10/30/2024

Fundamentals of
Machining

Fundamentals of Machining

1
 10/30/2024

Material-Removal Processes and Machines

Machining = removal of material from a workpiece.

Material removal processes are desirable or even necessary for the

following reasons:
•Closer dimensional accuracy may be required. For example, in the
forged crankshaft, the bearing surfaces and the holes cannot be
produced with good dimensional accuracy and surface finish solely by
forming and shaping processes.

Material-Removal Processes and Machines

•Parts may have sharp corners and holes which cannot be produced
by forming and shaping
processes.
•Some parts are subjected to various heat treatments for improved
hardness and wear resistance. Since these parts may undergo distortion,
they generally require additional finishing operations, such as
grinding, to obtain the desired final dimensions and surface finish.

2
 10/30/2024

Advantages of CNC Machining

Material-Removal Processes and Machines

Advantage: Machining the part may be more economical if the
number of parts is relatively
small.
Disadvantage: Removing a volume of a material from a workpiece
generally takes longer than it does to shape it by shaping and
forming processes. In addition, material waste is high.
The machines on which material-removal operations are performed
are generally called “machine tools”.

3
 10/30/2024

Machine tools

Machine tools

4
 10/30/2024

Machine tools

Machine tools

10

5
 10/30/2024

Material-Removal Processes and Machines

It is important to view machining and manufacturing operations as a system
consisting of:
• workpiece,
• cutting tool, and
• machine.
Machining operations cannot be carried out efficiently and economically without
the knowledge of the interactions among these three elements.
“Machining centers” are versatile machine tools controlled by computers and
capable of performing a variety of machining operations efficiently.

1
1

11

12

6
 10/30/2024

13

14

7
 10/30/2024

Principle Machining Operations

Turning operations are the ones that rotate the workpiece as the primary
method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal
machine tool used in turning.

Milling operations are operations in which the

cutting tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear
against the workpiece.

1
5
15

Typical Machining Operations Performed on the Engine Lathe

1
6
16

8
 10/30/2024

Turning

17

Milling

18

9
 10/30/2024

Turning vs Milling

19

Cutting features

•Cutting operations remove material from the

surface of a workpiece by producing chips.

•The cutting tool is set at a certain depth

of cut (measured in mm) and travels (to
the left in figure) with a certain velocity
as the workpiece rotates.

•The feed (or sometimes called feed

rate) is the distance the tool travels per
unit revolution of the workpiece
(mm/rev) 6

20

10
 10/30/2024

Depth of cut

The depth of cut is a term

commonly used in machining and
metalworking. It refers to the
measurement of how deep a
cutting tool or machine tool
penetrates into the workpiece
during a single pass or operation.
In other words, it's the distance
from the initial surface of the
workpiece to the final surface after
the cutting operation is completed.

21

Depth of cut

22

11
 10/30/2024

Depth of cut In many machining operations, the

depth of cut is carefully chosen to
optimize the balance between
material removal rate, cutting tool
life, surface finish, and the generation
of heat.

A deeper cut can remove material

more quickly, but it may put more
stress on the cutting tool and lead to
reduced tool life and a rougher
surface finish.

On the other hand, a shallow depth of

cut can result in a smoother surface
finish and longer tool life but may be
less efficient in terms of material
removal rate.

23

Depth of cut

The depth of cut is typically specified in

units of length, such as millimeters or
inches, and it's one of the parameters
that machinists and operators adjust to
achieve the desired results in their
machining processes.

24

12
 10/30/2024

Chip formation
In order to perform successful machining operation, it is essential to first
study the mechanisms of chip formation.

Chocolate shavings are produced in

similar manner!

25

25

Chip Formation

26

13
 10/30/2024

Segmented chip formation

27

Fully segmented chip formation

28

14
 10/30/2024

Fundamental mechanisms of
chip formation after machining:

29

Compression and residual stresses:

During chip formation, the material near the cutting edge

is subjected to high compressive stresses. These
compressive forces can lead to the development of
residual stresses in the chip and the workpiece.

