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Part 8: Chord Progression and Comping back to contents

Introduction
to Chord
Progression

• Basic Definitions
• Scale-Tone Chord Construction
• Chord Construction by Formula
• Major Scale-Tone Chord Progression
• Parent Scale, Chord Scale and Key Scale
• Modulation and Voice Leading
• Recognizing Chord Progressions

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
Chord
Two scale tones played simultaneously constitute an interval. Three or more scale tones played simultaneously consti-
tute a chord. An interval (two different notes played simultaneously) can be considered a chord, but the more common
definition of a chord specifies a minimum of three different notes played simultaneously.

Chord Root
A chord root is the note after which a chord is named. “A” is the root of an A7 chord. “D” is the root
of a Dm7 chord. “Eb” is the root of an Eb7 chord. The root is the main note of a chord. Enlarged or
circled notes on diagrams indicate chord roots.
C VIII C VIII

A chord root is the lowest bass note you can imagine in a chord. In the chord below, the lowest pitch
that sounds is not the root of the chord. The bass note (on the fourth string) is “E”, but the root is “C”.
GC

The version of the “C” chord below includes the root in the bass. The root is a “C” note, after which the
chord is named.
GC

E
C

Tonic Chord
The tonic chord (or “main chord”) is the chord you would expect the piece of music to end on. It is the
chord which sounds most resolved in a piece of music. A tonic chord is used to give the most final
sound at the end of a piece.

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I said “you would expect” the piece of music to end on the tonic chord, because although the listener
expects a song to end on the tonic chord, it doesn’t have to. A song can end with a deceptive cadence
(deceptive chord sequence) where the final chord is not the tonic chord. This type of ending is intended
to “trick” the listener. Although a deceptive cadence does not produce as strong a feeling of resolution, it
still can be stimulating. Likewise, songs often begin on the tonic chord, but they don’t have to.
Many recorded pieces of music have a “fade-out” ending, where no distinct ending chord is played. I
generally don’t like fade-out endings. I much prefer hearing the ending the band or artist would play in
a live performance.

compositional techniques of establishing the tonic chord:

• Use long duration or frequent occurrence of the main chord.

• Use the root of the main chord as the continual bass note for a series of chords.
• Progressions are typically built with groups of two or four bars. A tonic chord would typi-
cally be the first chord after a two or four bar unit.
• Use a main chord which has a strong consonance. Example “a” below is the strongest conso-
nance and example “c” has the weakest consonance.
a. The main chord usually has a strong tonality (is easy to establish as the main chord) in
major, Dorian, Mixolydian or Aeolian mode (when major, Dorian, Mixolydian or Aeo-
lian scales are used).
b. The main chord has a passive tonality (somewhat difficult to establish as a main chord)
in Phrygian or Lydian mode (when Phrygian or Lydian scales are used).
c. The main chord has a weak tonality (quite difficult to establish as the main chord) in
Locrian mode (when Locrian scale is used).
• Use the root of the main chord in a low range of pitch.

Tone Center
The tone center of a piece of music is the root of the tonic chord (the chord you expect the piece to end
on). If the tonic chord is Cm7, the tone center is “C.” If the tonic chord is Ebm, the tone center is “Eb.”
The roman numeral “III” on the upper right of each diagram indicates that the top fret is the third fret.
Whenever scales are shown on diagrams in this book, the tone centers are indicated by enlarged, circled,
or “squared” notes:

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Key
A song is said to be in a key named after the tone center. If the tone center is “A”, the song is said to be
in the key of “A”. The key may be further qualified by the scale or mode type, such as “A” major, “A” minor
or “A” Mixolydian.
The term “minor” is often used loosely in key names where the song may be in any mode which has a
minor chord built on the tone center (e.g., Aeolian or harmonic minor). Likewise, the term major is
sometimes used in reference to any mode which has a major chord built on the tone center (e.g., Mix-
olydian or Phrygian major).

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SCALE-TONE CHORD CONSTRUCTION

In the scale-tone method of chord construction, each tone of a scale can be the root of another chord. The
typical construction is with every-other tone of the scale. Scale-tone chords are most often conceived
on the major scale, but other seven tone scales can be used as well.
Chords are commonly constructed with an every-other-note pattern on the major scale called thirds. In
numbers, this is 1-3-5-7-2-4-6-1-3-5, etc. In letters it is F-A-C-E-G-B-D-F-A-C, etc. (notice that it
includes the F-A-C-E- and Every Good Boy Does Fine sequences typically used to memorize the every-
other-note patterns of lines and spaces on the staff ).

