Northern Technical University (NTU)

Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)

Topic 1 : Surveying Engineering Department

2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 1 :
Introduction of Photogrammetry

lecturer: SumayaFalihHasan
[email protected]

1
 outline
Definition
Introduction of Photogrammetry
History of Photogrammetry
Types of photographs
Why Photogrammetry
Applications of Photogrammetry
 Definition

Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the art, science, and technology of obtaining
reliable information about physical objects and the environment
through processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting
photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic
energy and other phenomena.

• Photogrammetry
• photo=picture
• grammetry=measurement
• Photogrammetry=photo-measurement
 Introduction of Photogrammetry

Measurements of photogrammetry:
Distance, area, elevations

Products of photogrammetry:
Digital elevation models
Orthophotos
Thematic GIS maps
 History of Photogrammetry

History Photogrammetry
History of Photogrammetry
History of Photogrammetry
 Types of photographs

Two basic classification of photography

1-Terrestrial photogrammetry
is an important type of the science of photogrammetry. It deals with
photographs taken with cameras located on the surface of the earth.
The cameras may be handheld, mounted on tripods, or suspended
from towers or other specially designed mounts.
Terrestrial photogrammetry
 Terrestrial photogrammetry

Terrestrial photogrammetry can be further classified :

close-range photogrammetry if camera-object distance is somewhere
between 1:10m to 100m
macrophotogrammetry if the camera-object distance is in the 0.10 to
0.01 m range
microphotogrammetry when the photos are exposed through a
microscope
 Terrestrial photogrammetry
Two basic camera types are employed in terrestrial
photogrammetry these are:

Matric cameras
photogrammetric Are designed and calibrated specifically for
measurement.

Non-Matric cameras
Are represent by a variety of fairly high quality hand-held
cameras used by amateur and professional photographers to
take good pictorial quality.
 Aerial photography(AP)
:2-Aerial photography
is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated
position.

A-Vertical photograph: AP taken with the optical axis of the

camera perpendicular to the horizontal plane. Ground features
appear in the photo in much the same way as the map of similar
.scale
 Types of Aerial photography
B-Oblique photograph: AP taken
with the camera axis tilted
intentionally between the
horizontal and vertical plane.

Two types:•
a)Low oblique: The horizon does
not show in the picture and the
optical axis is generally less than
from the vertical. 30°
 Types of Aerial photography
b)High oblique: Horizon is seen in the AP and optical axis has an
angle of 60° with the vertical.
Types of Aerial photography
1-Vertical
2-Low oblique
3-High oblique
 Why use the Photogrammetry

1-extracting geometrical information and producing maps.

2-cheaper than terrestrial methods.

3-extracting qualitative information.

4-high speed of map generation.

 Applications of Photogrammetry
1- To prepare planimetric topographical maps (Surveying/mapping).

2- To determine the space position of ground objects.

3- For acquisition of military intelligence

4- To classify soil (Forestry/agriculture).

5- For the interpretation of geology (Geology/archaeology).

6- Assessment of crop damage due to floods or other natural calamities.

7- To prepare a composite picture of ground.

8- To relocate existing property boundaries.

9- In the field of medicine.

 Northern Technical University (NTU)
Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)
Surveying Eng. Dept.
2nd Stage
Photogrammetry

Topic 2 :
Geometry of Aerial Photographs &
Types of Aerial Photogrammetry

lecturer: Sumaya Falih Hasan

[email protected]
 Components of a single frame film camera.

Three main parts:

1. Magazine
2. Body
3. Lens cone assembly
 Aerial Cameras

 Aerial cameras must be:

 Geometrically stable
 Have fast and efficient shutters
 Have high geometric and optical quality lenses

Many factors determine the quality of aerial photography, such as

1. Design and quality of lens system.
2. Manufacturing the camera.
3. Photographic material.
4. Development process.
5. Weather conditions and sun angle during photo flight.
 Types of Aerial camera
1. Single lens camera (Aerial mapping camera):

Aerial mapping cameras (also called as metric or cartographic

cameras) are single lens frame cameras designed to provide high
geometric image quality.

