Printed Lectures in Course MMP501, Fundamentals of Fluid Mech.
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esraa170054Printed Lectures in Course MMP501, Fundamentals of Fluid Mech.
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esraa170054MILITARY TECHNICAL COLLEGE
Mechanical Power and Energy Department
Printed Lectures
For Course MMP 501
Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics
For Post Graduate Students
Elaborated by
Maj. Gen Assoc. Prof. Ahmed Hassan Lotfy
MTC 2024
Classified Issue number : ( 1 )
SF-06-054-66 Update number : ( )
Military Technical College
Branch of Education and Researches
Course Specification: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
A- Basic Information
Branch Mechanical Engineering Department Mech. Pow & Energy
Specialization Mechanical Power & Energy Level Post Graduate
Course Title Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Course Code MMP 501
Required SWL ECTS Credit Hours 3
Weekly Contact Hours
Lecture Tutorial Practical Total
2 1 -- 3
B- Assessment Criteria
Mid-Term Teacher Final
Quiz1 Quiz2 Practical Total Oral
Exam Opinion Exam
15 5 5 0 5 70 100 -
C- Course Contents
Week Lecture Hrs Tutorial Hrs
Introduction
Exercise (1)
1. Physical Properties of Fluids:
Problems in properties of
1 2 fluids (viscosity, 1
Introduction to fluid mechanics, Applications, compressibility, Surface
Viscosity, Newton’s viscous law, Surface tension, Bulk tension, bulk modulus)
modulus, Vapor pressure.
2. Basic Concepts of Fluid Statics: Exercise (2) 1
Problems in hydrostatic
2 Hydrostatic equation, pressure measurement, 2 forces on submerged
hydrostatic forces on flat and curved submerged surfaces, floating bodies and
surfaces. instability
Exercise (3) 1
Principles of buoyancy and instability of floating bodies, Problems in rigid body
3
Rigid body motion.
2
motion (Relative
equilibrium)
3. Fluid Kinematics: Exercise (4) 1
Problems in velocity,
4 Velocity field,, acceleration field, pressure field, 2 acceleration, and presssure
different flow lines; equation of streamline; stream
fields
functio
Exercise (5) 1
Velocity potential function of potential flows. fluid Problems in streamline,
5 rotation and vorticity of a fluid element; the circulation 2 stream and potential
of rotational flow functions, rotational &
irrotational flows
1/3
Week Lecture Hrs Tutorial Hrs
4. Fluid Dynamics for Incompressible Flows: Exercise (6) 1
Problems in integral form
6 Governing fluid flow equations (continuity, momentum, 2
(Continuity and Momentum
energy) in Integral form, applications equations) Stationary C.V.
Exercise (7) 1
Governing fluid flow equations (continuity, momentum) Problems in integral form
7
in differential form, applications
2
(Momentum equation)
Moving C.V.
8 Mid-Term Examination
Exercise (8) 1
Bernoulli's Equation and study its practical Problems in differential form
9
applications in fluid flows.
2
(Continuity & Momentum)
equations
5. Incompressible Viscous fluid flow Exercise (9) 1
5.1. Internal Fluid Flow Problems in Applications on
10 2 Bernoulli’s equation
Introduction to Viscous fluid flow and its applications
in Ducts and Pipes.
Exercise (10) 1
11 Pressure losses in pipeline flows 2
Problems in Pipeline flow
5.2. External Fluid Flow: Exercise (11) 1
12 2 Problems in Boundary Layer
Theory of boundary layer flow, along flat plates
Applications in Flow Around Immersed Bodies Exercise (12) 1
13
(Cylinder, Sphere, Aerofoil)
2
Problems in immersed bodies
Exercise (13) 1
14 Introduction to Compressible Flows 2 Problems in compressible
flow
Exercise (14) 1
15 Introduction to Open channel Flows 2 Problems in open channel
flow
D- Professional Information
1. Prerequisites Fluid Mechanics Cources MMP 301 and Cource MMP 302
To take this course, the student is expected to have some knowledge of basic
fluid mechanics, vector notation, differential equations, physical properties of
fluids; hydrostatic equation, pressure measurements, hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces, buoyancy and instability of floating bodies, acceleration
and pressure field, different flow lines of incompressible flows,The topics of
this course are arranged as follows; the properties of fluids and the basic
equations goverening their motion; Presentation of extensive discussion of
boundary conditions; Fundamental equations of incompressible viscous flow
2. Overall Aims of
Conservation of mass; Conservation of momentum; Coservation of energy;
Course
Solutions of the Newtonian viscous-flow equations; The methods of analysis
of external and internal laminar flows are presented and discussed in details;
Governing fluid flow equations in Integral and differential forms; Bernoulli's
equation and applications; Internal viscous fluid laminar and turbulent flows in
ducts and pipes; Friction an local pressure losses in pipe flows; External fluid
flow along flat plates (laminar and turbulent boundary layer flows); flow
around immersed bodies (Cylinder, Sphere, Aerofoil); Introduction to
compressible flows; and introduction to open channel flows.
2/3
D- Professional Information
a. Knowledge and understanding:
3. Intended b. Intellectual skills:
Learning
Outcomes of c. Professional and practical skills:
Course (ILOs)
d. General and transferable skills:
a. Lectures,
4. Teaching and
Learning Methods b. Exercises.
c. Term paper is requested.
a. Course notes:
(1) Printed Lectures,
(2) Printed Exercises.
b. Essential books (text books):
(1) Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Fox & McDonalds,
(2) Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, Munson,
(3) Fluid Mechanics, KUNDU, 2E
(4) Fluid Mechanics, Fundamentals and Applications, Yunus A.
Cengel & John M. Cimbala, McGraw Hill, 2007.
5. List of References (5) Fluid Mechanics - with Problems and Solutions and an Aerodynamic
Laboratory – 2007, Springer.
E-Books PDF files are available online.
Recommended books:
(1) Fluid Mechanics, Frank M. White -4Ed (With Study Guide), Mc Graw
Hill.
(2) Practical Fluid Mechanics For Engineering Applications, Jone J.
Bloomer, Marcel Dekker, Inc.
c. Periodicals, Websites, …etc:
6. Facilities a. Data Show Devices.
Required for b.
Teaching and c.
Learning
3/3
Introduction
Fundamental Concepts
1. Fluid Mechanics
Is the study of how fluids move and the forces on them. (Fluids include liquids and gases.) Fluid
mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of
fluids in motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the
information that it is made out of atoms.
The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when Archimedes made a
beginning on fluid statics. However, fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of
research with many unsolved or partly solved problems.
Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex. Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical methods,
typically using computers. A modern discipline, called Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), is devoted
to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems.
Fluid: is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of a shearing stress (i.e. tangentially) no
matter how small the shearing stress is. Fluids comprise the liquid and gas (or vapor) phases.
Solid: is a substance that deforms when a shear stress is applied, but it does not continue to deform.
2. Continuum Hypothesis
Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. The continuum
assumption, however, considers fluids to be continuous. That is, properties such as density, pressure,
temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at "infinitely" small points, defining a REV
(Reference Element of Volume), at the geometric order of the distance between two adjacent molecules of
fluid. Properties are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, and are averaged values in
the REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored.
The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the same way planets are approximated by
point particles when dealing with celestial mechanics, and therefore results in approximate solutions.
Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis can lead to results which are not of desired
accuracy. That said, under the right circumstances, the continuum hypothesis produces extremely accurate
results.
Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis does not allow solutions of desired accuracy are
solved using statistical mechanics. To determine whether or not to use conventional fluid dynamics or
statistical mechanics, the Knudsen number is evaluated for the problem. The Knudsen number is defined as
the ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a certain representative physical length scale. This
length scale could be, for example, the radius of a body in a fluid. (More simply, the Knudsen number is
how many times its own diameter a particle will travel on average before hitting another particle).
Problems with Knudsen numbers at or above unity are best evaluated using statistical mechanics for
reliable solutions.
3. Microstructure and Macrostructure
All matters are composed of atoms and molecules with which are associated a whole range of phenomena.
It is only in rare cases, the consideration of the behavior of matter at atomic or molecular level becomes
important to the engineer (e.g. in system containing highly rarefied gas, such as the upper atmosphere, or
in plasma flow, i.e. the flow of highly rarefied gas through strong electrical or magnetic fields).
4
4. Relationship to Continuum Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is a sub-discipline of continuum mechanics, as illustrated in the following table.
Elasticity: which describes materials that return to their
Solid mechanics: rest shape after an applied stress.
The study of the physics of Plasticity: which describes
Continuum continuous materials with a materials that permanently Rheology:
mechanics defined rest shape. The study of materials
deform after a large enough
The study of the with both solid and fluid
applied stress.
physics of characteristics.
continuous Fluid mechanics: Non-Newtonian fluids
materials. The study of the physics of
continuous materials which
take the shape of their Newtonian fluids
container.
In a mechanical view, a fluid is a substance that does not support tangential stress; that is why a fluid in
rest has the shape of their containing vessel. And fluids in rest have zero shear stress.
5. Basic Equations
An analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily begins, either directly or indirectly, with
statements of the basic laws governing the fluid motion. These laws, which are independent of the nature
of the particular fluid, are:
1. Conservation of mass.
dm
0
dt
2. Newton’s second law of motion (Conservation of momentum).
dmV
F
dt
3. Moment of momentum equation (Conservation of angular momentum).
d ( r mV )
T
dt
4. The first law of thermodynamics (Conservation of energy). “The change in stored energy of a system
equals the net energy added to the system as heat and work”.
dE dQ dW
dt dt dt
5. The second law of thermodynamics (Conservation of Entropy). “The entropy of any isolated system
can’t decrease during any process between equilibrium states”.
dS Q
dt T
In some problems, it is necessary to bring additional relations into the analysis, in the form of constitutive
equations to describe the behavior of physical properties of fluid under given conditions (equation of state
and Newton’s viscous law).
Our task is to formulate these basic laws in suitable forms for the solution of a wide variety of problems.
It should be emphasized that there are, as we shall see, many apparently simple problems in fluid
mechanics can’t be solved by totally analytical means. In such cases we must resort to experiments and
experimental observations.
6. Assumptions
5
Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions about the
materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be satisfied if the
assumptions are to hold true. For example, consider an incompressible fluid in three dimensions. The
assumption that mass is conserved means that for any fixed closed surface (such as a sphere) the rate of
mass passing from outside to inside the surface must be the same as rate of mass passing the other way.
(Alternatively, the mass inside remains constant, as does the mass outside). This can be turned into an
integral equation over the surface.
Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:
Conservation of mass Continuity equation in vector form => V 0
t
DV
Conservation of momentum Navier-Stokes equation In vector form=> B p 2V
Dt
The continuum hypothesis, detailed above ( 2.).
Further, it is often useful (and realistic) to assume a fluid is incompressible - that is, the density of the
fluid does not change. Liquids can often be modeled as incompressible fluids, whereas gases cannot.
Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is inviscid). Gases
can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained in some way (e.g. in a
pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, if the boundary is not
porous, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at
the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the
containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity field
between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and Joseph
condition).
7. Scope of Fluid Mechanics
Why study fluid mechanics?
Knowledge and understanding of the basic principles and concepts of fluid mechanics are essential in:
Analysis and design of any system in which a fluid is the working medium.
Design of aircraft, cars, surface ships, and submarines.
Design of propulsion systems for space flight.
Design of all types of fluid machinery including pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, and turbines.
It is common place today to perform model studies to determine the aerodynamic forces on and flow
fields around buildings and structures, this include studies of skyscrapers, baseball stadiums,
smokestacks, and shopping plaza.
Lubrication is an area of considerable importance in fluid mechanics.
Heating and ventilation systems for homes, large office buildings, and underground tunnels.
Design of pipeline systems.
The circulatory system of the body is essentially a fluid system.
Design of artificial hearts, heart-lung machines, breathing aids, and other such devices must rely on the
basic principles of fluid mechanics.
8. Dimensions and Units
The word Dimension is used to refer to any measurable quantity; such quantities include length, time,
velocity, etc., in terms of a particular system of dimensions. All measurable quantities can be
subdivided into two groups (primary quantities and secondary quantities). The word Unit is used to refer
6
to the scale or caliber by which the physical quantity is measured and consequently there are two groups
of units (primary units and secondary units).
8.1. Primary quantities
The quantities for which, arbitrary scales of measure are set.
8.2. Secondary quantities
The quantities, whose dimensions are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions,
8.3. System of dimensions:
There are three basic systems of dimensions, corresponding to the three basic ways of specifying the
primary dimensions. These systems use the following primary dimensions:
1. Mass M, length L, time t, temperature T (0oC = 273.16oK)
2. Force F, length L, time t, temperature T (0oC = 460oR)
3. Force F, Mass M, time t, temperature T (0oC = 460oR)
Any valid equation that relates physical quantities must be dimensionally homogeneous; that is, each term
in the equation must have the same dimensions.
8.4. System of units: There are different ways for selecting the units of primary dimensions according
to the system of dimensions:
a. MLtT system M (Kilogram, kg), L (meter, m), t (second, s), T (Kelven, oK)
System International (SI) Absolute Metric system of units
1 N = 1 kg.m/sec2 and 1 dyne = 1gm.cm / sec2
b. FLtT system F (pound force, lbf), L (foot, ft), t (second, s), T (Rankin, oR)
British Gravitational system (BG) 1 lbf = 1 slug . 1ft /sec2
c. FMLtT system F (pound force lbf), M (pound mass lbm), L (foot ft), t (second), T (Rankin oR)
English Engineering system (EE) 1lbf = 1lbm . (32.2 ft/sec2)
1 slug = 32.2 lbm
9. Fluid Particle, Flow Variables
Fluid particle: Is a very small mass or element of fluid. In thermodynamics, it is called a system.
Conceptually it is introduced because the physical laws of motion, which govern all matters, are stated in
terms of velocity and acceleration of a mass particle.
Flow variables: V and p depend on two types of independent variables:
Location: spatial change in the fluid flow (rectangular, cylindrical, or spherical coordinate system).
Time : temporal change.
Notes:
a. Steady flow no flow variable depends on time.
b. Unsteady flow any flow variable depends on time.
c. Uniform flow no velocity component depends on location.
10. Flow Lines
7
Path line: is the path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid particle. To determine a path line, we
might identify a fluid particle at a given instant of time, for example, by the use of a colored
dye and then taking a long exposure photograph for its subsequent motion. The line traced out
by the particle is called a path line.
Streak line: on the other hand, we may choose to focus our attention on a fixed location in space and
identifying, again by the use of a colored dye, all fluid particles passing through this point.