Memorizing Major Scale Note Names

Since chords are constructed from major scales (or from altered major scales), you need to know the
names of the notes in all major scales. Key signatures can help you memorize these note names. In
written form, a key signature is written immediately after the clef in a piece of music to indicate which
notes (if any) are sharped or flatted (not both) in the major scale on which the piece is based.

Major Scale-Tone Triads

Three note chords are called triads. They can be built on each tone of a major scale, using the every-
other note pattern of thirds. Roman numerals are assigned to each scale tone. Due to the varying step-
to-step intervals in the major scale, the chords differ. The qualities are as follows:

scale tone quality scale tones written name

I major 1, 3, 5 I
II minor 2, 4, 6 IIm
III minor 3, 5, 7 IIIm
IV major 4, 6, 1 IV
V major 5, 7, 2 V
VI minor 6, 1, 3 VIm
VII diminished 7, 2, 4 VII dim.

Major Scale-Tone Seventh Chords

Four note chords should be called quadrads. Chords built in thirds can be called “tertian”, to indicate
their structure of notes three scale tones apart (inclusive, in that “A” to “C” is three letters). Quadrads
constructed with an every-other scale tone are commonly called “seventh chords”. They could more
descriptively be called tertian quadrads.

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Confusingly, “seventh chord” can refer to chord types or can be an abbreviation for a dominant seventh
chord. The group of chord types including major seventh, dominant seventh, minor seventh and any
chord with “seventh” in its name is called “seventh chords”. A dominant seventh chord commonly has
the abbreviated name “seventh chord”. C7 (C seventh) is a C dominant seventh chord. Seventh chords
with the root “C” include C major seventh, C dominant seventh, and C minor seventh.
Like triads, seventh chords can be built on each tone of a major scale, using the every-other note pattern
of thirds. Roman numerals are assigned to each scale tone. Due to the varying step-to-step intervals in
the major scale, the chords differ. The qualities are as follows:

scale tone quality scale tones written name

I major seventh 1-3-5 Ima7
II minor seventh 2-4-6 IIm7
III minor seventh 3-5-7 IIIm7
IV major seventh 4-6-1 IVma7
V dominant seventh 5-7-2 V7
VI minor seventh 6-1-3 VIm7
VII minor seventh flat five 7-2-4 VIIm75

Memorizing Global Spellings for Seventh Chords

Every major scale uses the same seven letters (A, B, C, D, E, F, G). Every major scale uses the same cycle
of letters in thirds in the primary method of chord construction (below) Therefore, it is very useful to
memorize parts of the cycle of thirds. Starting on different letters.

Any seventh chord (tertian quadrad) with the letter “C” in its name (Cma7, C7, Cm7b5) uses the
same four letters. All of the chords below with “C” in their letter name have the letters C, E, G and B.

chord spelling
Cma7 C-E-G-B
C7 C-E-G-B
Cm7b5 C-E-G-B

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Because of this, it is very important to memorize the spelling of all seven of the tertian quadads (seventh
chords) constructed from the C major scale. For each root (C, D, E, F, G, A or B), any seventh chord
with that root in its letter name would use the seven letters. The seven tertian quadrads from the C
major scale are shown below.

chord spelling
Cma7 C-E-G-B
Dm7 D-F-A-C
Em7 E-G-B-D
Fma7 F-A-C-E
G7 G-B-D-F
Am7 A-C-E-G
Bm7b5 B-D-F-A

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CHORD CONSTRUCTION BY FORMULA

Chords can be constructed by specifying the numbered tones of a major scale they use. In this formula
method of chord construction, chords are conceived with their root on the tone center (step “1”) of a
major scale named after the chord root. The root of a chord is the letter at the beginning of its name
and any sharp or flat that may be immediately after the letter in its name. Bb (“B” flat) is the root of a
Bbma13#11 chord and Bb is the root of a Bb major chord.