4
 Types of Aerial camera
2- Multi lens (Bands) camera:

5
 Types of Aerial camera
3- Strep camera:

6
 Types of Aerial camera
4- Panoramic camera:
Camera with a rotating prism design contain a fixed lens and a flat
film plane. Scanning is accomplished by rotating the prism in front of
the lens.

7
 Types of Aerial camera
5- Digital camera:

8
Aerial Camera in action
11
 Geometry of vertical aerial photograph

 Tilt ≤ 3° from the vertical optical axis

 Scale is approximately constant throughout
the photo
 Within limitations, a vertical aerial photo can
Be Used as a map substitute
 Most common format is a 9*9 inch
photograph
 Geometry of a vertical photographs

• The line LoO, the optical

axis is assumed truly
vertical
• The photocoordinate
origin,o, is considered to
be intersection of the tow Direction of
flight
lines joining the fiducial
marks
• Geometric center of the
photograph called principal
point
• Points to the east side of y-axis have positive x
coordinates and points to the west side have
negative x coordinates.

• Points north of the x-axis have positive y

coordinates and points south of the x-axis have
negative y coordinates.

• The negative photo: which is a reversal in

both tone and geometry of the object space, is
situated a distance equal focal length.

• The positive photo: may be obtained by direct

emulsion-to-emulsionʺ contact printing” with the
negative.

14
 stereoscope

 A stereoscope is a device for viewing a stereoscopic pair of

separate images, depicting left-eye and right-eye views of the
same scene, as a single three-dimensional image.
 Types of stereoscope:
1. pocket stereoscope
2. Mirror stereoscope
3. Scanning stereoscope
4. Interpreter scope

15
 Stereoscopic View

 Our left and right eyes are recording information from two
slightly differing viewpoints; the brain uses the effect of
parallax to give us the perception of depth

16
 Northern Technical University (NTU)
Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)
Surveying Engineering Department

2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 3 :
Scale of Photograph

lecturer: Sumaya Falih Hasan

[email protected]
 Scale of a Vertical Photograph

Scale of a photograph is the ratio of a distance on a photo to the same distance on the
ground.
There are two methods which can be determine photo scale of an airphoto:
1. Arithmetic proportion
It is possible to determine photo scale by comparing an object or distance between two
points on the airphoto (photo distance ) with the same object or points on a topographic
map (true ground distance).
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑷𝒔 =
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵

NOTE: both the photo distance and the ground distance must be in the same units

2
 Scale of a Vertical Photograph

2. camera-altitude relationship:
It is possible to determine the photo scale by knowing the camera focal length and
aircraft height.
The relationship between camera focal length and aircraft height above ground is given
by :
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑷𝒔 =
𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑒𝑖ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐻

NOTE: both the camera focal length and aircraft Height must be in the same units

3
Scale of a vertical photograph over flat terrain

4
 Scale of a vertical photograph over flat terrain

• On a map, all point are supposed to be at the same scale. However, due to the
perspective projection of a photograph, the variation in elevation –thus the flying
height above ground features, and the effects of relief and tilt, the scale of an aerial
photograph may vary considerably from one point to another. A photograph may
only present a uniform scale comparable to that of a map if the camera is perfectly
vertical at the time of exposure and the terrain is perfectly flat. Since these
condition are seldom fulfill, the photographic scale is usually considered for
individual points or the average of a set of points. The first is referred to as point
scale and the second is referred to as average scale.

5
 Scale of a vertical photograph over variable terrain

• Point scale is the scale at a point with a specific elevation on the ground. This
suggests every point on a vertical photograph at a different elevation will have a
different scale. Therefore, a photograph taken over a rugged terrain will display a
varying range of scales associated with variations in elevation of the ground.