After a short period of time, we have a number of identifiable fluid particles in the flow field
that had, at some time, passed through one fixed location in space. The line joining these
fluid particles is defined as a Streak line.
Stream line: is the lines drawn in the flow field so that at a given instant of time they are tangent to the
direction of flow at every point in the flow field. The shape of the stream lines may vary
from instant to instant if the flow velocity is a function of time, that is, if the flow is unsteady.
Since the streamlines are tangent to the velocity vector at every point in the flow filed, there
can be no flow across the streamline.
In steady flow:
The velocity at each point in the flow field remains constant with time, consequently, the
streamlines do not vary from one instant to the next. This implies that a particle located at a
given streamline will remain on that streamline. Furthermore, consecutive particles passing
through a fixed point in space will be on the same streamline and, subsequently, will remain
on that streamline. Thus in a steady flow, path lines, streak lines, and stream lines are
identical lines in the flow field.
In unsteady flow:
Path lines, streak lines, and stream lines do not coincide.
8
11. Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Laminar flow: A laminar flow is one in which the fluid flows in laminas or layers; there is no macroscopic
mixing of adjacent fluid layers. Theories are in good agreement with experiment practice. Laminar flow
has the following features:
Very smooth and orderly.
The flow moves as if it is composed of very thin sheets, or lamina of fluid, each gliding smoothly over
its neighbor.
No macroscopic mixing or exchange of fluid between neighboring sheets.
Any small disturbances in the laminar flow are damped by the internal friction or viscous resistance of
the flow.
Transition flow: in which the laminar flow becomes increasingly unstable and turbulent fluctuations begin
to develop.
Turbulent flow: Study of the turbulent flow has very limited success between theory and experimental
practice because of its mathematical complexity. Turbulent flow has the following features:
Disordered flow with irregular high frequency velocity fluctuations superimposed on the main motion.
Small but macroscopic pieces of fluid are transported by turbulent motion in all directions and mix with
other parts of the fluid flow.
Disturbance is not usually damped but grows and further contributes to the random fluctuations.
Average or gross motion of some turbulent flows can be predicted in terms of time averaged or mean
flow variables using various empirical coefficients.
Onset of turbulence can be related in terms of Reynolds number (Re= VL/) at which laminar flow
begins to disintegrate into turbulence.
velocity u u Velocity u u u
u
u u
u
’
Laminar-Flow time Turbulent flow time
9
CHAPTER #1
Physical Properties of Fluids
The general study of fluid and deformation of materials constitutes the subject of Rheology, of which
viscous flow is a special case.
Fluids are classified as true and not-true fluids as follows:
True fluids: All gases, common liquids such as water, oil, gasoline, alcohol…etc.
Not-true fluids: Some liquid substances such as emulsions (mixture of chemicals), colloids (gelatinous
substances), high-polymer solutions, slurries, etc.
1-1. Density “”
The mass of a quantity of any substance is a constant proportional to the number of molecules that contained in the volume
and the molecular weight of molecules. This relationship is simplified for a gas (Avogadro’s law: at an identical pressure and
temperature). All gases have the same number of molecules per unit volume, thus the mass of different gases depends entirely
on the molecular weight. In fluid motion, the volume is not fixed, consequently, it will be more convenient to consider the
mass per unit volume, which is defined as density (). The density of liquids is only slightly depending on either temperature
or pressure. From 2nd Newton’s Law, the density affects the momentum exchange in fluid motion.
1-1.1. Density at a point
volume, of mass, m
y
volume, of differential mass, m
y0
C.V.
z0
x
x0
z
There is a lower limiting value of differential volume, , shown in the figure above, allowable for use in the definition
m
of fluid density at a point. The density at a point is then defined as lim in this concept we could get the
density at any point in the flow field, consequently, getting an expression for density distribution as a function of space
coordinates at the given instant of time t, that is, = (x, y, z).
Clearly may vary with time because of work done on/by the fluid and/or heat transfer to/from the fluid. Thus the
representation given by = (x, y, z, t) is the complete representation of density (i.e. the field representation).
m /
m
lim
'
1-1.2. Numerical values of density
with T 0.1 % per 10C
For liquids (very slow) with p 0.01 % per 1 atm.
In liquids the change can be neglected assuming liquids = const.
10
1-1.3.Specific Gravity S.G = liquid / water at 4oC where, (water =1000 kg / m3 or 62.4 lbm / ft3 )
Substance Specific gravity S.G Substance Specific gravity S.G
Gasoline 0.66 0.69 Water, fresh 1.00
Kerosene 0.82 Water, salt 1.025
Lubricating oils 0.85 0.92 Glycerin 1.260
Benzene 0.899 Mercury 13.550
For Gases is highly dependent on T and p.
Near saturation must be obtained from thermodynamic data.
* For ideal gases perfect Gas Law: p RT / m
Where;
P absolute pressure (N/m2),
m molecular mass (kg/kg mol), for standard air m = 28.97 kg/kg mol
R universal gas constant,
R= 8314 N.m / kg .mol. oK in SI Units, for Air R = 287 N.m/kg oK
R= 1545 ft.lbf / lbm .mol .oR in British Units.
Parameter SI Units British Units
Absolute pressure N / m2 Pa lbf / ft2
0
Absolute temperature K (Kelvin) R(degree Rankine)
Density kg / m3 lb. / fl3
Molecular mass kg / kg. mol. Lb. / lb.mol.
Average atmospheric T is 15 C ( 59 oF ) .
o
Average atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa ( 14.7 lbf / in 2 ) .
Most low speed gases (velocity < 100 m/sec) may be considered incompressible.
depends on Tav. and pav. of the flow.
Note:
Air flows at atmospheric temperature, and has velocity 100 m/sec or 350 ft/sec can be considered, for most practical
purposes, as an incompressible flow.
1-1.4. Specific Weight: = g
Example 1: Example 2:
fluid = 9200 N/m3, g = 9.81 m/sec2 fluid = ? Tank of air is heated from 100 oF to 400 oF. Get the effect
If g = 9.805 m/sec2 What is the effect on and ? on its and p. (tank volume does not change with temp.).
Solution: 1 = 2 because is constant
N . sec 2 kg
Solution: 937.8 4
937.8 3 Since p = R T
m m
2 400 460 1.54
p p p
Mass is constant is constant 1 2
Then = g = (937.8)(9.805) = 9195 N/m3 T T p 100 460
1 2 1
1-2. Viscosity “”
From experiments: no relative motion between the fluid immediately at solid surface, and that surface. Fluid at surface sticks
to surface No-Slip Condition and moves away, from the surface, relative to the normal distance to the solid surface
velocity profile
V(y = 0) = 0 ( no-slip condition) V(y)
At surface dv/dy = tan
V(y 0) 0
dFshear
Sticking action is caused by Viscosity of fluid x
Stationary Solid surface
Internal friction of fluid which causes a resisting force to shearing motion
For a smooth, well-ordered (laminar) flow of a Newtonian dv
fluid over a flat surface
: fluid line at t=0 fluid line at dt
11
dv dv
( y 0 ) dy =
dy dy
Where: ……Shear stress
……Angular velocity
dv
Velocity gradient
dy
dv
( y 0 ) Newton’s Viscosity Law
dy y 0
dv
dFshesr ( y 0 ) dAsurface dAsurface
dy y 0
1-2.1. Newtonian fluid (linear)
Obeys Newton viscous law: = dv/dy ( is constant) e.g. water, oil, air, …,etc. Viscosity is essentially a measure of the
fluids ability to transmit shear stress. It has been found that the fluid behavior between two parallel plates, one of them is
moving with linear velocity V, represents what is known as simple shear flow.
For small B, by experiment the velocity y Moving flat plate V
distribution is found to be linear with
no-slip condition, (or stick condition). B v(y)
Stationary flat plate
dv V V
or velocity distribution due to moving boundary v( y ) y
dy B B
AV
Furthermore, it is also found that F
B
F V dv
Where A is the plat surface area subjected to fluid.,
A B dy
The constant of proportionality in the above expression is defined as the dynamic (absolute) viscosity coefficient =
F t M
2
ML1t 1
dv
dy L L t
(Kinematic) viscosity coefficient
2
F t
L M L 3
M L t 2 t L2
L M L
2 3
L2 t 1
t
1-2.2. Non-Newtonian fluid (non linear)
dv
It is function of (e.g. blood, paint, sewage sludge, etc.). A material with a finite yield stress followed by a linear or
dy
non-linear curve (Pseudo plastic or Dilatant) at finite strain rate (part solid and part fluid) is called a Bingham plastic (1922)
and is commonly used in analytic investigations of yielding materials under flow conditions. Pseudo plastic: shear-thinning
fluid its slope (local viscosity) decreases with increasing stress. Plastic shear-thinning effect is very strong. Dilatant:
shear-thickening fluid its slope (local viscosity) increases with increasing stress.
12
1-2.3. Viscous behavior of various materials
shear shear for non- Newtonian fluids
stress stress
Ideal Bingham plastic Rheopectic
yielding Pseudo plastic time Independent Newtonian Fluid
fluids(part
fluid &part Thixotropic
solid) Dilatant
curves (At constant strain rate )
for true
fluids strain rate (shear rate) Time
fluids (can t resist shear)
1 Poise = 1 gm / cm .sec. = 0.0020886 slug / ft . sec.
1 stokes = 1 cm2 / sec.
is a thermodynamic property varies with temperature and pressure .
water = 1 cP at 20oC
102
water = St. = 1 cSt. At 20oC
1
1-2.4. Units of viscosity coefficients
a) Units of dynamic viscosity coefficient, :
English units: lb.sec/ft2
SI units : N.sec/m2 = kg /m.sec
1 Poise = 1 dyne.sec/cm2 = 1 gm/cm.sec SI
1 Poise = 0.1 N.sec/m2 SI
1 cP = 10-2 P SI
For conversion: 1 lb.sec/ft2= 47.88 N.sec/m2 = 478.8 Poise = 47880 cP
b) Units of kinematic viscosity coefficient, : = /
ft2/ sec. English
m2/sec. SI
1 Stokes = 1 cm2/sec = 10-4 m2/sec SI
1 cStokes = 10-2 St SI
For conversion: 1 ft2 /sec = 0.0929 m2/sec. = 929 St = 92900 cSt
Viscosity coefficients for both ideal fluids (air and water) at N.T.P:
air = 1.25*10-3 gm/cm3 air = 0.018 cP. air = 14.4 cSt.
w = 1 gm/cm3 w = 1 cP. w = 1 cSt.
Example:
A 1 mm thick plate is pulled between two stationary plates, which are separated by a gap of 2 mm. The moving plate has an
area of 0.2 m2 and is equidistant between the non-moving plates. SAE 30 oil fills the gap at 90 oC. What force is required to
pull the plate at speed of 1 m/sec?
Solution:
900C (90)(1.8)+32 = 1940F
From table at Fig A-1; = 3.1*10-4 lb.sec/ft2
lb. sec . N . sec . / m 2
= 3.1* 10
4 47.88 1.48 * 10 2 N . sec/ m 2
ft 2 lb. sec/ ft 2
13
A 2 0.2m 0.2m 0.08 m 2
Gap 0.5mm on both surfaces of the moving plate.
1.48 * 10 2 N . sec . / m 2 0.8 m 2 1m / sec .
AV
F 2.368 N
B 0.0005m
1-3. Surface Tension “”
Surface tension is the energy per unit area of surface: in bringing molecules to the surface from within
the mass of liquid. It is an unbalance in molecular attraction, due to a difference in the magnitudes of
cohesion and adhesion, occurs at the contact between a liquid and a solid boundary or at the interface
between two liquids or a liquid and a gas. The molecules near the interface (or surface) are attracted with
different forces by the molecules on the opposite side of the interface than the attractive force between
the molecules in the same fluid. Free surface: (it is in fact a liquid/air interface) non-symmetrical force-
direction arrows in the figure below indicate the force imbalance on the surface molecules.
Air
Although the unbalance of molecular forces will
always exist, it is particularly significant when the
surface is curved, in which case the imbalance will
tend to pull in the surface, there by increasing the
pressure, as will be seen. The strength of the Liquid
imbalance is referred to the not altogether descriptive
term
surface tension: it is a function of temperature and is expressed.
in terms of a force per unit length of the surface (lb./ft or
N/m)
Pressure in a sphere due to surface tension: 2r
A spherical bubble of liquid of radius r has inside Pressure p
(relative to the ambient outside pressure) p =2 / r where is p (r2)
the surface tension of liquid forming the bubble .For small bubble
expanded to radius (r+dr)
energy increase = dA = d(4r2)
= (8 r) dr (1)
Work done from difference in pressure inside and outside the
bubble at the distance dr = p (4r2) dr
(2)
From (1), and (2) p =2 /r (2r)
The rise of a liquid in capillaries:
It is due to surface tension.
Weight of the liquid column = g h (r2)
Where ( g h ) = force from the pressure different across liquid-gas interface & (r2) = tube area
Peripheral force around the tube circumference = 2 r cos
cos 2
d cos. = d2 h h= cos
d r
14
Example:
What diameter of circular tube would be required to raise water at 70 0F to a height of 100 ft ?
= 00 and = 0.005 lb. /ft
2 cos 2 0.005 1 2
Solution: r 1.61* 10 6 ft d = 3.21* 10 - 6 ft h cos
h 62.3 100 gr
Where h is capillary Rise. d d
At < /2 A capillary rise occurs.
At = 0 No rise or depression . d
At > /2 A depression of fluid occurs.
00 for water .
1800 for mercury . h
1-4. Compressibility,
Bulk modulus of elasticity K of a fluid is defined as the ratio of an incremental (differential) compressive
stress, dp, to the relative change (reduction) in volume that results from the incremental stress.
Δp dp
K for liquids and K= for gases
Δ dρ
ρ
1
Gases compressibility = are thousands of times as compressible as liquids compressibility.
K
Compressibility has not any effect on fluid flow if the flow velocity is far enough below the speed of
sound in the fluid in question. (aair =1100 ft/sec= 330 m/sec and awater = 4800 ft/sec= 1600 m/sec ).
Compressibility effects become important in airflows with speed about 3-tenth the speed of sound in
water, in problems involving water hammer and sonar systems.