A major chord is constructed with the first, third and fifth tones of a major scale named after the chord
root, so it uses the numbered tones “1-3-5”. The formula for a major chord is “1-3-5”. A Bb major chord
uses tones 1, 3, 5 of a Bb major scale. To know the specific names of the notes in a chord, you need to
know the names of the notes in a major scale on its chord root. Some chord tones may be an altered
version of a major scale tone, such as a “flat three”. A minor chord uses major scale tones “1-b3-5” of a
major scale on the chord root.

MAJOR SCALE-TONE CHORD PROGRESSION

Chord Root Movement
The root is the note after which a chord is named. In popular music, the roots are usually the lowest note
in the chord. When the root is in the bass the chord is said to be in root position. The roots of triads
move in three categories: stepwise, thirds and fourths. In each of these categories, the interval is counted
in a inclusive manner, so C to E would be up a third and C to A would be down a third. The root of the
C chord in a C major scale could move stepwise to D or B, in thirds to E or A and in fourths to F or G.

Types of Root Movement

Stepwise order has the chord roots moving up or down in alphabetical order. Root movement in thirds is
an every-other-note pattern (F-A-C-E-G-B-D-F-A, etc.) and is three notes from each note to the next,
inclusive. Fourths is every fourth note, inclusive. When roots move up or down in fourths, two letters
are skipped from each note to the next (B-E-A-D-G-C-F-B-E-A, etc.)
In each type of root movement (stepwise, thirds and fourths), look for:
• chords of the same quality with their roots a whole step apart (IV major and V major; II minor and
III minor),
• ambiguous chord progressions which could occur in different parts of a major scale, but are
relatively the same progression:
I major to II minor and V major to VI minor

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I major to VI minor, IV major to II minor and V major to III minor

VI minor to IV major and III minor to I major
• progressions involving chords of different quality which are unique within the major scale (III minor to IV
major).

Listen for the nature of each type of major scale-tone triad root movement. In stepwise progressions,
every note changes from chord to chord, producing a “processional” effect. Example: I, IIm, IIIm, IV, V,
VIm VIIdim (notice the pair of minor and the pair of major triads).
In triad progressions up or down in thirds, two notes stay the same and one note changes from chord
to chord, producing a transforming effect and the weakest of the three types of major scale-tone triad
progression. Example: IIm, IV, VIm, I, IIIm.
In progressions up or down in fourths, one note stays the same and two notes change from chord to
chord, producing a “pivot” effect, characteristic of hymns, jazz standards (though they use 7th chords)
and Motown. Example: VIIdim, IIIm, VIm, IIm, V, I, IV (notice the grouping of three minor chords
and three major triads).

PARENT SCALE, CHORD SCALE AND KEY SCALE

Parent Scales Defined
Chord progressions are mainly constructed from the notes of seven tone scales. Primary seven tone
scales are major, harmonic minor, melodic minor and harmonic major. Other seven tone scales can be
generated by using any of these with a tone center other than the first step of the scale. These other scales
are called modes. To play an example of a mode, you would play a scale up and down an octave, beginning
and ending on the desired tone center. For example, if you wanted to create a mode on the second step of
the C major scale, you would play from “D” up to “D”, then back down. This would be called D Dorian
mode. There are mode names for each of the seven tones of the major scale, as shown below.

modes of the c major parent scale

major scale tone mode name typical example, using C major scale
1 major (Ionian) C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C
2 Dorian D-E-F-G-A-B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C-D
3 Phrygian E-F-G-A-B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C-D-E
4 Lydian F-G-A-B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C-D-E-F
5 Mixolydian G-A-B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C-D-E-F-G
6 Aeolian A-B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C-D-E-F-G-A
7 Locrian B-C-B-A-G-F-E-D-C-D-E-F-G-A-B
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Relative Major And Minor Keys

In the relative major and minor system of key signatures, still predominant today, pieces of music are
categorized as to their basic quality being major or minor. Sharps or flats are written where necessary
at the beginning of a piece of music to indicate the major scale on which it is based. A Aeolian (also
called A natural minor) has the same notes as C major. C major is the relative major of A Aeolian and
A Aeolian is the relative minor of C major.
If the piece of music sounds resolved on a minor chord, the key signature indicates a key in Aeolian
mode, named after the letter name of the root of the chord (including any necessary sharp or flat in the
name), on the sixth step of the major scale indicated by the key signature. If the piece is based on a minor
chord but is not in Aeolian mode, accidentals (sharps or naturals) are writing before particular notes in
the body of the music notation to alter the Aeolian mode that was indicated by the key signature.