𝒇
Scale of a photograph 𝑷𝒔 =
𝑯−𝒉

Where f is the focal length of the camera used to take the photograph, the distance
between the lens and the focal plane
H is the flying height of the aircraft above mean sea level
h is the elevation of point above MSL
Scale of a vertical photograph over variable terrain

8
 𝑓
• Scale of a photograph 𝑆𝑝 =
𝐻−ℎ
𝑓
• Average scale of a photograph 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝐻−ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑓
• Minimum scale of a photograph 𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐻−ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓
• Maximum scale of a photograph 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐻−ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥

9
 Other methods of determining scale

There are other methods of scale determination which do not require knowledge of
focal length, terrain elevation and flying height values. One of these method is measuring
the ground distance between two points whose images appear on the photograph. After
the corresponding photo distance is measured, the scale relationship is simply the ratio
of the photo distance to the ground distance

𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Note :the resulting scale is exact only at the elevation of ground line, and if the line is
along slop ground, the resulting scale applies at approximately the average elevation
the two and end points of the line.

10
 Other methods of determining scale

• The scale of vertical photograph may also be determined if a map converging

the same area as the photo is available. In this method it is necessary to
measure, on the photograph and on the map, the distance between two well
defined points which can be identified on both photo and map. Photographic
scale can then be calculated from the following equation:

𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 = ∗ 𝐦𝐚𝐩 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞
𝒎𝒂𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

11
Example/A vertical aerial photograph is taken over
flat terrain with a 152.4mm –focal length camera
from an altitude of 1830m above ground what is
the photo scale?

12
H.W

Q1/The horizontal distance AB between the centers of 2 street intersections

was measured on the ground as 300m corresponding line ab appears on a
vertical photograph and measures 95.8mm what is the photo scale at the
ground elevation of this line?
Q2/A vertical photograph was taken at an altitude of 1500m above MSL
determine the scale of the photograph for terrain lying at elevation of 750 m
if the focal length of camera is 15cm?

13
 Northern Technical University (NTU)
Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)
Surveying Engineering Department

2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 4 :
Coordinates

lecturer: Sumaya Falih Hasan

[email protected]
 Measurements on a Vertical Photograph

• Coordinate systems are using two or more numbers

(coordinates) to determine the position of a point or other
geometry in the space
• For cameras with side fiducial marks, the commonly adopted
reference system for photographic coordinates is the
rectangular axis system formed by joining opposite fiducial
marks with straight lines,
• The origin(center of collimation( of the coordinate system is the
intersection of fiducial lines.
• The x axis is usually designed as the fiducial lines most nearly
parallel with the direction of flight, positive in the direction of
flight.

• 𝐚𝐛 = 𝒙𝒂 − 𝒙𝒃 ² + 𝒚𝒂 − 𝒚𝒃 ²

2
 Determining horizontal ground distance, directions, and angles from
photocoordinates on an aerial photograph taken over varied terrain

• When a photograph is taken vertically over flat terrain, it will accurately

represent the geometry of the imaged terrain and the scale will be constant
throughout the entire photograph. In this case, the photograph may be used as
a map and distances measured on the photograph may be corrected to ground
distances by simply multiplying the measured values by the photo scale
reciprocal. Similarly, angles may be directly measured on the photograph as
accurately as they would be on a map.
• To determine distance and angles of points that are at different elevations on
the ground, we must first convert the photo coordinates of points on the
photograph to a datum-level ground coordinate system. From similar triangles
L𝑂𝐴 A´ and Loa´ in figure below, we obtain:

3
 𝒙𝒂 𝒇 𝑯𝑫−𝒉𝑨
= therefore 𝑿𝑨 = 𝒙𝒂
𝑿𝑨 𝑯𝑫−𝒉𝑨 𝒇

And from similar triangles LA´A and La´a in

figure below, we obtain:

𝒚𝒂 𝒇 𝑯𝑫−𝒉
= therefore 𝒀𝑨 = 𝒚𝒂
𝒀𝑨 𝑯𝑫−𝒉𝑨 𝒇

4
Where:
𝑯𝑫 is the flying altitude of the aircraft above the datum,
𝒉𝑨 is the ground elevation of point A above the datum,
𝒙𝒂 is the photocoordinate of point A measured on the photograph
along the x-axis,
𝒚𝒂 is the photocoordinate of point A measured on the photograph
along the y-axis,
𝑿𝑨 is the ground coordinate of point A along x-axis, and
𝒀𝑨 is the ground coordinate of point A along y-axis, and.
In the above equations, the ground coordinate of any point on the
photograph are obtained by simply multiplying the photocoordinates
of that point(measured on the photograph) by the photo scale inverse
𝑯𝑫−𝒉𝑨
(i.e., ).
𝒇
therefore groundcoordinates for point B can be expressed as:

5
 𝑯𝑫−𝒉𝑩 𝑯𝑫−𝒉
• 𝑿𝑩 = 𝒙𝒃 𝒀𝑩 = 𝒚𝒃
𝒇 𝒇

• Similarly, the ground coordinates for any point on the

photograph can be determined as:
𝑯𝑫−𝒉 𝑯𝑫−𝒉
X= 𝒙 Y= 𝒚
𝒇 𝒇
𝒚𝒂
<AOB = Ɵ=𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝒚𝒃

• Once the ground coordinates of points A and B determined,

the horizontal distance between A and B may be
mathematically computed using Pythagorean theorem.

• AB= 𝑿𝑨 − 𝑿𝑩 ² + 𝒀𝑨 − 𝒀𝑩 ²
• 𝐚𝐛 = 𝒙𝒂 − 𝒙𝒃 ² + 𝒚𝒂 − 𝒚𝒃 ²
−𝟏 Δ𝒙
• ᵝ=𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( )
Δ𝒚

6
direction of the ground

• The ground coordinates can also be used to determine the direction of the
ground line passing through points A and B. if α is the angular direction of
line AB measured clockwise from the +Y-axis, it can be computed
trigonometrically from the ground coordinates as:
−𝟏 𝑿𝑨 − 𝑿𝑩
• Direction B to A =α=𝐭𝐚𝐧 [ ]
𝒀𝑨 −𝒀𝑩
• Direction A to B =180-α

7
EX: In the above figure, assume that the aircraft was
flying at an altitude of 1500 m above datum taking
vertical photographs with a 305mm focal length
camera. Tow image points a and b (of A and B on the
ground)were depicted on a photograph and their
photocoordinates were measured to be xa=65.3mm,
ya=71.5mm, xb=-29.5mm, yb=-52.3mm. If point A is
163m and point B is 198m above datum, what is
horizontal distance on the ground between A and B?
8
 Difference between a map and an aerial photograph

Aerial Photograph Map

It is a central Projection. It is an orthogonal Projection.

An aerial photograph is geometrically A map is a geometrically correct
incorrect. The distortion in the representation of the part of the
geometry is minimum at the center earth projected.
and increases towards the edges of
the photographs.
The scale of the photograph is not The scale of the map is uniform
uniform. through out the map extent.
Enlargement/reduction does not Enlargement/reduction of the maps
change the contents of the involves redrawing it afresh.
photographs and can easily be carried
out.
Aerial photography holds good for The mapping of inaccessible and
inaccessible and inhospitable areas. inhospitable areas is very difficult and
sometimes it becomes impossible. 9
10
Ex:1
on a vertical photograph the length of an airport run way
measures 160mm.on a map that is plotted at scale of
1:24000 the run way is measured as 103mm, what is the
scale of photograph at run way elevation?
Ex:2
a line AB ,2000m long laying at an elevation of 500m
measures 8.65cm on a vertical photograph for which focal
length 20cm determine the scale of photograph in an area
the average elevation of which is above 800m?