Average Bulk Modulus of Elasticity:
p 2 p1 p
K for liquids
1 2 1
d p d p
K K unit mass
d d
d p dp
v K unit mass For Gases
d d
If s solitary wave of compression (or expansion) of differential magnitude is assumed to travel linearly
through a given fluid medium, which is otherwise at rest. The course of the wave might be followed by
the local change in pressure intensity which it produces, just as the course of gravity wave is indicated by
the local change in surface elevation. For a steady state (standing wave), the elastic wave moves with
velocity V, the interrelationship of the changes in velocity and pressure intensity may still be represented
by the differential expression for convective acceleration dp VdV
From continuity equation for a differential wave
d ( V ) 0 dV Vd 0
By eliminating dV in the previous two relations it gives V dp
d
dp
Since the steady velocity V is equal to the celerity, c, (for standing wave) and since by definition, K , the celerity of
d
K
a differential elastic wave will be simply: c where, c is recognized as the sound speed.
15
K water 300 ,000 ft/in2 and water 1.94 slugs / ft 3 a = 4,720 ft / sec
K water 2.18 * 10 9
N/m 2
at 1 atm. 9
= 2.86 * 10 N/m 2
at 1000 atm.
K = (2.18 * 10 + 6.7 p) N/m
9 2
where p Gauge pressure in N/m 2
d p d p
K isothermal = = = p
d dp p
dp d
( p = R T ln p = ln + lnR T = )
p
Isentropic (adiapatic and reversible) p k = constant
Cp
where k = ratio of specific heat capacities 1.4 for air
Cv
d p d
ln p - k ln = ln c =k
p
d p d p
K isentropic = = =k p
d d p p
K
speed of sound c=
kp
In a perfect gas (isentropical transmission of sound waves) : c = k RT
1-5. Vapor Pressure, pv
The vapor pressure, pv, of a liquid is the pressure at which the liquid vaporizes or boils as it changes from
the liquid state to the gaseous or vapor state.
pv = f (T), pv(water) = 1 atm. (14.7 psi) at 100 0C (212 0F)
pv(water) ≈ 0.294 psi = 0.02 bar at 15 oC.
The change of liquid into vapor affects the performance of hydraulic systems in the form of interruption
of the flow (siphoning) or formation of cavities (cavitation).
Cavitation:
It is the rapid formation and collapse of small vapor bubbles, which are not only
disruptive, but are also frequently destructive for the hydraulic elements and systems as well.
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CHAPTER #2
Basic Concepts of Fluid Statics
Fluid at rest or in rigid-body motion is able to sustain only normal stresses [no shear stress]. In static
fluid, or in a fluid undergoing rigid-body motion (relative equilibrium), a fluid particle retains its identity at
all times. Since there is no relative motion within the fluid, a fluid element does not deform, and then
Newton’s second law of motion may be used to evaluate the reaction of the particle to the applied forces.
Newton s 2nd law of motion d F = a dm = a d
For a static fluid a 0
dF
Then a = 0 is the applied equation for fluid statics.
d
2-1. Fluid Statics
Includes situations when fluids are actually at rest (e.g., w.r.t the earth) and when they are in a container
which undergoes uniform acceleration or rotates as a solid body (rigid-body motion).
Gravity acceleration: B B x iˆ+B y ˆj+B z kˆ dFS = p dA
Body Forces: dFb B d control surface
Ganss Theorem
Surface Forces: dFS p dA - p d dA
dF 0 dFB dFS B p d Control Volume
contains fluid
p B 0
2-1.1. Derivation of hydrostatic equation dFb
Objective: To obtain an equation that will enable us to determine the pressure field within the fluid. To do
this we choose a stationary differential element of mass dm with sides dx, dy, and depth dz. Then applying
the 2nd Newton’s law dF 0 :
Forces acting on a fluid element:
1. Body forces: Are those forces act on the volume or mass of the fluid element such as::
a) Force of gravity.
b) Force on a conducting fluid in a magnetic or electric field.
2. Surface forces: Including both:
a) Normal forces (pressure forces).
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b) Tangential forces (due to viscous shear) may include surface tension force if
the fluid element has a free surface.
Body Force dFB B dx dy dz
Surface Forces Collecting and canceling terms, we obtain:
p p p p p p
dF i j k dx dy dz i j k dx dy dz
S x y z x y z
p p p
where : i j k is the gradient of the pressure or (pressure gradient),p
x y z
dF
p S The negative of the surface force per unit volume due to pressure.
dx dy dz
dF = dF dF
S B
= - p + B dx dy dz
dF dF
p B where : B is the body force per unit mass -1.2. Hydrostatic pressure at a point
d dx dy dz
inside a stagnant fluid
p p p
Bx = 0 , = B y = 0 , and = B z = - g
x y z
p p p
From mathematics dp dx dy dz
x y z
Then by substitution dp = - g dz p - gz Constant pressure at a point
p z
2 2
By integration dp g dz p (z1 - z 2 ) p h
p z
1 1
p
= h pressure head
p 2 - p1
= - (z 2 z1 ) potential head
The increase in pressure head is equal to the decrease in potential head.
p p1 p
for + z piezometric head. z1 2 z 2
The piezometric head is constant in a homogeneous liquid at rest.
2-2. Pressure Measurement
2-2.1. Manometer
Manometer consists of one or more vertical or inclined tubes, usually of glass, which are connected to a pipe
or tank in which the pressure is to be measured. The hydrostatic equation is used to calculate the desired
pressure difference indicated by the manometer readings.
Manometer: for big p manometer deflection is small.
Micro-manometer: for small p manometer deflection is big.
The manometers basic rules may be stated as follows:
1. Work through the system considering only one fluid at a time.
2. Add pressure difference as you proceed down through a fluid from the starting point (or Subtract
pressure difference when proceeding upward).
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3. Move horizontally through the same fluid without change in the pressure value.
Example 1:
Find the pressure at point A for each case shown in the figures below:
water water Gas
h h h water
A B
A A
C B
(a) Liquid in tank . (b) Liquid in pipe . ( c) Gas in pipe .
pA = pB = w h pA = pB = w h pA = pC = pB = w h
Example 2:
Find pA ?
pB = Hg h water h Hg
pc = pA + w b
b
A
pc = pB pA = Hg h -w b C
B
Example 3:
Find PA – PB ? B
For Gases at A & B: Gas
is small a Gas
pressure diff. Due to heights
a, b can be neglected . F
PB = PC & PA = PE A
b
PA – PB = Hg h C
For water at A & B: PA – PB = w a + (Hg - w) h h
For water at B & oil at A : E D Hg
PA – PB = w a + (w - oil) b + (Hg - oil) h
In Manometer design one should consider :
1. Accuracy of reading (inclined manometer tan 1/12 ).
2. Sensitivity Micro-manometer (large reservoir at high pressure side ).
3. Capillary effects d should be ½ cm or using multiple columns to cancel out capillary effect.
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2-2.2. Barometer
It measures the atmospheric pressure in absolute units.
Slender Tube vapor pressure of mercury
. Hg
The slender tube is completely filled with mercury then h Atmospheric pressure
is inverted in a reservoir of mercury.
. Mercury Reservoir
the column weight (h) Hg balances the atmospheric patm
Hg
14.7 psi
144 12 At T = (60-70) oF
h = 763 mm Hg
Zero reading is adjusted with the surface of Hg at the reservoir.
Since Pv of Hg is very low Barometer is insensitive with temperature change.
Correction should be made to correct for different expansion rates of the mercury and glass when
tempemperature changes.
2-2.3. Bourdon tube gauge
It measures a gauge pressure either over- or under-atmospheric pressure.
2-2.4. Bellow apparatus gauge
Same principle of bourdon tube but the mechanical transmission to the pointer differs in
principle.
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2-2.5. Diaphragms pressure gauge
2-2.6. Electrical transducers:
Provide an electronic (digital) readout of the pressure.
Diaphragm-type pick-up pressure transducer
2-3. Principles of Hydrostatics
2-3.1. Incompressible pressure variation: ( = constant)
By integration: patm (2)
p + y = constant y0 y2
p1 + y1 = p2 + y2 (1)
p1gauge = (p1 – p2) = (y2 – y1) = y0 y1
datum
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2-4. Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces
In order to determine completely the force acting on a submerged surface, we must specify :
1. The magnitude of the force.
2. The direction of the force.
3. The line of action of the force.
(Plane and curved submerged surfaces will be considered)
2-4.1. Forces on plane surfaces
In applications, these may be the walls of a tank, submerged gate, a ship hull, or any of a large number of
engineering structures:
For horizontal submerged surfaces : F = h
Where, h : distance from the free surface.
A : surface area.
For arbitrary surface:
O
hCP
h hC.G
C.G F
\ R
O dA
C.P.
x
y CG y
* ** Centroid
yC.G. CP
yC.P. Area A
Center of pressure
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dF p dA h dA
magnitude of the hydrostatic force is F h dA sin y dA
A A
where : y dA 1st moment of the area about the O - O \ axis
A
F sin y A
P A where : P ........... pressure at the centroid.
C C
To get y taking the moment of the force F about the 0 - 0 \ axis
p
dM y p dA y F y k dA sin y 2 dA
p
A A
nd
where : y 2 dA is 2 moment of area about axis 0 - 0 \ " Moment of inertia, I o "
A
sin I o sin I o I
y o
p F sin yA y A
2
Io I y A I
Appling the parallel axis theorem : y y
p yA yA yA yA
Since no shear stress (static fluid) is applied then the force acts normal to the surface
dF p d A
(-)ve sign indicates that F acts against the surface
F p dA
R
A
*From the basic pressure –height relation for a static fluid:
dp
g
dh
h is ( ) ve downward from the liquid free surface .
p h h
dp g dh p p atm g dh p atm g h
p 0 0
atm
* h y sin F p
R
atm
g y sin dAx, y
A
Since patm acts on the other side of the plate then the forces due to patm are balanced.
To determine the point of application of FR FR must be such that the moment of FR about any axis is
equal to the moment of the distributed forces about the same axis
F p g y sin dA x, y
R atm
A
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r\ F r dF r p dA
R
A
\ \ \
* F F k & r i x j y & r i x j y & dA dA k
R R
There for :
R
ix \ j y \ F k i x j y dF i x j y p dA k
A
\ \
j x F i y F j x p - i y p dA
R R
A
This is a vector equation , so the components must be equal Thus :
y\ F y p dA
R
A
x\ F x p dA
R
A
Examples:
(1) Determine the force and point of application of the force on the circular plate covering the hole in the
water tank shown in the figure. The depth to the top of the 4-ft diameter plate is 5ft.
Solution:
F h A
62.4 5 2 4 2 5489 lb
4
5 ft
I h
h y Water
yA
44 F 4 ft Diameter
7 64 7.14 ft
2
7 4
4
(2) Determined the magnitude of the force on the inclined gate shown in the figure and its location w.r.t the
tank bottom. The tank of water is completely closed and the pressure gauge at the lower corner reads
88,000 N/ m2
Solution:
88 ,000 N/m 2
p
h 8.98 m
9800 N/m 3 F
0.5 m
P=88000 N/m2 hF
2m 600 1.5 m
Centroid of the gate is at: 2
1.5sin 600 2.65 m above the tank bottom
2
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h 8.98 2.65 6.33 m
F h A
9800 6.331.5 0.5 46.500 N
I
h h sin 2
p hA
1
0.51.53
6.33 12 sin 2 600 6.35 m
6.331.50.5
h 8.98 6.35 2.628 m
F
Example: (problem 3.5 page 74 in text)
Find:
Force per unit width against stop along A
Basic equations:
F F p dA
R R
dp
g
dh
Moment M M Fd
for eq n 2 M 0
Moment about x-axis through B
of F is F L
A A
of dF is - L - y dF L y p dA
F L y p w dy
1
A L
A
1L
L y p w dy
L0
wg L
0
FA L y D y sin 30 dy
L 0
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2-4.2. Forces on curved surfaces
In this case the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force will be evaluated separately, rather
than simply the resultant force.
2-4.2.1. Horizontal force
AC is the vertical projection of the actual C B
Surface AB
FH is calculated as for plane surfaces and
Its point of application is calculated
FH\ FH
Accordingly
A
A g DL Ly sin 30 0 Dy y 2 sin 30 0 dy
F L
FV
w L 0
L
g L 2 D 2 y3
DLy y sin 30 y
0 0
sin 30
L 2 2 3
0
g L3 DL2 L3 0
DL2 sin 30 sin 30
0
L 2 2 3
g L2 1 3 L 1 0
D L sin 30 g D L sin 30
0
L 2 6 2 3
62.4 lb / ft 3 5 ft * 100 ft 2 1 0
f 1000 ft 3 sin 30 2080 lb / ft
10 ft 2 6 f
2-4.2.2. Vertical force
Manometer
hC
hC hC
B B B
C C
C
A
A A
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. (a) Fv = weight of the liquid above the surface (directed downward).
The line of action of the force must act through the centroid of the liquid volume (i.e. through its center of
gravity).
Fig. (b) Fv = weight of the liquid displaced by the surface (directed upward).
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The line of action of the force is same as case (a).
Fig. (c) is a demonstration of case (b).
2-4.2.3. In vector form
The hydrostatic force on an infinitesimal element of a curved surface, dA , acts normal to the surface .
Because of the surface curvature, the differential pressure force on each element of the surface acts in a
different direction.
What do we normally do when we want to sum a series of force vectors acting in different directions?
Sum the components of the vectors relative to a convenient coordinate system.
dF pdA
FR pdA
A
F F i F jF k
R RX RY RZ
F dF F i dF i p dA i
RX X R
A
p dA cos p dA
X X
A A
X
where : dA is a projection of dA on a plane perpendicular to the x - axis.
X
Likewise,
F p dA cos p dAy
Ry y
A Ay
where : dAy is a projection of dA on a plane perpendicular to the y - axis.
F p dA cos p dAz
Rz z
A Az
where : dAz is a projection of dA on a plane perpendicular to the z - axis.
In considering the vertical component, F , of the resultant force, we note that the pressure exerted by the
Rz
liquid is given by
Z
0
p g dz
Z
surface
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z z
0 0
dF p dA g dz dA F g dz dA
z z z z z z
A z
s z s
Total weight of the liquid directly above the surface.
In cylindrical coordinates:
1
F p dA cos p cos w R d
R vertical
A
2
dA wR d where : w is the width and R is the radius of curveture
D E
2-4.3. Solved Examples:
Example (1): In the figure shown, determine :
1 ft
(a)The horizontal force on surface ABC.
FV1
(b)The location of the horizontal force on A
surface ABC.
2 ft
(c)The vertical force on surface AB. hc.p
(d)The vertical force on surface BC. B
(e)The net vertical force on the projecting
body ABC.