Modes of Harmonic Minor

There are mode names for each of the modes of harmonic minor, as shown below. Harmonic minor is
a variant of Aeolian mode, where the seventh note of Aeolian is raised a half step. This is equivalent to
raising the fifth tone of the parent major scale. As you can see below, A Aeolian has had its seventh tone
“G” raised (compare to the chart above). C major sharp five below is the altered version of A Aeolian’s
parent major scale, C major.

Modes Of The A Harmonic Minor Parent Scale:

harmonic minor tone mode name typical example, using A harmonic minor
1 harmonic minor A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A
2 Locrian natural six B-C-D-E-F-G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A-B
3 major sharp five C-D-E-F-G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A-B-C
4 Dorian sharp four D-E-F-G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A-B-C-D
5 Phrygian major E-F-G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A-B-C-D-E
6 Lydian sharp two F-G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A-B-C-D-E-F
7 “Mixolydian sharp one” G-A-G-F-E-D-C-B-A-B-C-D-E-F-G

Key Scales Defined

The key scale is named after the tone center (defined earlier). You would expect the section (or song)
to end on the note after which the key is named. It is generally best to predominate a melody with key
scales that retain a melodic thread which moves toward its eventual goal of the tonic chord.

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Chord Scales Defined

For the purpose of considering a chord as a temporary key (to improvise on it, for example), the root of
the chord can be considered a temporary tone center. You should determine in context which type of
scale would be used on the chord. The chord scale for adjacent chords in a progression would typically
share the same parent scale. For example, Dm could use D Dorian mode, G major could use G Mix-
olydian, where the parent major scale is C major (since the notes of D Dorian, G Mixolydian and C
major are all the same). If too much focus is put on chord scales rather than key scales, the music can
sound fragmented and disjointed.

MODULATION AND VOICE LEADING

Modulation Through Pivotal Relationships
Memorize all major scale-tone triads, seventh chords and modes. Be able to recall them in stepwise
order, in thirds and in fourths; ascending and descending order. Begin to conceive major scale-tone
chord progressions in many keys. Abstractly combine the chords from one major scale with those from
another through (1) a chord common to both of them, or (2) use of an altered chord and a second major
scale set of chords that includes the altered chord.
Compose ten triad chord progressions of four chords or more each. For the first five or so progrogres-
sions, use triads exclusively from one major scale (Book 3, Chapter 25, pages 285-287). Any triad of
the major scale may be the main chord (mode). Mix the root movement between stepwise, thirds and
fourths (you don’t have to use all three types in each progression).
For the next couple of progressions, use a pivotal chord common to two major scales. For the last couple
of progressions, use of an altered chord and a second major scale set of chords that includes the altered
chord.

Voice Leading
In studying the arrangement of chord tones of one chord moving to those of another, each note in a
chord is called a voice and has a logical destination in the next chord. As a voice progresses through
a number of chords, it creates a voice path. The study of the path created by each voice is called voice
leading. The study of the matrix of paths created by a number of voices is called voice mapping. Voice
leading is explained in further detail in the chapter on voice leading.

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RECOGNIZING CHORD PROGRESSIONS

The two most effective clues to use in recognizing which major scale a progression was constructed on
are:

• Two chords of the same quality on adjacent scale steps, where you should suspect they are derived from steps
two and three of a major scale if they are both minor or steps four and five of a major scale if they are both major.
The chords don’t need to have occurred in alphabetical order in the progression, you can re-order them.
• Two or more chords whose roots can be ordered in perfect fourths.

Unaltered Major Scale-Tone Chord Progression Exercise

Listen to each song (if you have the recording). Play the progression on Songs By Letter Name.
Determine the major scale from which the chords came and the tonic chord (chord you would expect
the song or section to end on). The chords won’t necessarily occur in the same order in the song as they
do on the Major Scale-Tone Chords reference chart. Look for:

(1) two chords of the same quality that could be put in alphabetical order.
(2) two or more chords that could be put in an order of fourths. Identify the major scale in which the
chord qualities would match those in the song (major, minor).

title parent scale (of ) tonic chord key scale (in)