11
Ex:3
Two Points A and B having elevations of (500 m) and
(300 m) respectively above datum appear on the
vertical photograph having focal length of (20 cm) and
flying altitude of (2700 m) above datum. Their
corrected photographic coordinates are:
(xa = +2.74 cm, ya = +1.41 cm), (xb = -1.94 cm, yb =
+3.68 cm).
Determine the length of the ground line AB?

12
H.W1
A (152.4 mm) focal length was used to take photographs from 4000 m
above MSL over an area that has an average elevation of 560 m above MSL.
find the average scale of the area. Compare this scale to that of plane that is
300 m the average elevation and that of a ride that is 190 m above the
average elevation.

H.W2
Two points a and b on photograph of two ground points A and B were
identified on a vertical photograph taken with a 152.4mm focal length
camera. The photo coordinates of points a and b are xa = 4.55 cm, ya = -5.62
cm, xb = 8.25 cm, and yb = -7.75 cm. The horizontal distance between A and
B is 1000 m. Find the flying height of the aircraft above datum?

13
 Northern Technical University (NTU)
Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)
Surveying Engineering Department

2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 5
vertical exaggeration

lecturer: Sumaya Falih Hasan

[email protected]
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

with three dimensional viewing of airphotos is vertical exaggeration. Objects in the

image appear to be taller than in reality and slopes appear to be steeper. Apparent
scale disparity between horizontal and vertical scales.Vertical exaggeration appear
because of the difference in geometry when taking the airphotos and when
viewing the airphotos

FIGURE 1Simplistic diagrams for analyzing vertical

exaggeration. (a) Geometry of overlapping aerial
photography. (b) Geometry of stereoscopic viewing
of the photos of part (a).

2
 Vertical Exaggeration - Causes

Stereoscopic Causes Photographic Causes

• Viewing distance Photographic scale
• Separation of photographs Altitude above terrain
• Eye bas Air base
• Magnification Terrain relief

3
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

An equation for calculating vertical Also from similar triangles of Fig.b

exaggeration can be developed with
reference to these figures. From similar
triangles of Fig.a, (d)

(e)
( a)
Subtracting (e) from (d) and reducing gives

( b)
(f )
Subtracting (b) from (a) and reducing
gives
Equating (c) and (f ) gives

(c)

4
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

In the Equating (c) and (f ), the values of Z and z Substituting (j) into (g) and reducing gives
are normally considerably smaller than the values
of H′ and h, respectively; thus (k)

(g) In Eq. (k), if the term Bh/(H′be) is equal to 1, there

is no vertical exaggeration of the stereomodel.
(Recall that Z is equal to D.) Thus an expression for
Also from similar triangles of Figs.a and b, the magnitude of vertical exaggeration V is given
by
(h)

(i)
(Equation 3-1 )
Dividing (i) by (h) and reducing yields where: B is the air base; H is the height of the aircraft
above the ground; b is the eye base (approximately 6
cm) and h is the distance from the eye at which the
(j) stereo model is perceived (approximately 45 cm)

5
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

An expression for the B/H′ ratio can be

developed with reference to Fig. 2. In this figure, (l)
G represents the total ground coverage of a
In Eq. (l), PE is the percentage of end lap, which
vertical photo taken from an altitude of H′ above
gives the amount that the second photo overlaps
ground. Air base B is the distance between the first. Also by similar triangles of the figure,
exposures. From the figure,
(m)

In Eq. (m), f is the camera focal length and d its

format dimension. Dividing Eq. (l) by Eq. (m) and
reducing gives

(Equation 3-2)

FIGURE 2 Base-height ratio (B/H′).