Assume that the container and boundary R = 2 ft
projection ABC are 2-dimensional in form and
work with a unit length of 1 ft in the direction
normal to the sketch. FH
Solution:
(a) FH on surface ABC is equal to the force on the
C
vertical projection of ABC a rectangle 4 ft by 1ft : FV2
FH = ghproj Aproj = (62.4)(1+2)(4)(1) = 748.8 lb
(b) I
143 ft4
12
h 2 1
143 3.44 ft
p 122 141
(c) Fv1 = weight of volume of water above surface AB.:
Fv1 = (62.4) [(1)(2)(1) + (1/2)(2)(2)(1)] = 249.6 lb
(d) Fv2 = weight of water, which could be contained in the volume BDEAC :
Fv2 = (62.4) [(3)(2)(1) + /4 (2)2 (1)] = 570.4 lb
(e) Net force on the volume ABC is equal to the weight of water displaced :
Fv = (62.4) [ (2)(2)(1)(1/2) + /4 (2)2 (1) ] = 320.8 lb
= diff. Of force in part (c ) and (d)>
Example (2): ( problem # 3.7 page 83 in the text Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Fox & McDonald)
Find: Components FRx , FRy (and their lines of acting)
Solution:
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Basic equations.:
dp
F dA g
&
R dh
Moment of a force M r dF
or dM r dF
F dF F i p dA i p dA(1) cos(90 - )
RX X R
2 2
- p dA sin p w R sin d g h w R sin d
0 0
2 2
- g ( L R cos ) w R sin d g w R ( L R cos ) sin d
0 0
0 0 0
1
g w R ( L R cos ) dcos g w R ( L R ) d g w R L - R 2
1 1 2 1
R
- g w R L -
2
F dF F j dF j p dA j p dA(1) cos
Ry y R
A A
2 2
- p w R cos d g w R L - R cos cos d
0 0
2 sin 2 2
g R w L cos - R cos 2 d g R w L sin - R
4 0
F
Ry 2
0
- g R w L - R
4
To find the line of action of FRx , the moment of FRx about O must be equal to the sum of moments of
dFX about O
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y\ j F i y j dF i y j - p dA sin i
RX x
A x\
FRy
y\F k k y p dA sin
Rx
A FRx
y
g R2 w 2 y\]
cos L R cos sin d
\
y O
F
Rx 0 x
g R2 w 0
L R d
F
Rx 1
0
g R2 w 2 3 g R2 w L R
L R
F
Rx 2 3
1
F
Rx
2 3
L R
g R 2 w
2 3 R 3L 2R
R 3 2L R
g R w L -
2
To find the line of action of FRy , the moment of FRy about O must be equal to the sum of moments of
dFy about O
x\i F j xi dF j xi p dA cos j
Ry y
A
\
x F k k x p dA cos
Ry
A
2
x g L - R cos w R cos d
1 1
x\ x p dA cos
F F
Ry A Ry 0
2
R sin g L - Rcos w R cos d
1
F
Ry 0
w R 2 g sin 2 cos 3 2 w R2 g L R
x\ L R 2 3
F
Ry
2 3
0
F
Ry
L R
w R2 g
2 3 2R 3L 2R
3 4L R
w R g L - R
4
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2-5. Buoyancy
2-5.1. Archimedes law
“The net vertical force on a submerged body is equal to the weight of liquid displaced”.
Or in other words: “A body in motionless incompressible fluid experiences a buoyant force equals
to the weight of liquid displaced by the body”: i.e. Fb = Wfluid displaced
2-5.2. Forces on submerged bodies
pa pa
F1
h
h
W
L
F2
W
F2
Cylinder floating partially submerged Cylinder fully submerged
In motionless liquid In motionless liquid
Fb is the Buoyant force Fb = Weight of displaced liquid by the cylinder
Fb = Weight of displaced liquid by the submerged portion Fb = PA2 A2 – PA1 A1
of the cylinder = g (L+h) A - g h A
Fb = PA2 A2 =gLA
=ghA = Weight of displaced liquid
= Weight of displaced liquid
Example (3):
Determine the specific weight of a body consisting of a 30 cm diameter hemisphere and a 50 cm long by 30
cm diameter cylinder which floats, as shown in Fig. , at the interface of an oil of S.G.=0.87 and water.
Solution:
Body weight = weight of displaced oil and water
3 Oil 15 cm
0.3 0.5 0.3
2
4 12 body
water
0.32 0.5 water
0.33 oil 30 cm 50 cm
4 12
with water = 9800 N/m3 oil = (0.87)(9800) = 8526 N/ m3
body = 9588 N/ m3
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Equilibrium condition:
The lateral location of the center of buoyancy CB coincides with the lateral location of the centroid of the
displaced volume.
i.e. Fb = Wbody
Example (4):
Consider the operation of a hydrometer. It is calibrated by being placed in pure water at 40C and marking its
depth of submergence on the stem when placed in a liquid having a different specific gravity it floats at a
different depth Develop the
Solution:
Wbody = Fb = w g (b + As hw ) = L g As
(b + As h )
h
S.G =
A h 1
L b s w
A h
h
A hw
1 s h
w b s
0
where A h b
0 b s w
h = hw – h
Relationship between specific gravity
and the difference in depth of
submergence.
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2-5.3. Stability of partially submerged bodies
2-5.3.1 Stability criterion for small angular displacement:
“m” is the distance between CM and M [Metacenter height].
“H” is the distance between CM and original CB.
sin
mh
The metacenter height m h
sin
“”is the horizontal height location of the center of buoyancy of the displaced body and is
determined by taking moments about y-axis through the original CB:
F * \
b x g d
OebdcaO
F * \ \ \
b x g d x g d x g d
ObdcaO OebO OcaO
=0 OebO) = OcaO)
because the centroid of this represents a positive represent a negative
volume is at the original CB Buoyant Force Buoyant Force
F * x g d x g d
b
OebO
OacO
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The x-moment arm for dFb in volume OebO is opposite in sign to the x-moment arm for dFb
in volume OacO .
Also d x tan dA
F * x g d
b
x2 g tan dA
Where: dA….. is an area element at the waterline surface area.
For small (should be small for the derived criterion to satisfy) cos 1 and Iyy can be approximated
by the second moment of the body intersection with the waterline surface area before displacement occurs.
gI
yy
m h
W
gI
yy
For stable equilibrium: (CM below M) distance m must be (+)ve h
W
Where : h is the height of CM w.r.t. original CB
Smaller value of h results in larger restoring moment and more stability. This eq n sets a limit on how high
the center of mass can be above the center of buoyancy of the body in its displaced position and still have
stability.
A body in equilibrium is said to be in Stable Equilibrium if when it is given a small displacement then the
developed forces or moment tends to return the body to its original position.
2-5.3.2. Metacenter height “m”:
As shown in the above figure, the distance between the centre of gravity, CM, of a floating body, and the
Meta-centre, M, is called the Metacenter height, “m”. The metacentric height of a floating body is a direct
measure of its stability. Or in other words, more the metacentric height of a floating body, more it will be
stable. Some values of metacentric height are given below:
Merchant ships m = up to 1.0 m
Sailing ship m = up to 1.5 m
Battle ship m = up to 2.0 m
River craft m = up to 3.5 m
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2-5.4. Stability of fully submerged bodies
Body weight is acted vertically downwards through its center of mass.
Buoyant force is acted vertically upwards through the center of buoyancy or centroid of the volume
of the body CB.
The body is in force and moment equilibrium Fb = W and the line of action of both forces coincide.
We have three possible cases as follows:
Water free surface
Fb Fb
Stable Equilibrium CB
CB
h CM
CM
W Center of mass below center of buoyancy W
Water free surface
Fb Fb
Metastable CM CB
CM CB
W Center of mass lies on center of buoyancy W
Water free surface
Fb Fb
UnStable Equilibrium CM
CM
h CB
CB
W Center of buoyancy below center of mass W
35
[Type here]
Example (5):
A barge, such as that shown in the figure above, is 10 m wide by 30 m long. When loaded with 5 MN, it
displaces and its center of gravity is 0.5 m above the waterline. Determine the metacentre height above the
center of gravity and the righting moment for a roll angle of 10o w = 9800 N/m3
Solution:
Depth of water displaced y y(10)(30)(9800) = 5*106 N y = 1.7 m
Location of center of Buoyancy B B = y/2 =0.85 m below water line
Since C.G. is 0.5 m above the water line
Then location of G is 0.5+0.85 = 1.35 m above B
BG = 1.35 m
since,
I
MG BG
30 103 / 12 1.35 3.55 m " positive value stable"
1.7 1030
then the metacenter is 3.55 m above the center of gravity
I I
since, BB \ where 4.9 m and 10o 0.175 rad
BB\ = (4.9)(0.175) = 0.858 m
The righting moment is : FG x BB\ = (5 x 106 N) (0.858 m) = 4.29 x 106 N.m
Example (6):
For a ship with a water line cross-section as shown in the figure below and a displaced water of 600 tons,
determined the maximum distance GB that the center of gravity may lie above the center of buoyancy if the
ship is to remain stable.
Solution:
I 25 ft
At the point of incipient instability, GB
Where, I
10025 22512.5 1.383 * 105 ft 4
3 3 25 ft 100 ft
12 12
1.383* 10 5
GB 7.19 ft
1.923 * 104
36
[Type here]
2-6. Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion (Relative-Equilibrium)
A fluid in rigid-body motion moves without deformation as though it were a solid body, so there can be no
shear stress. The only surface stress on each element of fluid is that due to pressure. As in the case of fluid
statics we may apply Newton's second law of motion to determine the pressure field that results from a
specific rigid-body motion. An expression for the total force due to pressure and gravity acting on a fluid
element
of volume d has been obtained as follows:
dF grad P g d (1)
dF
P g
d
Newton' s second law was writen dF a dm a d
dF
or a (2)
d
substituting from (2) into (1), we obtain
- P g a (3)
pressure force body force mass per acc.of
per unit volume per unit volume unit fluid
at a point. at a point. volume particle.
2-6.1. Fluids in rigid-body motion due to translation with constant acceleration a0
Governing equations:
P g a
using chartezian coordinate :
P
- g a î
x x x
P
- g a ĵ
y y y
P
- g a k̂
z z z
where : g g 0 & g g
x y z
a a 0 & a ao
y z x
substituting in the above equations we obtain,
p p
0 a o ao
x x
p p
0 0 0
y y
p p
g 0 g
z z
the total diff.of pressure
p p p
dp dx dy dz
x y z
dp - a o dx g dz governing equation for every particle of the fluid
37
[Type here]
special cases:
Case (1): Equation of the free surface (isobar):
p = constant dp = 0
0 - ao dx g dz
dz a o
tan
dx g
a
int egrating dz o dx
g
ao a
z x c equation of a stright line with slope tan - o
g 1 g
and intercects z axis with length c
1
Case (2): Pressure distribution at the bottom of the tank:
z = constant dz = 0
dP - a o dx g 0 dP - a o dx
integrating dP a o dx
P - ao x c
2
Case (3): Pressure distribution at the walls of the tank:
x = constant dx = 0
0 - a o a o 0 g dz dP - g dz
integrating dP g dz
P - g z c
3
2-6.2. Fluids in rigid-body motion due to rotation with constant angular velocity 0
Governing equations:
p g a
using Cylinderical coordinate :
p
- g a iˆ
r r r r
1 p
- g a iˆ
r
p
- g a iˆ
z z z z
where : g g 0 & g g
r z
a a 0 & a w 2 r
z r 0
substituting in the above equations we obtain,
38
[Type here]
p p
0 o2 r o2 r
r r
1 p p
0 0 0
r
p p
g 0 g
z z
the total diff.of pressure
p p p
dp dr d dz
r z
dp o2 r dr g dz
governing equation for every particle of the fluid
special cases:
Case (1): Equation of the free surface (isobar):
p = constant dp = 0
0 - w 2 r dr g dz
0
o2
int egrating dz r dr
g
o2 2
z (r) r c equation of a parabola intersects the z - axis at c
2g 1 1
2
where c H o R2 for equating volumes befor and after rotation.
1 0 4g
Case (2): Pressure distribution at the bottom of the tank:
z = constant dz = 0
dp o2 r dr - g 0 dp o2 r dr
integrating dp o2 r dr
1
p o2 r 2 c
2 2
Case (3): Pressure distribution at the walls of the tank:
x = R dr = 0
dp o2 r 0 g dz dp g dz
integrating dp g dz
p - g z c
3
39
CHAPTER #3
Fluid Kinematics
3-1. Fluid velocity
y Position vector y Velocity vector
Particle location at time t + t
r
r (t+t) V
Particle location at time t j
r (t) i
0 position vector origin x k x
z
z
r ( t t ) r ( t ) r d r
V = lim = lim
t 0 t t 0 t dt
V = ui + vj + wk
3-2. Velocity Field
In dealing with fluid in motion, we are concerning with the description of a velocity field. The
velocity at a point is defined as the instantaneous velocity of the center of gravity of its volume,
, instantaneously surrounding that point. The fluid velocity at any point in the flow field is
defined in the same manner.
At a given instant of time the velocity field, V , is function of the space coordinates x, y, z, that
is, V = V (x, y, z) which may vary from one instant of time to another instant. Thus, the
complete representation of velocity vector (i.e. velocity field) is given by:
V = V (x, y, z, t)
If the fluid property, at a point in the flow field does not change with time, the flow is
considered to be a steady flow mathematically / t = 0
Where represents any fluid property.
Thus for a steady flow: / t = 0 or
= (x, y, z) only and,
V / t = 0 or
V = V (x, y, z) only.
i.e. velocity may vary from point to point in the flow field but they must remain constant with
time at any given point.
3-2.1. Schemes used for description of motion
a. Lagrange approach for description of motion:
It is the approach of following the trajectories of individual particle (very useful in solid
mechanics). If it is applied to describe the fluid motion, each fluid particle should be
tracked and its motion is observed with respect to its initial position as function of space and
time. It requires unaffordable and too expensive calculations, so it is not suitable in fluid
mechanics.
b. Euler approach for description of motion:
40
It is the approach in which the fluid flow is imagined as taking place in a field, in which the
fluid motion variables are specified as function of space and time with respect to a fixed
frame of reference (fixed point in space). It assumes the motion corresponds to its
instantaneous position in the field (it is used in description of fluid motions).
Eulerian velocity field V (r ,t)=V (x, y, z, t)
V ( x, y, z , t ) u (x, y, z, t) i + v (x, y, z, t) j + w (x, y, z, t) k
The aim of fluid mechanics study or problem analysis is to get information about the values of
velocity components; u; v; and w.