Residual stresses can affect the final dimensions and

properties of the workpiece, and they are often
considered in precision machining operations.

30

15
 10/30/2024

BUE Formation:

Built-Up Edge (BUE) is a phenomenon that occurs during machining, especially

when cutting softer materials. It involves the adhesion of workpiece material
onto the cutting tool's rake face.

As the BUE forms, it can temporarily change the chip formation process by acting
as a secondary cutting edge. However, it can also become unstable and break off,
resulting in variations in the chip's thickness and surface finish.

31

BUE in Machining

32

16
 10/30/2024

Tool-Chip Friction:
•The friction between
the cutting tool and
the chip has a
significant impact on
chip formation. High
friction can lead to
increased heat
generation and tool
wear.
•The coefficient of
friction between the
tool and the chip can
affect the chip's
curling behavior and
the quality of the
machined surface.

33

Continuous and Discontinuous Chips:

Chip formation can result in either continuous or discontinuous chips,

depending on various factors such as cutting speed, feed rate, and tool
geometry.

Continuous chips are long, continuous ribbons of material that are typically
produced at high cutting speeds and low feed rates.

Discontinuous chips are shorter, segmented chips that form at lower cutting
speeds and higher feed rates. They often result from higher shear angles
and tool wear.

34

17
 10/30/2024

Orthogonal Model
A cutting tool travels with velocity of V and a depth of cut t0
Chip is produced by plastic deformation a head of tool and shears material along shear plane.

Angles associated with tool:

1. α: rake angle
2. Relief angle

tc= deformed chip thickness

t0 = depth of cut

Chip is produced by shearing within shear plane, at φº called shear angle.

Below the shear plane, the workpiece remains undeformed, above it, the
chip moves up the rake face of the tool.
35

35

Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting

36

18
 10/30/2024

Cutting ratio

The cutting ratio is an important parameter for evaluation cutting condition. As t0 is

specified a machine setting, cutting ratio can be calculated by measuring chip thickness.

37

37

Cutting Forces
FC = Cutting force supplies the energy required for cutting.
Ft = Thrust force: Thrust force is perpendicular to the cutting force.
R = Resultant force

Balancing Forces
On the Tool Surface along the shear plane
F = Friction force
FS = Shear force
N = Normal force
Fn = Normal force

38

38

19
 10/30/2024

Temperatures in Cutting Zone

Heat source:
1. The work done in shearing
2. Energy dissipated as friction at tool-workpiece interface
3. Heat generated at tool rub against the machine surface

Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone.

Note the severe temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the workpiece is
relatively cool.

Excessive temperature will:

• Lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness,
and wear resistance of the cutting tool
• Causes uneven dimensional changes in
the part
• Can induce metallurgical changes in the
machined surface
39

39

Temperature analysis of an orthogonal cutting model

40

20
 10/30/2024

Taylor Tool Life Equation

Cutting tools are subjected to localized stresses at tip of tool, high temperature
especially along the rake face, sliding of the chip at a high speed along the rake face
and sliding the tool along newly machined workpiece.

These conditions induce tool wear!

n n n
VT = C V1 T1 = V2 T2
Cutting speed
life (min)

 Generally, n depends on the tool

material, workpiece material, and cutting
condition.
 C is a constant and depends on
workpiece material
 Magnitude of C is the cutting speed at
T=1 min. 1
2

41

Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids

42

42

21
 10/30/2024

Cutting tools

A square insert, for example, has eight cutting

points, and a triangular insert has six.

Examples of inserts attached to toolholders with threadless lockpins, which are

secured with side screws.

43

43

Tool Materials
Carbon and Medium – Alloy Steels
ADVANTAGES:
inexpensive and easily shaped and sharpened,
DISADVANTAGES:
-- do not have sufficient hot hardness and wear resistance for cutting at high speeds (where the
temperature rises significantly).
Consequently, the use of these steels is limited to very low-speed cutting operations.

High – Speed Steels (HSS)

• Developed to cut at higher speeds.
• Highly alloyed of the tool steels.
• High toughness and high resistance to fracture
• Suitable for high positive rake-angle tools, and for interrupted cuts, and for machine tools
with low stiffness that are subject to vibration and chatter.