6
7
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

The stereoviewing base-height ratio varies due to differences in the

distances between the eyes of users and varying dimensions of
stereoscopes. It can, however, be approximated in the following way. Figure
3 show the relationships include in this approximation. With an eye base,
be, averaging about 65 mm in humans, we need only to find the perceived
distance from the eyes to the stereomodel, h to make an approximation. If
the distance between the photos is bs, and the distance of the stereoscope
from the photos is i, then we can use the following equation to estimate h
by similar triangles:

(n)

Equation (n) can be used to form Eq. (3-3) to directly solve for the stereo-
viewing base-height ratio:

(Equation 3-3)
FIGURE 3 Eye base to perceived model
height ratio.

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 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

Example 3-1

Estimate the stereoviewing base-height ratio if the height of the stereoscope above the photos is 10.00
cm, and the photos are placed 5.0 cm apart if be is equal to 6.5 cm.

Solution By Eq. (3-3)

Example 3-2

Using the results of Example 3-1, calculate the approximate vertical exaggeration for vertical aerial
photos taken with a 152.4-mm-focal-length camera having a 23-cm-square format if the photos were
taken with 60 percent end lap.

Solution By Eq. (3-2),

9
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

From Example 3-1, be/h is approximately 0.15,

10
 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing

From Example 3-1, be/h is approximately 0.15,

Note: If a 305-mm-focal-length camera had been used, the B/H′ ratio would have been 0.30, and
vertical exaggeration would have been reduced to 2.

11
H.W
What is the approximate vertical exaggeration for a vertical photo taken with
a 152.4-mm focal length camera having a 23-cm square format if the photos
were taken with 53% endlap, if the base-height ratio=0.15?

12
 Northern Technical University (NTU)
Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)
Surveying Engineering Department

Topic 1 :
2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 6

Classification of aerial photographs

Relief displacement

lecturer: SumayaFalihHasan
[email protected]

1
 outline

Classification of aerial photographs

- Orientation of camera axis
- Angular coverage
- Emulsion type

Relief displacement
 Classification of aerial photographs
.•Orientation of camera axis

A-True vertical photograph: A photograph with the camera axis perfectly

vertical (identical to plumb line through exposure center). Such photographs
hardly exist in reality.

B-Near vertical photograph: A photograph with the camera axis nearly vertical.
The deviation from the vertical is called tilt. It must not exceed mechanical
limitations of stereoplotterto accommodate it. Gyroscopically controlled
mounts provide stability of the camera so that the tilt is usually less than two
to three degrees.

C-Oblique photograph: A photograph with the camera axis tilted between the
vertical and horizontal. A high oblique photograph Thetotal area
photographed with oblique is much larger than that of vertical photographs.
The main application of oblique photographs is in reconnaissance.
 Orientation of camera axis

Figure :Classification of photographs according to camera orientation. In (a)

the schematic diagram of a true vertical photograph is shown; (b) shows a
low oblique and (c) depicts a high oblique photograph.
 Aerial photographs classification by the
camera according to angle of view :
1.The camera angle normal:
The value of the angle (> 75) degrees And the focal length between
170 to 305 mm add the dimensions of Aerial photographs 140 X 140
mm or 180 X 180 mm or 230 X 230 mm.
2. The camera angle wide:
The value of the angle (up to 75) degrees and the focal length
between 100 to102 mm and the dimensions of Aerial photographs
140 X 140 mm or 180X 180 mm or 230 X 230 mm.
3. The camera super angel wide:
The value of the angle between (120 to 135) degrees And the focal
length between 55 to 88.5 mm and the dimensions of Aerial
photographs 180 X 180 mm or 230 X 230 mm.

5
Angular coverage

•The angular coverage is a function of focal length and format size. Since the format
size is almost exclusively 9 ×9ʺthe angular coverage depends on the focal length of
the camera only. Standard focal lengths and associated angular coverages are
summarized in Table

Table: Summary of photographs with different angular

coverage
Emulsion type
The sensitivity range of the emulsion is used to classify photography into
•Panchromatic black and white: This is most widely used type of
emulsion for photogrammetric mapping.