Note: The three fundamental laws of mechanics: conservation of mass; momentum; and energy
are formulated for particles (systems) of a fixed identity; i.e., they are Lagrangian in nature.
All the three laws are related to the time rate of change of some property of a fixed particle.
Let Q represents
any property of the fluid. From mathematics, the total differential,
Q Q Q Q
dQ= dx dy dz dt since we are intentionally following a particle of fixed
x y z t
identity, the spatial increments must be such that: dx
= udt, dy
= vdt, dz
= wdt
Q Q Q Q
Substituting into equation of dQ we get: d Q = udt vdt wdt dt
x y z t
dQ Q Q Q Q
Thus, u v w
dt t x y z
Substantial derivative Local Convective derivative
or particle derivative derivative
or material derivative
All terms which invoke the feeling that we are following a fixed particle.
In vector form:
DQ Q
V Q where : gradient operator = i j k
Dt t x y z
3-3. Acceleration
Field
DV
a
Dt
=
D u D v D w V
Dt
i
Dt
j
Dt
k
t
V V
D
The convective terms in represent unfortunate mathematical difficulty because they are
Dt
nonlinear products of variable terms.
Viscous flows with finite convective accelerations are nonlinear in character and present such
difficult analytical problems as: failure of the super-position principle; non-unique solutions
(even in steady laminar flows); and coupled oscillating motion in a continuous frequency
spectrum which is the chief feature of high Reynolds number, or turbulent flow.
*Note that these nonlinear terms are accelerations, not viscous stresses:
The main obstacle in viscous flow analysis is the inviscid term (convective acceleration); the
viscous stresses itself are linear if the viscosity is assumed constant.
In frictionless flow, the nonlinear convective accelerations still exist but do not misbehave,
as can be seen with reference to the valuable vector identity
41
V2
V V=
2
V V
The term V V is usually vanishes if the viscosity is zero (irrotational) leaving the
convective acceleration equal only to the familiar kinetic energy term of Bernoulli s equation.
Inviscid flow, then, is nonlinear, also, but the non-linearity is confined to the calculation of static
pressure, not to the determination of the velocity field, which is linear.
3-4. Static Pressure Field
From Euler’s equation of fluid motion (momentum partial derivative equation in vector form for
inviscid fluid flow):
p g a
The pressure field is determined by integrating the pressure differential dp which is obtained
from the mathematical relation:
dp (p x )dx (p y )dy (p z )dz (p t )dt
The partial derivatives are obtained from the pressure gradient vector: p (a g ) :
x direction p x ( g x a x )
y direction p y ( g y a y )
z direction p z ( g z a z )
3-5. Streamline and Stream function, , for 2-D, Incompressible Flow
a) Equation of streamline:
A streamline is the line to which, at each instant, the velocity vectors are tangent. Thus at each
instant V V (x, y, z)
y V
dr Streamline
r r + r
V dr 0
x
V dr 0
( u î v ĵ w k̂ ) ( dx î dy ĵ dz k̂ ) 0
v w
(vdz - wdy) iˆ 0
dy dz
w u dx dy dz
( wdx - udz) ˆj 0 Equations of the streamlines
dz dx u v w
u v
( udy - vdx) kˆ 0
dx dy
42
dy v
In x-y plane,
dx u
dz w
In y-z plane,
dy v
dx u
In z-x plane,
dz w
In two-dimensional flows the equations of streamlines may be described by: the so called a
stream function. Different values of stream functions, designating different streamlines.
b) Stream Function: it is a functional relation represents the streamlines and satisfies the
continuity equation for 2-D, incompressible flow.
ψ ψ
In Cartesian coordinates: u and v -
y x
For 2-D incompressible flow in the x-y plane, the equation of streamline is given as;
udy vdx 0 , and for to get a constant value representing the streamline d = 0, then from
mathematics d dx dy 0 . Combining the mentioned relations,
x y
we get u and v -
y x
For 2-D incompressible flow in the x-y plane the mass conservation equation can be written as
u v
follows: 0
x y
By substituting u and v - in the continuity equation we get
y x
2 2
- 0 which satisfies the continuity equation exactly since = (x, y, t) at any
xy yx
instant of time t = to along a stream line.
1
In polar coordinates: vr and v -
r r
Example:
Given = - 2xy. Find the velocity components and describe the flow in the upper half-plane.
43
Solution:
dy y
u -2x and v - 2y V - 2x î 2y ĵ -
y x dx x
ln y ln x ln C y C y
x
x
v
B(x1, y2) (x2, y2)
u
A(x1, y1)
c) Volumetric Flowrate Q:
yy12 u dy
Q across AB = yy12 dy 12 d 2 - 1
y
Q across BC = xx12 v dx xx12 dx 21 d 2 - 1
x
Thus Qper unit depth between any two stream lines can be written as difference between the constant
values of defining the two streamlines.
Example:
Given V ay î axĵ Find .
Solution:
u -ay and v - ax d dx dy
y x x y
d - a xdx - a ydy
a a
- x2 - y2 C
2 2
a a
Check u - x 2 - y 2 C ay
y y 2 2
a a
v- - x 2 - y 2 C ax
x x 2 2
3-6. Motion of Fluid Element
A fluid element of mass dm moves in a flow field, may undergoes through several kinds of
motions as follows:
It may translate undergoes a linear displacement
It may rotate its orientation changes w.r.t coordinates
It may deform undergoes a linear deformation change in shape without change in
orientation
undergoes an angular deformation distortion of the element (planes that
were lines are no longer )
y y
44
x x
Pure Translation Pure Rotation
y y
x x
Linear Deformation Angular Deformation
3-6.1. Fluid rotation:
It is defined as the angular velocity of any two mutually perpendicular line elements of the
particle. Rotation of a fluid particle can be caused only by torque applied by shear forces on the
sides of the particle. Such forces, however, are impossible in an ideal, inviscid, fluid and so the
flow of an ideal fluid is necessarily irrotational.
For 3-Directions:
x î y ĵ z k̂
For 2-Directions:
x î y ĵ
y b
y
a’ O a
x
b’
x
Rotation occurs only if velocity at points a, b are different than at origin O
Velocity components of the element are u(x, y) and v(x, y)
At point O u = uo and v = vo
v
v vo x v o v
x
Using Taylor series expansion
u
u uo y uo u
y
The angular velocity of the line Oa is given by:
v
x.t
v. t x
x Lim x Lim x v
oa Lim Lim
t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t x
The angular velocity of the line Ob is given by:
u
y.t
u. t y
y y y u
ob Lim Lim Lim Lim
t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t y
45
Then the angular velocity of the element is the average of that of lines Oa and Ob is
given by:
z
1
oa ob 1 v u
2 2 x y
Similarly:
1 u w
y
2 z x
1 w v
x
2 y z
= x î y ĵ z k̂
1 w v ˆ 1 u w ˆ 1 v u ˆ
= i j k
2 y z 2 z x 2 x y
1
ω V
2
1
ω Curl V
2
For irrotational flow 0 Curl V 0
Irrotational flow is the flow at which each element of the moving fluid undergoes no net
rotation (w.r.t. chosen coordinate axes) from one instant to another.
3-6.2. Velocity potential function
A scalar function must exist such that gradient of is equal to the velocity vector so that the
irrotationality condition could be satisfied identically.
is defined such that V
in Cartesian coordinates:
φ φ φ
u , v , w
x y z
in cylindrical coordinates:
1
Vr , V , Vz
r r z
Velocity potential is a functional relation represents the velocity field and satisfies the
irrotationality condition.
46
3-6.3 Vorticity
The vorticity may in fact be defined as the algebraic sum of the angular velocities of two
(momentarily) perpendicular line elements that move with the fluid and intersect at the point in
question.
2 V
in cylindrical coordinates:
1
V Vr ir V i Vz iz and ir i iz
r r z
1 Vz V V V 1 rV 1 Vr
x V i r r z i iz
r z z r r r r
i i
Note: r i and i r
3-6.4. Circulation
It is defined as the line integral, taken completely around a closed curve, of the tangential
component of the velocity vector.
V L dL V.dL
L
If dL dx î dy ĵ dz k̂
and V u î v ĵ w k̂
udx vdy wdz
L
Example:
Calculate the circulation around a fluid element having rectangular shape.
Answer:
y u y
u
y 2
v
v x dy v x
v v
x 2 x 2
u y v x
u x v y
y 2 x 2
dx
- u
u y
x v
v x
y u y
y 2 x 2 u
y 2
v u
xy
x y x
v u
Now Lim Vorticity
xy 0 xy x y
The limiting value of circulation per unit area about any curve must equal to the
vorticity component about an axis passing through the area center and normal to
the limiting plane of the circulation. Lim n
S 0 S
47
3-6.5. Analogy between velocity and vorticity vectors
Circulation
Vorticity
Area of vortex tube
Discharge
Velocity
Area of stream tube
Vorticity and Velocity:
Both are vectors.
From the definition of andThe following counter-part of the continuity equation
exists div 0
x y z
As streamline is tangent to the velocity vector a vortex line can be visualized as tangent to
dx dy dz
the vorticity vector at every point
A group of vortex lines may be assumed to bind a vortex tube, just as streamlines bound a
stream tube.
Vorticity is expressed in terms of velocity gradient any abrupt change in the velocity
distribution gives rise to a concentration of vorticity.
Vortex streets are formed at zones of velocity discontinuity, i.e., the juncture of streams of
different velocity.
Helmholtz demonstrated that: the vorticity of a fluid system can change only if the
deformation accompanying flow is resisted by internal stresses.
48
3-7. Solved Examples
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
CHAPTER 4
BASIC EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM
FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
Starting with basic equations for a system and the characteristics of systems and control volume then
proceed from here.
4-1. Basic Laws for a System:
dm
4-1.1. Conservation of mass: )System 0
dt
Where , m System dm d
System System
dmV
4-1.2. Conservation of momentum: : F )System
dt
Where , Vm )System Vdm V d
System System
d r x mV
4-1.3. Conservation of moment of momentum: : r x F )System
dt
Where , r x Vm )System r x Vdm r x V d
System System
Torque can be produced by: Surface and body forces and also by shafts that crossing the system
boundaries.
r x F r x F Surface r x g dm T Shaft
mass (system)
4-1.4. Conservation of energy: First Law of Thermodynamics:
dE
Q W )System
dt
Where , E System e dm
System System
e d
4-1.5. Conservation of entropy: Second Law of Thermodynamics:
dS Q
: )System
dt T
Where , S System s dm
System System
s d
77
4-2 Control Volume
Application of the known physical laws (conservation of mass, momentum, and energy) in fluid flow
problems an alternative approach should be taken. The fluid flow is imagined as taking place in a
field in which the fluid-motion variables are specified as a function of position and time. As a fluid
particle moves through this field, it assumes the motion corresponding to its instantaneous position in
the field. This is called Eulerian approach. In Lagrangian approach (which is used to describe solid
motions) we would tag a fluid particle and focus our attention on its motion.
Since the fundamental physical laws are stated in terms of the Lagrangian view we must develop
the Mathematical Transformation between the Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches.
The Field, or Eulerian Approach Considers an imaginary nonaccelerating closed volume in the
flow, called a Control Volume, through which the flow passes freely. It will be either stationary
or moving a straight-line motion with a constant velocity.
The basic natural flows involve the rate of change (in an inertial coordinate system) of various
fluid-flow variables.
The key transformation equation between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions will be
developed by determining the time derivatives of some arbitrary flow variables in terms of both
approaches.
4-2.1 Extensive and intensive properties:
Extensive property: Depends on the amount of material present in the system, e.g., mass,
energy, and volume.
Intensive property: Does not depend on the amount of material present in the system, e.g.,
fluid velocity, acceleration, pressure, density, temp., and
coefficient of viscosity.
Any extensive property can be converted into a corresponding intensive property by dividing it by the
mass of the system the adjective (specific) is affixed to the name of the property.
Extensive property B
Intensive propert b
mass of system m s
Fluid Property of System Extensive Property B Intensive Property b
Mass ms 1
Linear Momentum ms V V
Angular Momentum ms (r x V) (r x V)
Kinetic Energy ms V2/2 V2/2
Total Energy E e
Total Entropy S s
78
4-3 Control Volume Transformation Equation
Reynolds Transport Equation
ms d
system
and B ms b b d
system
dB d
b d this form is not useful for most fluid problems
dt system dt system
4-3.1. Time derivative in terms of control volume variables:
System boundary at time t System boundary at time t + t
Streamlines
I II III
Stationary control volume boundary
At time t t the system moved while the control volume remained stationary where it was.
dB B ( t t ) B ( t )
The time rate of change of B of the system is : Lim
dt system t 0 t
Now , B( t t ) BII ( t t ) BIII ( t t ) and , B( t ) BI ( t ) BII ( t )
Where, BIII ( t t ) is the mass flow out of control volume which transports B across C.. boundary
And, BI ( t ) is the mass flow into control volume which transports B across C.. boundary
Substituting and arranging
dB BII ( t t ) BII ( t ) BIII ( t t ) BI ( t )
Lim Lim
dt system t 0 t t 0 t
The time rate of change of the The rate of outflow minus the rate of inflow
property B of the fluid in the (The net efflux of B out of C. )
control volume
b V. dA
t
b d
C. S
C .
at a given location ,b are Mass flowrate transporting the property B.
function of position and time
dB
t
b d + b (V dA )
dt system C . C. S
This is called the transport equation for the time derivative of some extensive property from system
variables to control volume variables.
First Term: Local change in the extensive property B
79
Second Term: Convective change in the extensive property B due to mass transport or convection
across the control volume boundary.
4-4. Continuity Equation for a Control Volume (in Integral Form):
dm
Law of conservation of mass to a fluid particle of mass m = 0
dt
Using the general control volume equation in which the extensive property B is considered the mass
of the fluid particle m; the corresponding intensive property b is the mass per unit mass, then:
dB dm m m
d V. dA
dt system dt system t C . m C .S m
The law of conservation of mass becomes:
0
t d
C .
(V dA)
C .S
<= The control volume continuity equation,
All fluid flows must satisfy it.
1stterm: is the time rate of change of fluid mass inside the control volume.
2nd term: is the net rate of mass outflow (efflux) crossing the control surface?
The equation states that: The rate of accumulation of mass in the control volume is the difference
between the rates of mass inflow and outflow crossing the control
volume surface.
4-5. Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume:
Inertial control volume: A control volume not accelerating relative
to a stationary frame of reference
(inertial coordinate system).