Afro Blue, section A Eb major Fm F Dorian
Afro Blue, section B Ab major Fm F Aeolian
Ain’t No Sunshine C major Am A Aeolian
All Along the Watchtower Eb major Cm C Aeolian
Black verse A major E7 E Mixolydian
Blue Moon C major C C major
Come To My Window C major C C major
Flake verse F major or Bb major Dm or F D Aeolian or F major
(more likely than modes of Bb major)
Heart of Gold intro G major Em E Aeolian
Heart of Gold verse G major G G major
Hound Dog C major C C major
How’s It Gonna Be F major F F major
Imagine verse and bridge C major C C major
I’m Lookin’ Through You G major G G major
Island In the Sun G major G G major
Knockin’ On Heavens A major A A major
Kodachrome verse E major E E major
Like A Rolling Stone C major C C major
Minority (exclude the B chord) C major C C major

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Polly verse G major Em E Aeolian

Runaway chorus A major A A major
Say It Ain’t So verse E major E E major
Save Tonight C major Am A Aeolian
Soul To Squeeze (after intro) F major F F major
Sympathy For Devil verse A major E E Mixolydian
Time Of Your Life G major G G major
Under the Boardwalk verse G major G G major
Under the Boardwalk chorus G major Em E Aeolian
What’s It like C major or F major Dm D Dorian or D Aeolian
Yellow Ledbetter E major E E Major

Altered Major Scale-Tone Chord Progression Exercise

chords changed to set up a cadence
In each case, a chord on the fifth step of a major scale based on the target chord is changed from minor
to major.
IIIm chords of the parent major scale changed to III major (V of VIm: V of chord scale to VIm of parent scale)
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) V of target chord target chord
Put Your Lights On C major A Aeolian E Am
Runaway verse C major A Aeolian E Am
Flake chorus F major D Aeolian A Dm

IIm chords of the parent major scale changed to II major (V of V: V of chord scale to V of parent)
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) V of target chord target chord
Are You Lonesome Tonight C major C major D G (target chord)
Help! intro. D major D major E A (target chord)
in “Help!” intro., the progression suggests that it would end on a D major chord, but D major is never played.
VIm chords of the parent major scale changed to VI major (V of IIm: V of chord scale to IIm of key and parent scale)
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
Me and My Uncle D major E Aeolian B=V of IIm (Bm to B major)
Kodachrome chorus A major A major C#=V of VI (C#m to C# major),
F#=V of IIm (F#m to F# major)

I chords of the parent major scale changed to I7 (V of IV: V of chord scale to IV of parent)
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) V of target chord target chord
Are You Lonesome Tonight C major C major C7 F (target chord)

chord qualities changed to alter the mood

darkening the mood by changing major chords to minor
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
Sleepwalk C major C major F changed to Fm
brightening the mood by changing m7 or major seventh chords to dominant seventh
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
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Black chorus G major E Aeolian (alt.) Em7 changed to E7

brightening the mood by changing minor chords to major
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
Ends verse Bb major (alt.) G Aeolian (alt.) Gm changed to G
Imagine chorus C major (alt.) C major (alt.) Em changed to E (becomes lower chromatic
of F)
Fly Away G major (alt.) Bb Aeolian (alt.) Bbm changed to Bb, Ebm changed to Eb
In Bloom verse Db major (alt.) Bb Aeolian (alt.) Bbm changed to Bb, Ebm changed to Eb
B and A are upper & lower chromatics to Bb
Polly bridge F major D Aeolian (alt.) Dm changed to D, Gm changed to G

darkening the mood by changing major seventh chords to dominant seventh

title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
Torn Eb major F Dorian Bbma7 changed to Bb7 (as in a Blues in F)

mode (scale) changed to alter the mood

title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) changed chord(S) and description
Say It Ain’t So bridge B B E E major B Mixolydian G changes to B Aeolian

pivotal chords (in two or more major scales in their unaltered form)
title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
Help! verse A major/D major A major/A Mixo. D is of A and D major, G = bVII of A Mixo, V of D
You’ve Got To Hide verse G major/C major G major/G Mixo. C and G are of C and G major, F = IV of C, bVII in G Mixo.

extractions from longer progressions

title parent scale (of ) key scale (in) altered chords
Debasser F major F major Gm changed to G major (suggests G would progress
to C, although it doesn’t).
Extracted from F Bb G C, without the C.

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