•Color: Color photography is mainly used for interpretation purposes.

Recently, color is increasingly being used for mapping applications.

•Infrared black and white: Since infrared is less affected by haze it

is used in applications where weather conditions may not be as
favorable as for mapping missions.

•False color: This is particular useful for interpretation, mainly for

analyzing vegetation (e.g. crop disease) and water pollution.
Relief displacement

Relief displacement: Is the shift or displacement in the photographic position of

an image caused by the relief of the object, its elevation above or below a
selected datum.
Suppose point T is on top of a building and point B at the bottom. On a map,
both points have identical X, Y coordinates; however, on the photograph they are
imaged at different positions, namely in T and B. The distance d between the
two photo points is called relief displacement because it is caused by the
elevation difference ∆h between T and B.
The magnitude of relief displacement for a true vertical photograph can
be determined by the following equation:

, and Δh the elevation difference of two points on a vertical. Eq. can be

used to determine the elevation Δh of a vertical object.

where:
r = radial distance from principal point to displaced image point
h = height above surface of the object point
H = flying height above the surface

•The direction of relief displacement is radial with respect to the center

of photo, independent of camera tilt.
-Calculate object height
 Relief displacement- Causes

1-aircraft movement
2-camera tilt
3-flight altitude
4-weather conditions
Ex :-

Distance from principal point to an image on a

photograph is (6.44cm) and elevation of the object
above datum is (250m). what is the relief
displacement of the point if the datum scale is
(1/10000) and the focal length of camera is (20cm)?
 Northern Technical University (NTU)
Technical college of Kirkuk (TCK)
Topic 1 : Surveying Engineering Department

2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 7
Aerial Photo Interpretation

lecturer: SumayaFalihHasan
[email protected]
1
What is image (photo) interpretation?

Elements of image interpretation

What is photo interpretation?

“The examination of images for the purpose of identifying objects

and judging their importance.” (Philipson, 1997)

Elements of Image Interpretation have been in use since the first

aerial photo was taken in 1858.

Most of the time, many elements are used by an image analyst

without really thinking about them
 Elements of Image Interpretation

The elements are:

1-Location
2-Size
3-Shape
4-Shadow
5-Tone and color
6-Texture
7-Pattern
8-Height and depth
9-Association
1- Location:

Where is the object (x,y)?

Survey or Global Positioning System (GPS)
Most air photo systems now use GPS to locate the precise
coordinate of the principal point.
“Rectify” image to a base map or GPS coordinates collected on the
ground.
If relief displacement is also corrected for, result is an orthophoto.
2- Size:
The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of
a photograph. The scale will help you determine if an object is a
small pond or a large lake. Major highways can be distinguished
from smaller roads. Long rivers can be distinguished from smaller
tributaries.
3- Shape:
Shape refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are
indicators of human presence and use. Agricultural areas tend to have usually
rectangles and squares. Streams are linear (line) features geometric shapes like
that can have many bends and curves. Roads frequently have fewer curves than
the basis of their shapes. streams. Some objects can be identified almost solely on
1- The Pentagon Building
2- Football fields
3- Cloverleaf highway interchanges
4- Shadow:
Shadow reduction is of concern in remote sensing and
photogrammetry because shadows tend to obscure objects that
might otherwise be detected.
However, the shadow cast by an object may be the only real clue to
its identity.
Shadows can also provide information on the height of an object
either qualitatively or quantitatively.
Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in
aerial photographs.
However, they also obscure objects lying within them.
5- Tone and color:
Tone (also called Color or Hue). Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of
elements on a photograph. Some objects appear darker and more crisp than others.