Control volume equation:
dP
F Newton 2nd law applied for a system moving relative to an inertial coordinate system.
dt system
F Fs FB all surface and body forces acting on the system
P Vdm d linear momentum
V
mass (system) Volume (system)
From Reynolds Transformation equation in which the extensive property B is considered the
momentum of the fluid particle, P; the corresponding intensive property b is the momentum per unit
mass, V, then:
80
dB dP mV mV
dt system
dt system
t
C .
m
d
C .S
m
V. dA
but
dB
dt system
F on system
Since at time t t o both system and control volume are coincide,then
F on system F on control volume
Then the momentum equation is written in integral form as follows :
t
Fsurface FBody V d V V. dA
C . C .S
All forces (surface force and body force) acting on non-accelerating control volume is equal to the
sum of the rate of change of momentum inside the control volume and the net rate of efflux of
momentum through the control surface.
4-6. Momentum Equation for Control Volume Moving with Constant Velocity:
A control volume (fixed relative to reference frame xyz) moving with a constant velocity, V rf, relative
to a fixed (inertial) reference frame XYZ, is also inertial, since it has no acceleration with respect to
XYZ.
1) All velocities are measured relative to the control volume,
2) All time derivatives are measured relative to the control volume.
Fsurface FBody V xyz d V xyz V xyz . dA
t C . C.S
the subscript xyz should be included to indicate that quantities must be measured
relative to C. .
4-7. Momentum Equation for Control Volume Moving with Linear Acceleration:
1) Is valid at any instant for any arbitrary motion of the coordinates x,y,z provided that all time
derivatives and velocities in the equation are measured relative to the control volume.
dP
2) The system equation F is valid only for velocities measured relative to an inertial
dt system
(stationary or moving with zero acceleration) reference frame.
Thus, if we denote the inertial Reference Frame by XYZ, then, Newton’s 2nd law states that:
dPXYZ
F
dt system
81
z
Z in motion w.r.t.xyz
y
Y
X Stationary Ref. Frame x Moving Ref Frame
In order to obtain the momentum equation for a linearly accelerating control volume, Reynolds
transformation equation will be used with the appropriate system equation (Newton’s 2nd law).
In the Reynolds transformation equation all time derivatives and velocities are measured relative to
the control volume (x, y, z); thus it is necessary to relate PXYZ of the stationary system to Pxyz of the
moving system.
Control volume equation:
dPXYZ d dV XYZ
F V
dt system dt mass ( system )
XYZ dm
mass (system)
dt
dm a XYZ dm
mass (system)
Newton 2nd law applied for a system moving relative to an inertial reference frame.
Pure Translation z
Fluid particle
Rxyz
Z RXYZ y
Rrf
Y x Non-Inertial Reference Frame
X Inertial Reference Frame
Since the motion of xyz is pure translation, without rotation, relative to an inertial reference frame
XYZ then:
a XYZ axyz arf
Relativeto Relativeto Non - Inertial Ref.F.
Inertial Ref.F. Non - Inertial Ref.F. Relativeto Inertial Ref.F.
F a XYZ dm ( a xyz a rf ) dm
mass (system) mass (system
Substituting in Reynolds transport equation using B Pxyz and b V xyz
dPxyz
t
V d V V . dA
dt xyz xyz xyz
System C . C.S
dPxyz
But from the system equation
dt
Fon system - a rf d
Volume (system)
System
Since the system and the control volume are coincided at time t o ,then :
82
dPxyz
dt
Fon system - a rf d Fon control volume - a rf d
System Volume (system) Control Volume
From the above equations :
Fon control volume - a rf d
Control Volume t
C .
V xyz d
C.S
V xyz V xyz . dA
Then the momentum equation for moving control volume with linear acceleration a rf :
Fsurface Bbody d -
Control Volume
a rf d V xyz d V xyz V xyz . dA
Control Volume t C . C.S
4-8. Momentum Equation for Control Volume Moving with Arbitrary
Acceleration:
Control volume is under rotation with angular acceleration besides translation with rectilinear
acceleration.
dPXYZ d dV XYZ
F
V XYZ dm
dt system dt mass ( system )
mass (system)
dt
dm a XYZ dm
mass (system)
Particle
YRxyz
y
x
RXYZRrf
z
X
Inertial Reference Frame
Z
RXYZ Rrf Rxyz
Differentiating w.r.t. time
dRrf dRxyz
V XYZ
dt dt
d ˆ ˆ ˆ
V XYZ Vrf ( xi yj zk )
dt
dx ˆ dy ˆ dz ˆ diˆ djˆ dkˆ
V XYZ Vrf ( i j k ) ( x y z )
dt dt dt dt dt dt
V XYZ Vrf V xyz R xyz
83
Differentiating w.r.t. time
dV XYZ
a XYZ
dt
dVrf dV xyz d
a XYZ ( R xyz )
dt dt dt
dVrf dV xyz d dR xyz
a XYZ R xyz
dt dt dt dt
dVrf dV xyz
a XYZ Rxyz ( V xyz Rxyz )
dt dt
dVrf du dv dw dî dĵ dk̂
a XYZ ( î ĵ k̂ ) ( u v w )
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Rxyz V xyz ( Rxyz )
dVrf
a XYZ a xyz V xyz Rxyz V xyz ( Rxyz )
dt
a XYZ arf a xyz 2 V xyz ( Rxyz ) Rxyz
Where,
a XYZ : Absolute Rectlinear acc. of a particle Relative to a Fixed Reference Frame.
arf : Absolute Rectlinear acc. of a moving Ref. Frame Relative to a Fixed Ref. Frame.
a xyz : Rectlinear acc. of a particle Relative to a Moving Reference Frame (seen by an
observer on the Moving Frame).
2 ω V xyz : Coriolis acc. due to motion of the particle within the Moving Frame.
ω (ω Rxyz ) : Centerpital acc. due to rotation of the Moving Frame.
ω Rxyz : Tangential acc. due to angular acc. of the Moving Reference Frame .
Substituting in the Newton’s 2nd Law:
dPXYZ d dV XYZ
Fsystem
V XYZ dm
dt system dt mass ( system )
mass (system) dt
dm a XYZ dm
mass (system)
Fsystem (a rf a xyz 2 Vxyz ( Rxyz ) Rxyz )dm
mass (system
a xyz dm
mass (system)
Fsystem - (a rf
mass (system
2 V xyz ( R xyz ) R xyz )dm
dPxyz
Fsurface FBody (a rf 2 V xyz ( R xyz ) R xyz ) d
dt (system
system
dPXYZ d dV XYZ
Fsystem
V XYZ dm
dt system dt mass ( system )
mass (system) dt
dm a XYZ dm
mass (system)
Fsystem (a rf a xyz 2 Vxyz ( Rxyz ) Rxyz )dm
mass (system
84
a xyz dm Fsystem - (arf 2 Vxyz ( Rxyz ) Rxyz )dm
mass (system) mass (system
dPxyz
Fsurface FBody (arf 2 Vxyz ( Rxyz ) Rxyz ) d
dt (system
system
Is a statement of Newton' s 2nd law for a system, where Pxyz is measured relative to
x, y, z coordinate system as seen by an observer in xyz. The system and control volume
formulatio
n are related by Reynolds Transport equation :
dPxyz
t xyz xyz
V d V V . dA
dt xyz
System C . C.S
Then,
the most general control volume formulation of Newton' s 2nd law is :
Fsurface FBody (arf 2 Vxyz ( rxyz ) Rxyz ) d
(system
t V
C .
xyz
d V
C.S
xyz
V xyz . dA
4-9. Moment of Momentum Equation for Control Volume:
Substituting in Reynolds transport equation using B H and b r V
dH
dt
System
t r
C .
V d r
C .S
V V . dA
dH
But from the system equation
dt System
r Fsurface
r g dm Tshaft
mass (system)
Since the system and the control volume are coincided at time t o , then :
THE MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR FIXED CONTROL VOLUME IS :
t
r Fsurface r FBody Tshaft r V d r V (V dA)
C . C .S
THE MOMENT OF MOMENTUM
EQUATION FOR ROTATING CONTROL VOLUME IS :
r FSurface r FBody Tshaft r ( 2 V xyz ( rxyz ) rxyz ) d
(system
t
C .
r V xyz d r V xyz (V xyz dA)
C.S
85
4-10. Energy Equation for Control Volume:
The system formulation of the first law of thermodynamics :
dE
Q W
dt System
V2
where , E System e dm e d ; eu
2
gz
mass (system) (system)
Q : Rate of heat transfer ( )ve when heat is added to the system
(-)ve when heat is taken from the system
W : Rate of work done ( )ve denotes work done BY the system
(-)ve denotes work done ON the system
Substituting in Reynolds transport equation using B E and b e
dE
e d e V dA
dt System t C . C .S
dE
But from the system equation Q W
dt System
Since the system and the control volume are coincided at time t o , then :
Q W
t
e d e V dA Energy equation for control volume
C . C .S
V2
where , e u gz
2
W W shaft W normal W shear W others
nn V dA - V dA Electrical Energy or
C.S C.S
this term is zero Electromagnitic Energy
if ports are to flow
Q nn V dA W shear W others
t
W shaft e d e V dA
C.S C . C .S
Q W shaft
t
W shear W others e d ( e nn v ) V dA
C . C .S
For most flows of common engineering interest nn p
The control volume energy equation becomes :
V2
Q W shaft W shear W others e d ( u pv gz ) V dA
t C . C .S 2
86
4-11 Solved Examples:
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
CHAPTER #5
Differential Analysis & Fluid Dynamics for Incompressible Flows
5-1 Continuity Equation
5-1.1 Cartesian coordinates:
vdxdz vdxdzdy
y
wdxdy
y
udydz udydz udydzdx
x
wdxdy wdxdydz
z
x
vdxdz
Conservation of mass
Rate of Change of Mass Net Rate of Mass Efflux
Inside Control Volume Through Control Surface 0
dxdydz u v w dxdydz 0
t x y z
u v w
0
t x y z
In vector form :
V 0
t
4-1.2. In Polar Coordinates:
1 rVr 1 V Vz
0
t r r r z
109
5-1.2 Cylindrical coordinates:
In cylindrical coordinates, a suitable differential control volume is shown in figure. The density at the
center, O, of the control volume is and the velocity there is V Vr îr V î Vz î z .
The conservation of mass states that:
The Conservation of mass states that :
Rate of Change of Mass Net Rate of Mass Efflux
Inside Control Volume Through Control Surface 0
To evaluate the first term in this equation, the mass inside the control volume at any instant is the product
of the mass per unit volume, and the volume, . Thus the rate of change of mass inside the
control volume is given by:
To evaluate the second term, the mass flux through each of the six faces of the control surface must be
considered; that is, we must evaluate CS
V dA . The properties at each of the six faces of the control
surface are obtained from a Taylor series expansion of the properties about the point O. The details of the
mass flux evaluation are shown in the following table:
It is shown that the net rate of mass efflux through the control surface is given by:
110
Vr V Vz
Vr r r r z rdrddz
111
5-2 Momentum Equation
5-2.1. Formulation of forces acting on a fluid particle in Cartesian coordinates:
yx yx dy
y
y zx
xx xx xx dx
x
zx zx dz yx
z
o x
Net surface forces in the x-direction, dFsx:
xx yx
dFsx xx xx dx dydz yx dy yx dxdz zx zx dz zx dxdy
x y z
xx yx zx
dxdydz
x y z
Body force, dFB:
dFB Bd Bdxdydz
B B x î B y ĵ Bz k̂
Total Force, dF:
dFx = dFsx + dFBx
xx yx zx
dFx B x dxdydz
x y z
xy yy zy
dFy B y dxdydz
x y z
yz zz
dFz B z xz dxdydz
x y z
Differential Momentum Equation:
112
xx yx zx u u u u
B x u v w
x y z t x y z
xy yy zy v v v v
B y u v w
x y z t x y z
xz yz zz w w w w
B z u v w
x y z t x y z
Differential equations of motion for any fluid satisfying the continuum assumption.
Suitable expressions for stresses are obtained as follows:
v u
xy yx
x y
w v
yz zy
y z
u w
zx xz
z x
2 u
xx p V 2
3 x
2 v
yy p V 2
3 y
2 w
zz p V 2
3 z
where p is local thermodynamic pressure
Substituting in the equation of motion and considering the continuity equation for incompressible flows
we get:
Du p 2 u 2 u 2 u
Bx 2 2 2
Dt x x y z
Dv p 2v 2v 2v
B y 2 2 2 ==Navier-Stokes Equations
Dt y x y z
Dw p 2 w 2 w 2 w
Bz 2 2 2
Dt z x y z
DV
B p 2V Navier-Stokes Equations of fluid motion
Dt
In polar Coordinates:
1
V r V r V V r V r V2 1 p
Vr V2r 12 V2r 22 V V2r
2 2
Vr Vz Br r
t r r z r r r r r r r r z
V V V V V 1 1 p 1 V 1 2V 2 V r 2V
Vr Vz
VrV
B r V 2 2
t r r z r r r r r r 2 r 2 r z 2
V z V z V V z V z 1
1 p
Vz 12 V2z V2z
2 2
Vr Vz Bz r
t r r z z r r r r z
113
In case of frictionless (inviscid) flow ( u/ y0
DV
B p Euler’s Equation of fluid motion
Dt
Stokes-Navier equations are reduced to Euler equations of fluid motion for inviscid
flows as follows:
DV
B p
Dt
5-3 Integration of Euler's Eqn. along a Streamline: "Bernoulli's Equation"
DV
B p
Dt
V
B p ( V )V
t
1
From vector analysis ( V )V ( V V ) V ( V )
2
Applying dot product of the above terms with the distance ds along the streamline :
V 1
B ds p ds ds ( V V ) ds V ( V ) ds
t 2
1 2 3 4 5
term1 B ds Bx î Bx ĵ Bx k̂ dx î dy ĵ dz k̂
Bx dx Bx dy Bx dz (along streamline)
for z - axis coinside with the vertical direction Bx B y 0
and Bz - g
gdz (along streamline)
term2 - p ds
p
î
p
ĵ
p
k̂ dx î dy ĵ dz k̂
x y z
p p p
dx dy dz
x y z
dp (along streamline)
term3
V
t
ds
t
Vs î s ds îs
Vs
t
ds (along streamline)
114
1
term 4 ( V V ) ds
1 V 2
2 x
î
V 2
y
ĵ
V 2
z
k̂ dx î dy ĵ dz k̂
2
1 V 2 V 2 V 2
dx dy dz
2 x y z
1
d ( V ) 2
(along streamline)
2
term 5 V ( V ) ds 0
as ds is parallel to V
Substituting in the above equation we get :
Vs 1
dp gdz ds d ( V 2 )
t 2
dp Vs 1
If f(t) and f(p) only (compressible flow) - gdz ds dV 2
t 2
Integrating along the streamline we get :
dp Vs V2
gz t ds
2
constant Unsteady Bernoulli' s equation for compressible,
non - viscous flow, along a streamline.