Diamond
The hardest substance.
Low friction. High wear resistance, and the ability to maintain a sharp cutting edge.
Diamond is used when good surface finish and dimensional accuracy are required.
Because of its strong chemical affinity, diamond is not recommended for machining plain-carbon
steels or titanium, nickel, and cobalt-based alloys. 15

44

22
 10/30/2024

Tool Materials
Carbide
• Alloy steels and HSS have the necessary toughness, impact strength, and thermal
shock resistance, but also have important limitations, particularly with regard to
strength and hardness, especially hot hardness. Consequently, they cannot be used
when high cutting speeds are needed.
• To meet the challenge of higher speeds for higher production rates, carbides were
introduced.
• Carbides are among the most important, versatile, and cost-effective tool materials.
• The groups:
• tungsten carbide (WC)
• titanium carbide (TiC)
• Manufactured with powder-metallurgy techniques (powders are pressed and then
sintered).

Cubic Boron Nitride

• After diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is the hardest material presently available.
45

45

Machining Processes Used to Produce Round Shapes:

Turning and Hole Making

46

46

23
 10/30/2024

Lathe Cutting Operations

Different cutting operations that can be performed on a lathe.
Turning : part is rotated while it is
machined
Facing : make a flat surface on the
end of workpiece
Boring : enlarge a hole
Drilling : produce a hole
Cutting: remove a piece form the end
of the part
Threading : produce internal or
external thread
Knurling: produce regular shape on
surface

Note that all parts are circular

47

47

Turning Operation
D0 and Df are original and final diameter of
workpiece

Depth-of-cut = d = (Do - Df) / 2 [mm]

Davg = (Do+ Df) / 2

Feed = f (the distance that the tool travels per ONE REVOLUTION OF
WORKPIECE) [mm/rev]

Spindle rotational speed = N [rev/min (rpm)].

The surface speed of the workpiece V [mm/min]

V = π D0 N for max speed, V = π Davg N for average speed

Material Removal Rate: volume of material removed per unit time

MRR = π Davg d f N = d f V [mm3/min] 19

48

24
 10/30/2024

Turning

49

49

Roughing and finishing cuts in turning

In machining, it is usual to first perform one roughening cut with a high feed rate and high depth
of cut. These cuts are followed by a finishing cut typically at a low feed rate and smaller depth of
cut.

50

50

25
 10/30/2024

Machining Processes Used to Produce Various Shapes: Milling

51

51

Milling includes number of highly versatile machining operations taking

place in a variety of configurations.

Peripheral Milling
(a.k.a. Slab Milling) Face Milling

End Milling

Ball-end Milling 52

52

26
 10/30/2024

Peripheral milling
The axis of the cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface.
The cutter body has number of teeth (straight or helical) along its
circumference.
Diameter
of cutter

V= π DN

Cutting Rotational
speed speed of cutter

53

53

Face milling
In face milling the cutter is mounted on spindle having an axis of rotation perpendicular
to the workpiece surface

Due to relative motion between the cutter teeth and the

workpiece, face milling leaves feed mark on the machined
surface

(a) small corner radius.

(b) corner flat on insert.

(c)wiper, consisting of a small radius followed by a large radius, resulting in smoother feed
marks.

54

54

27
 10/30/2024

Packet milling

55

55

End milling
End milling: the cutter is called end mil is mounted into the spindle of milling machine.
The cutter usually rotates on an axis perpendicular to the workpiece surface. It can be
also tilted.

Selection of end mills: The flute depth and helix angle are selected based on whether it is a
roughing or finishing cut. Note the variety of geometries of the end of the mill; with the proper
cutter, a radius, chamfer, or flat surface can be machined.

Roughing:
•Typically high speed
•Large depth of cut (high material removal
rate little consideration about dimensional
tolerance and surface roughness
Finishing:
• Lower feed and smaller depth of cut
• Good surface quality
56

56

28
 10/30/2024

Milling with ball nose end mills

57

57

29