e.g. sand has a bright tone, while water usually has a

dark tone
6- Texture:
The impression of "smoothness" or "roughness" of image features is
caused by the amount of change of tone in photographs. Grass,
cement, and water generally appear "smooth", while a forest canopy
may appear "rough".
7- Pattern:
(spatial arrangement). The patterns formed by objects in a photo
can be used to identify those objects. For example, consider the
difference between
(1) the random pattern formed by an unmanaged area of trees
and
(2) the evenly spaced rows formed by a tree orchard.
8- Height and depth:
As discussed, shadows can often offer clues to the height of
objects.
In turn, relative heights can be used to interpret objects.
In a similar fashion, relative depths can often be interpreted.
Descriptions include tall, intermediate, and short; deep,
intermediate, and shallow.
9- Association:
Some objects are always found in association with other objects. The
context of an object can provide insight into what it is. For instance, a
nuclear power plant is not likely to be found in the midst of single-
family housing. A vegetated area within an urban setting may be a
park or a cemetery. Wetlands may be located next to rivers, lakes, or
estuaries. Commercial centers will likely be located next to major
roads, railroads, or waterways
Northern Technical University (NTU)
(TCK) Technical college of Kirkuk
DepartmentSurveying Engineering

2nd Stage
Photogrammetry I

Topic 8
Planning Flight

lecturer:
Sumaya falih hasan
[email protected]
 Project Planning

Must first determine the selection of

products to be prepared ……..
1-What products will be prepared
-Scales
-Accuracies
2-Meetings with client important in
understanding client’s needs

After the product selection process,

1-Planning the aerial photography
2-Planning the ground control
3-Selecting instruments and procedures
4-resultsnecessary to achieve the suitable
5-Estimating costs and delivery schedules
2
 Flight Planning
Success of photogrammetric project depends on
acquisition of good quality pictures
Due to weather and ground conditions, time
frame for photography is limited
-flights are expensive and causes long delays on
project
-Mission must be carefully planned and executed
according to flight plan
-Consists of flight map, (where photos should be
taken) and specifications

Specifications – how the photos will be taken

-Camera and film requirements
-Scale
-Flying height
-End laps, side laps
-Tilt

3
Data required include:-
Run Number
Frame number
Altitude
Focal length
Time
Data included on photographic strip

4
 END LAP AND SIDE LAP
Overlap
Forward overlap or End lap — Common
area covered by two successive photos of
the same flight line or strip — Usually 60% ±
5%
Side lap
Lateral overlap or Side lap — Common
area covered by two adjacent flight
lines/strips — About 25-30% ± 10%
(generally 30%)

5
6
 END LAP AND SIDE LAP (Cont.)

Percent end lap: •

Normally taken as 60%

Percent side lap: •

Normally about 30%

8
9
10
Rules in determining flight line direction

Generally follows four cardinal directions —East-West (E-W) or North-

South (N-S)
Should be along the longer dimension of the area
If over mountain ridges or valleys, go along the direction of the features
to maintain an almost constant scale; if a flight line crosses mountains,
scale will be smaller in the valley than in the mountains

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Direction Of Flight Lines

12
 Weather Conditions

1. Ideally cloud free; < 10% cloud cover acceptable .It is useless flying
when there is low cloud cover blocking the ground view.
2. Clouds higher than the flying height might cast large shadows on the
ground
3. The angle of the sun is important. Less than 30° solar latitude results
in shadows of ground features which are too long and obscure
ground detail.
4. Photos for industrial areas susceptible to atmospheric haze, smog,
dust and smoke are best taken after heavy rains
5. Windy days might cause image motion and difficulties in camera and
aircraft orientation

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 Flight Planning

Required Data for Flight Planning Flight Planning Computations

• Project area boundary -Flying height
• Camera focal length — 3.5", 6", or 12" -Distance between exposures or Airbase (B)
• Photoformat size — standard is 9" or 23 cm -Distance between flight lines
• Photoscale -Total number of exposures
•Overlap requirements (in percentage) — -Flying height above mean sea level of each
percentage of endlap or sidelap flight line
• Least number of flight lines To be more -Total time needed for photography
• Least number of exposures economical

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