Vs
For steady flow t
ds 0
Bernoulli' s equation in case of :
1. Non - viscous flow
2. Flow along a streamline
3. Steady flow
4. Incompressible flow
Is written as follows :
p V2
gz constant
2
fluid pressure energy fluid potential energy fluid kinetic energy
per unit mass per unit mass per unit mass
Or
p V2
z constant
g 2g
fluid pressure energy fluid potential energy fluid kinetic energy
per unit weight per unit weight per unit weight
115
5-4. Solved Problems
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
Since p 1 p2 patm and V12 V22 , then
2 V
g(z 1 z 2 ) 1 t
ds
Let L total length of column
l deflection
then ds dL
dl
Vs V
dt
V V V
2 2
2 gl
t
dL dL L
1 t 1 t
dl
Since V -
dt
V d2l
2 gl L L
t dt 2
d 2l 2g
Finally 2 l 0
dt L
128
Chapter #6
Incompressible Viscous Fluid Flow
Viscous flow may be internal or external flow, laminar or turbulent flow in which the viscous forces
are not negligible [flows with both velocity gradients and shear stresses].
6-1. Viscous Flows
The fluid in direct contact with a solid boundary has the same velocity as the boundary itself (i.e, there is no
slip at the boundary) “No-Slip” condition.
u
The shear stress is given by Newton’s law of viscosity yx
y
VA = 0 no slip condition
u’ < u Effect of shearing stress (opposing motion)
yx is positive value in (-)ve y-coordinate against motion of the fluid particles.
Boundary layer grows in flow direction fluid enters B.L. from the inviscid flow region
6-1.1. Internal flows:
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces, i.e., flow in ducts, pipes, …etc.
Flow in the entrance region of a pipe:
Uo
Boundary Layer
D
Boundary Layer
Entrance Length L Fully Developed Flow
F.D.F
Decelerating flow inside the boundary layer region.
B.L. develops along pipe entrance length.
Velocity profile changes from point to point along entrance length L.
Velocity at the centerline of pipe increases in value with distance from inlet in order to satisfy the
continuity equation.
1
However, the average velocity at any cross section V udA Must equal to Uo
A Area
129
So, V U o
The distance downstream from the entrance to the location at which the boundary layer reaches the
centerline is called Entrance Length.
BEYOND THE ENTRANCE LENGTH, THE VELOCITY PROFILE NO LONGER CHANGES with
increasing distance, x, and the flow is fully developed, F.D.F.
Shape of the F.D.F. depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
For laminar flow, the entrance length, L, is a function of Reynolds Number:
L V D
0.06
D
L
0.06 Re
As Re < 2300 for laminar flow D
L
100 138
D
For turbulent flow, enhanced mixing among fluid layers causes more rapid growth of the
boundary layer Experiments show that: L 4.4 Re1 / 6
L
25 40
D
However, the details of the turbulent motion may not be fully developed for 80D or more.
6-1.2. External Flows:
Flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid:
e.g., flow over flat plates, flow over spheres, and flow over cylinders, …etc.
Stagnation Viscous
point Separation
Point Wake
Region
Stream lines Laminar Turbulent
B.L. B.L.
130
6-2. LAMINAR and Turbulent Flows
6-2.1. Laminar flows
A laminar flow is one in which the fluid flows in laminas or layers; there is no macroscopic mixing of
adjacent fluid layers.
velocity
u
Laminar-Flows
Time
u
The relation relates shear stress to the velocity gradient is yx
y
6-2.2. Turbulent flows
velocity
u
: u’
Turbulent-Flows u u u
time
The fluctuating velocity component u transports momentum across the mean flow streamlines,
u
increasing the effective shear stress ( )
y
Where, : apparent shear stress
and + : apparent viscosity (is the molecular viscosity and is the eddy viscosity coefficients)
In turbulent flow there is no universal relationship between the stress field and the mean velocity field
semi-empirical theories and experimental data are used.
6-3. Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Analytical solutions are used to obtain detailed information about the velocity field. Knowledge of the
velocity field permits calculation of shear stress, pressure drop, and flowrate.
The complete differential equations (Stokes-Navier equations) for a flow of viscous fluid could be used OR
derivation of a differential equation that describes the flow by applying the familiar control volume
formulation of Newton’s second law (Momentum Equation in Integral Form) to a suitably chosen
differential control volume.
131
6-3.1. Fully developed laminar flow between infinite parallel plates
Both plates are stationary
132
133
134
135
136
6-3.2. Fully developed laminar flow in a pipe
By starting from the Momentum Equation in Integral Form:
137
Fsurface FBody V d V V. dA
t C . C .S
=0 (1) =0 (2) =0 (3)
Assumptions:
1) Horizontal flow
Outlet (2)
2) Steady flow
3) Fully developed flow (velocity profile does not change in shape)
The governing equation for a steady fully-developed-laminar-flow is reduced to the following:
Fsurface 0
F pressure F friction 0
r
dr
( rx
rx dr
) 2 ( r )dx
p dx r 2 2 p dx
( p )2 rdr p,rx ( p )2 rdr
x 2 p,
x 2
( rx
rx dr
) 2 ( r
dr
)dx
r 2 2
x
dx
p dx
* Pressure force on left side of C.V. : (p - )2 rdr
x 2
p dx
* Pressure force on right side of C.V. : (p )2 rdr
x 2
dr dr
* Shear force on the inner cylindrical surface : - ( rx rx )2 ( r )dx
r 2 2
dr dr
* Shear force on the outer cylindrical surface : ( rx rx )2 ( r )dx
r 2 2
Substitute in the abve governing equation : Fshear F pressure 0
138
p dx
2rdrdx rx dr 2dx rx rdr 2dx 0
x 2 r
p rx rx
x r r
f(x - only) f(r - only)
for two equal partial derivatives of independent variables :
p 1 r rx
const.
x r r
Separating variables and integrating we get :
r p
rx ( ) C1
2 x
Substituting from Newton' s viscous law we get :
u r p
( ) C1
r 2 x
Separating variables and integrating we get :
r 2 p C
u(r) ( ) 1 ln r C2
4 x
Aplying the boundary conditions : at r 0 u is finite at r 0 C1 0
R 2 p
at r R u 0 C2 ( )
4 x
p r
2
R2
u(r) ( ) 1 The Velocity Profile of Flow in Pipes
4 x R
6-3.2.1. shear stress distribution: rx
du r p
rx ( )
dr 2 x
6-3.2.2. volumetric flowrate:
R R
1 p
Q V dA u2rdr
( )( r 2 R 2 )2rdr
A 0 0
4 x
R 4 p
Q ( )
8 x
6-3.2.3. flowrate as function of pressure drop:
p p p1 p
const 2 since p p1 - p2
x L L
R 4 p p 4
Q ( ) R
8 x 8 L
pD 4
Q For laminar flow in a horizontal pipe
128L
6-3.2.4. average velocity:
139
V dA
Q
V A
A R 2
R2 p
V ( )
8 x
6-3.2.5. point of maximum velocity:
du 1 p
( )r 0 occurs at r 0
dr 2 x
R2 p
At r 0 u umax ( ) 2V
4 x
6-3.2.6. velocity profile in pipe flow:
p r
2
R2 R 2 p
u ( )1 u umax U at r 0 U - ( )
4 x R 4 x
u r V 1
1 ( )2 For laminar pipe flow
U R U 2
6-3.3. Velocity profile for turbulent flow in pipes
Turbulent flow through a smooth pipe could be represented by the empirical “power-law”
equation:
u r 1n
(1 )
U R
n 6 at Re 4 10 3
n 7 at Re 1.1 10 5
n 10 at Re 3.2 10 6
Q V dA
V 2n 2
V A
A A U (n 1)(2n 1)
V
For n 6 0 .79
U
V
For n 7 0 .817
U
V
For n 10 0 .87
U
140
Velocity profiles for Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Pipe Wall
Centerline
V
Mean Velocity
UTurbulent
ULaminar
6-3.4. Flow in pipes and ducts
Energy consideration in pipe flows:
Exit (2)
Assumptions:
Inlet (1)
1. Wshaft = 0, Wothers = 0 g
2. Wshear = 0 (although shear stresses
are present at the walls of the elbow,
the velocities are zero at the walls)
3. Steady flow
4. Incompressible flow
5. Internal energy and pressure are uniform across sections (1) and (2).
Basic Equations:
Energy equation
V2
W
Q
shaft Wshear Wothers
t
C .
e d ( u pv
C .S
2
gz ) V dA
: After substituting the assumptions the equation takes the following form :
p p V22 V12
Q m
( u2 u1 ) m
( 2 1 ) m
g( z 2 z1 ) 2 V2 dA A1 2 V1 dA
A2
141
Since, velocities at section (1) and (2) are not assumed to be uniform (viscous flow) then, it
is convenient to introduce the average velocity into the equation to eliminate the integral
V2
A 2 VdA
signs = Define a Kinetic energy flux coefficient as
V2
m
2
Then the energy equation takes the form:
Q p2 p1 2V22 1V12
( u2 u1 ) ( ) g ( z 2 z1 )
m 2 2
Re-arranging this equation:
p1 V12 p2 V22 Q
1 gz1 2 gz2 ( u2 u1 )
2 2 m
Total Head Losses (hTlosses)
6-3.5. Calculation of head losses
Total head losses hTlosses = Major losses hL due to friction +
Minor losses hLm due to entrance, fittings, area changes,
…etc.
1) Major Losses hL:
For F.D.F. through a constant area pipe, hLm = 0
V12 V22
1 2
2 2
And
p1 p2
( z 2 z1 ) hL
g
For horizontal pipe z1 = z2
p1 p2
hL
g
p
hL
g
Why the energy loss, hL, is called a “head” loss. As the empirical science of hydraulics
development in 9th century, it was common practice to express the energy balance in
terms of energy per unit weight of flowing fluid (water) rather than the energy per unit
mass. To obtain dimensions of energy per unit weight, we divide each term by “g”,
gravity acceleration. Then the net dimensions of hL are “L” or meter of flowing fluid.
Since the term head loss is in common use, we shall also use it here. Remember that its
physical interpretation is a loss in mechanical energy, expressed per unit mass of flowing
fluid.
a) For Laminar Flow:
142
As given in 6-3.2.3:
2
128 LQ 128 LV ( D )
p 4 32 L V
D 4
D 4
D D
Substituting from above relation we get :
L V L V2
hL 32 ( 64 )
D gD D 2g V D
64 L V 2
hL
Re D 2 g
64
f la minar
Re
b) For Turbulent Flow:
Using dimensional analysis and experimental results:
p L e L e
p f ( D , L , e , V , , ) f( , , ) f (Re, , )
V 2
V D D D D D
Substituting from the above relation :
hL L e hL L e L
2
1 (Re, ) 2 (Re, ) f
V D D 1 2 D D D
V
2
2
LV
hL f where f is friction factor
D 2g
The friction factor is determined experimentally. The published results by L.F. Moody, are shown
in Figure 8.12, it is called Moody chart, which represents the above relations graphically for both
laminar and turbulent pipe flows
143
Relative Roughness Coefficient for Pipes /D:
144
2. Minor Losses, hlm:
V2
hlm K
2
Where K is the coefficient of local losses, see from page 367 to page 376 in Ref. Fox & McDonalds.
145
6-4. Solution of Pipe Flow Problems
Using the energy equation:
p1 V12 p2 V22
( 1 gz1 ) ( 1 gz 2 ) hTlosses
2 2
Where hTlosses hL hlm
6-4.1. Single path system:
p 3 ( L , Q , D , e , z , System Configuration, , )
For a given system and fluid :
p 4 ( L , Q , D ) 4 - Variables
6-4.2. The four general cases:
(a) L , Q, and D are known p is Unknown
(b) p , Q, and D are known L is Unknown
(c) p , L, and D are known Q is Unknown
(d) p , L, and Q are known D is Unknown
- Cases (a) and (b) may be solved directly by applying the energy and continuity
equations (using data of the losses)
- Cases (c) and (d) Same as above but requires iteration
146
147
148
6-5. Boundary Layer
Boundary layer: The region adjacent to a solid surface in which the viscous forces are
important.
6-5.1. Boundary layer concept
Prandtl showed that many viscous flows can be analyzed by dividing the flow into two regions, one close to
solid boundaries, and the other covering the rest of the flow. Only in the thin region adjacent to a solid
boundary (the boundary layer), the effect of viscosity is important. In the region outside the boundary
layer, the effect of viscosity is negligible and the fluid may be treated as inviscid.
InertiaForce
In the boundary layer both viscous and inertia forces are important Re is significant in
ViscousForce
characterizing boundary layer flows. Characteristic length in Re is the length in flow direction over which
the boundary layer is developed, or as some measure of the boundary layer thickness.
As in ducts, flow in a boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent,
There is no certain value for Re at which transition occurs,
Transition is affected by; pressure gradient; surface roughness; heat transfer; body forces; and free
stream disturbances,
Examples of boundary layer developing over a long surface (essentially flat):
o Flow over ship and submarine hulls,
o Flow over air craft wings,
o Atmospheric motions over flat terrain.
6-5.2. Flow over flat plate
For incompressible flow over a smooth flat plate (zero pressure gradient) in the absence of heat transfer
== transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the boundary layer can be delayed to Reynolds number
Rex = Ux/, in the range 3.0 x 106 < Rex < 4.0 x 106 if air disturbances are minimized.
For air flow at standard conditions, with U= 100 m/sec, this corresponds to 0.43 m < x < 0.58 m.
Boundary layer thickness, :
Is the distance from the surface to the point where the velocity is within 1%
of the free stream velocity,
The effect of the boundary layer is to displace the streamlines in the flow field outside the boundary layer
away from the wall (boundary layer displacement thickness, *)
149
Displacement thickness, *:
Is defined as the distance by which the solid surface would have to be
a m
displaced to maintain the same mass flowrate in a hypothetical frictionless flow, ( m b ).
m a ubdy and m b Ubdy
0 *
ubdy Ubdy For Incompressible Flow udy Udy
0 * 0 *
*
*
u
udy Udy Udy Udy (U u )dy *
(1 )dy
0 0 0 0 0 0 U
u u
Then from the definition (since u U for y , then (1
U
)dy 0 ) * (1
0
U
)dy
Example:
Air flows between parallel plates (Boundary layer thickness on each wall is given by the expression
15 u y 1
0.370 ( ) and the velocity profile in the boundary layer is given by the expression ( )7,
x Uo x U
where Uo = 25 m/sec, and the uniform plate width is w.
