tool feed mechanism in LBM process.
Applications of LBM
LBM is used to perform different machining operations like drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing operations. It is used for
drilling holes of small diameter of the order of 0.025 mm. It is used for very thin stocks. Other applications are listed
below:
(a) Making complex profiles in thin and hard materials like integrated circuits and printed circuit boards (PCBS).
(b) Machining of mechanical components of watches.
(c) Smaller machining of very hard material parts.
Advantages of LBM
(a) Materials which cannot be machined by conventional methods are machined by LBM.
(b) There is no tool so no tool wear.
(c) Application of heat is very much focused so rest of the workpiece is least affected by the heat.
(d) Drills very find and precise holes and cavities.
Disadvantages of LBM
(a) High capital investment is involved. Operating cost is also high.
(b) Recommended for some specific operations only as production rate is very slow.
(c) Cannot be used comfortably for high heat conductivity materials light reflecting materials.
(d) Skilled operators are required.

PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

It is also one of the thermal machining processes. Here the method of heat generation is different than EDM and LBM.
Working Principle of PAM
In this process gases are heated and charged to plasma state. Plasma state is the superheated and electrically ionized
gases at approximately 5000°C. These gases are directed on the workpiece in the form of high velocity stream.
Process Details of PAM
Plasma Gun: Gases are used to create plasma like, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen or mixture of these gases. The plasma gun
consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the chamber. The electrode is given negative polarity and nozzle of the gun is
given positive polarity. Supply of gases is maintained into the gun. A strong arc is established between the two terminals
anode and cathode. There is a collision between molecules of gas and electrons of the established arc. As a result of this
collision gas molecules get ionized and heat is evolved. This hot and ionized gas called plasma is directed to the
workpiece with high velocity. The established arc is controlled by the supply rate of gases.
Power Supply and Terminals: Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten
electrode is inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made anode. Heavy potential difference is
applied across the electrodes to develop plasma state of gases.
Cooling Mechanism: Since hot gases continuously come out of the nozzle, so there are chances of it’s overheating. A
water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid its overheating.
Tooling: There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of hot, plasma state gases works as a cutting tool.
Workpiece: Workpiece of different materials can be processed by PAM process. These materials are aluminium,
magnesium, stainless steels and carbon and alloy steels. All those material which can be processed by LBM can also be
processed by PAM process.
Applications of PAM
The chief application of this process is profile cutting as controlling movement of spray focus point is easy in case of
PAM process. This is also recommended for smaller machining of difficult to machining materials.
Advantages of PAM Process
(a) It gives faster production rate.
(b) Very hard and brittle metals can be machined.
(c) Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy.
Disadvantages of PAM Process
(a) Its initial cost is very high.
(b) The process requires over safety precautions which further enhance the initial cost of the setup.
(c) Some of the workpiece materials are very much prone to metallurgical changes on excessive heating so this
fact imposes limitations to this process.
(d) It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.