Find: the pressure drop p1 – p2, where x2 = 5 m.
Solution:
Check if x2 is within the boundary layer or not i.e. if x2 <
2 = 0.370 x2 ( /Uo x2) = 0.370 * 5m (1.45*10-5m2/sec*sec/25m*1/5m)1/5
Uo = 0.0759 m 2 < h/2 the flow is not fully developed and
1 2
x Boundary Layer thickness we can apply
xy1=0 x2=5m
h=0.3m
Entrance Length L
Fully Developed Flow
F.D.F
Bernoulli eqn. along the center streamline between points. 1, 2:
150
p1 V12 p2 V22
gz1 gz2
2 2
1 V12 V
2
U 2 U ( x ) 2
z1 z2 p1 p2 ( V2 V1 )
2 2
2 1 o
2
1
2 2 V1 2 U o
In order to determine Ux2, we employ the notion of *
From continuity equation: U1 A1 = U2 A2 Uo h w = U2 (h – 2 2*) w
U2 h
Uo h 2 2*
y
let then dy d
1
u u
from the definition of the displacement thickness ( 1 )dy 2 ( 1 )d
*
2
0 U 0 U
1
7 8
1 1
u 1
2 ( 1 )d 2 ( 1 7 )d 2 7 2
*
2
0 U 0 8 0 8
0.0759 m
*2 0.00949 m
8
U h 0.3 m
2 1.0675
U o h 2 2 0.3 m 2 ( 0.00949 m )
*
U o2 U ( x ) 2 1.23 kg / m 3 ( 25 )2 m 2 / sec 2
p1 p2 2
1 ( 1.0675 )2 1N sec 2
kg m
2 U o 2
53.6 Pa
6-6. Momentum Integral Equation
How large is the viscous region?!
Our aim is to develop an equation that will enable us to predict the manner in which the boundary layer
grows as a function of distance along the body. Applying the integral equation to a differential control
volume shown in the figure below:
Required: (x)
There are mass flowrate across surfaces
ab, bc, and cd.
(a) Continuity equation:
0
t C .V
d ( V dA )
C .S
Assumptions:
(1) Steady flow
(2) Two-dimensional flow
Substituting in the continuity equation:
151
( V dA ) mab mbc mcd
0
C .S
mbc mab mcd
surface Mass Flux (m.)
ab m udy dz
ab
0
.
Expanding m in taylor series about the location x = x + dx
m x
m x dx m x dx
cd x
mcd
udy udy dx dz
0 x 0
bc m m m udy dx dz
x 0
bc ab cd
(b) x-component of momentum equation:
t C.V
Fs x FB x ud u ( V dA )
C .S
Assumptions:
(3) FBx = 0
FS X ( momentum flux )ab ( momentum flux )bc ( momentum flux )cd
surface Momentum Flux (mf)
( momentum flux )ab mf ab uudy dz
0
.
Expanding m in Taylor series about the location x = x + dx
mf x
mf x dx mf x dx
(momentum flux) cd x
mf cd uudy uudy dx dz
0 x 0
Since the mass crossing surface bc has velocity U, the momentum
flux across bc is given by:
(momentum flux) bc
mf bc Umbc
U udy dx dz
x 0
From the above we can evaluate the momentum flux through the control surface:
C .S
u ( V d A )
0
u udy
dz
0
u udy
dz
x 0
u udy dx
dz U
x 0
udy dx dz
Collecting terms :
C .S
u ( V dA )
x 0
u udy dx
dz U
x 0
udy dx dz
Now FSx should be determined:
Surface Force
ab Fab = p dz
152
Pressure variation in y-direction is neglected as is Differential control volume
very thin.
p
p x dx p x x dx
x
cd
p
Fcd ( p x x dx )( d )dz
x
The average pressure acting over the surface bc is:
1 p x
px dx
2 x
bc Then the x-component of the normal force acting over
bc is:
1 p x
Fbc ( p x dx )ddz
2 x
The shear force on ad is given by:
ad Fad w dxdz
Summing the x-component of each force acting on the control surfaces, we obtain:
p 1 p
FSx dx dxd w dx dz
x 2 x
where we note that dxd << dx, so the second term is neglected.
Substituting the expressions for u ( V dA ) and FSx into the momentum equation, we obtain:
C .S
p 1 p
dx dxd dx dz uudy
dx dz U udy dx dz
x 2 x x 0 x 0
w
Dividing this equation by dxdz gives:
p
The Momentum Integral Equation
x
w
x 0
uudy U
x 0
udy
Gives a relation between x-components of the forces acting in a boundary layer and the momentum flux. In
order to use this equation to estimate the boundary layer thickness as a function of x, we must:
p
1. Determine a first approximation to pressure gradient , this is determined from the inviscid flow
x
theory [the pressure gradient that would exist in the absence of a boundary layer]. The pressure in
the boundary layer is related to the free stream velocity, U, by using Bernoulli's equation.
2. Assume some reasonable velocity profile inside the boundary layer.
3. Relate the wall shear stress to the velocity field.
Special Case: Flow Over A Flat Plate
1 p V
U = constant from Bernoulli's equation p gz V 2 cons tan t V
2 x x
when V U V 0 p 0 p constant
x x
x 0 x 0
Then the momentum Integral Equation becomes w U udy uudy
Since U = constant
153
w
x 0
Uudy
x 0
uudy
uU u dy
x 0
Then ( Uu uu )dy
x 0
u u
U 2 1 dy
x 0 U U
For Incompressible flow
u u
w U 2 1 dy U 2
x 0 U U x
u u
where is the momentum thickness 1 dy
0U U
Is defined as the loss of momentum flux per unit width divided by U 2 , due to presence of the
growing boundary layer.
The viscous drag force, FD, on the plate per unit width into the page is equal to U 2 x
y
Define dy d
2 d u u
1
w U 1 d is valid for either laminar or turbulunt B.L. since no
dx 0 U U
restriction is made for w
This equation is subjected to restrictions:
1. Steady flow,
2. Incompressible flow,
3. Two dimensional flow,
4. No body force,
p
5. Flat plate flow ( 0 ).
x
6-6.1. Use of momentum integral equation for zero pressure gradient flow
The task is to solve this equation for the boundary layer thickness as a function of x, to do this,
u y y
1. Assume a velocity profile is given as this functional relation ship f ( ) where
U
u
Boundary conditions at y 0 u 0 and at y u U and at y 0
y
Note that once the velocity distribution has been assumed, then the numerical value of the integral equation
u u
1
is simply 1 d cons tan t
0U U
d
And the momentum integral equation becomes w U 2
dx
2. Obtain an expression for w in terms of . This will then permit us to solve for (x).
154
6-6.1.1. Laminar flow
For laminar flow over a flat plate, a reasonable assumption for the velocity profile is a polynomial in y:
u a by cy 2
The physical boundary conditions are:
u
at y 0 u 0 and at y u U and at y 0
y
2
u y y
Evaluating the constants, a, b, and c gives 2 2 2
U
u
The wall shear stress for laminar flow is given by: w
y y 0
Substituting the assumed velocity profile, into this expression for w gives
u U u U U d ( u U ) U d 2 U
w
y y 0
y y 0
d 0
d
2 2
0
Applying the momentum integral equation we get:
2 d 2 U d
0 2 1 2 d
u u
1 1
w U 1 d U 2 2 2
dx 0 U U dx
or
2 U d
0 2 5
1
2
4 3 4 d
U 2 dx
2 2 d 15
Integrating and substituting limits yields d dx
U 15 dx U
Which is a differential equation for . Integrating again::
2 15 30 5.48
x c If 0 at x 0 , then c 0 and thus
2 U Ux Re x
Once the boundary layer thickness is known all details of the flow may be determined. The wall shear
w 0.730
stress, or "skin friction," coefficient is defined as C f
1 Re x
U 2
2
With knowledge of w, the viscous drag on the surface can be evaluated by integration over the area of the
flat plate.
6-6.1.2. Turbulent flow
For turbulent flow over a flat plate, a reasonable assumption for the velocity profile is:
17
u y
1 7
U
Important Note: However, this profile does not hold in the immediate vicinity of the wall, since at the wall
it predicts du dy . Consequently, we cannot use this profile in the definition of w, to obtain an
expression for w in terms of as we did for laminar flow. For turbulent flow we will use the experimentally
14
determined result w 0.0225 U 2
U
Applying the momentum integral equation:
155
d 1 u d 1 1 7 7 d
14
w U 2
u
1 d 0.225
1 1 7 d
dx 0 U U U dx 0 72 dx
Thus :
14 14
4 54
1 4 d 0.231 dx by integration : 0.231 x c
U 5 U
1 5
If 0 at x 0 , then c 0 and thus 0.370 x4 5
U
or
1 5
0.370
0.370
x Ux Re 1x 5
w
14
Then C f 0.0450
1
U 2 U
2
w 0.0577
Substituting for C f
1 Re 1x 5
U 2
2
Experiments show that this result predicts turbulent skin friction on a flat plate within 3% for
5x105<Rex<107. This agreement is remarkable in view of the approximate nature of the present analysis.
In concluding this section, let us point out that use of momentum integral equation is an approximate
technique for predicting boundary-layer development. The obtained agreement with experimental results
shows that it is an effective method which gives a considerable insight into the general behavior of
boundary-layers.
6-7.Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow
The momentum integral equation for both laminar and turbulent flow over flat plate (zero pressure
gradient) is given as:
2 d u u
1
w U 1 d
dx 0 U U
which indicates that the wall shear stress is balanced by a decrease in fluid momentum. Thus the velocity
profile changes as we move along the plate. The boundary-layer thickness continues to increase and the
fluid close to the wall continually being slowed down (i.e. loosing momentum).
Question: Will the fluid close to the wall ever be
brought to rest?
That is for the case of zero pressure gradient
p x 0 , is it possible that u y ) y 0 0 ?
If we consider the wall shear stress distributions
obtained for flat plates, we found that:
cons tan t
For laminar flow: w 2
U Re1x 2
cons tan t
And for turbulent flow: w 2
U Re1x 5
Recalling that w ( u y y 0 , we can then say that for any finite length plate, ( u y y 0 will never be
zero. The point on a solid boundary at which u y 0 is defined as the point of separation.
Consequently, we can conclude that for p x 0 , the flow will not separate, that is, the fluid layer in the
neighborhood of a solid surface cannot be brought to zero velocity.
156
Note: if ( u y y 0 0 then the fluid layer near the wall will have a zero velocity, since:
u )o dy uo u y )y 0 dy and u o 0 from the no slip condition.
6-7.1. Effect of pressure gradient on flow separation
The pressure gradient is said to be adverse if the pressure increases in the direction of flow, i.e.
if p x 0 . When p x 0 , that is, when the pressure decreases in the direction of flow, the pressure
gradient is said to be favorable. Consider the flow through a channel of variable cross section as shown in
figure below. To simplify our discussion, we consider the flow along the straight wall.
There is a net retarding shear force on the fluid
particle close to the solid boundary no matter what the
sign of the pressure gradient. For p x 0 , the
result is a decrease in momentum, but as already have
been shown it is not sufficient to bring the particle to
rest. Since p x 0 in Region 1, the pressure
behind the particle (aiding its motion) is greater than
that opposing its motion; hence the particle is "sliding
down a pressure hill", without danger of being
slowing to zero velocity.
However, in attempting to flow through Region 3, the particle encounters an adverse pressure
gradient p x 0 and the particle must "climb a pressure hill". The fluid particle could be
brought to rest, thus causing the neighboring fluid to be deflected away from the boundary; when
this occurs, the flow is said to separate from the surface. The point on the boundary where
( u y y 0 0 is called the point of separation. Just down-stream from the point of separation, the
flow direction in the separated region is actually opposing to the main flow direction. The low
energy fluid in the separated region is forced back upstream by the increased pressure down-stream.
Thus, we see that an adverse pressure gradient p x 0 is a necessary condition for separation. Dose this
mean that if p x 0 , we will have separation? No, it does not. We have not shown that p x 0 will
always lead to separation, but rather we have reasoned that separation cannot occur unless p x 0 .
This conclusion can be shown rigorously using the complete differential equations of motion for boundary-
layer flow.
157
The turbulent boundary-layer has a much fuller or
blunter velocity profile than the laminar boundary-layer.
Therefore, the turbulent velocity profile at the same free
stream speed contains much more momentum.
Separation occurs when the momentum of fluid layers
near the surface is reduced to zero by the combined
action of pressure and viscous forces. Because the
turbulent layer has more momentum (greater velocity), it
is better able to resist separation in an adverse pressure
gradient.
158
159
6-7.2. Determination of pressure gradient
Since the pressure gradient has much a pronounced effect on the flow behavior, it is important that we be
able to determine analytically the magnitude of the pressure gradient for a given flow situation. In fact to
calculate the growth and to predict the behavior of a boundary-layer, we must have an expression for the
pressure gradient.
For both external and internal flows we can obtain a first approximation for the pressure gradient from
ideal flow theory, that is, from the pressure variation in the flow of a frictionless (inviscid) fluid under the
same conditions. From the inviscid flow analysis, the stream function, , and the velocity potential
function, satisfy Laplace's equation. These together with Euler's equation provide the basis for
determining the pressure distribution.
160
161
162
6-8. Solved Problems
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
.
170
171
Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics
Chapter 7
Introduction to
Compressible Flow
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Main Topics
Review of Thermodynamics
Propagation of Sound Waves
Reference State: Local
Isentropic Stagnation Conditions
Critical Conditions
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Review of Thermodynamics
Ideal Gas
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Review of Thermodynamics
Specific Heat Formulas
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Review of Thermodynamics
Internal Energy and Enthalpy
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Review of Thermodynamics
Entropy
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Review of Thermodynamics
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Review of Thermodynamics
Isentropic (Reversible Adiabatic) Processes
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Propagation of Sound Waves
Speed of Sound
Solids and Liquids:
Ideal Gas:
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Propagation of Sound Waves
Types of Flow – The Mach Cone
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Propagation of Sound Waves
Types of Flow – The Mach Cone
(Continued)
Mach Angle:
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Reference State: Local
Isentropic Stagnation Conditions
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Reference State: Local
Isentropic Stagnation Conditions
Computing Equations
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
Critical Conditions
Computing Equations
© Fox, McDonald & Pritchard
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