10/9/2024

Manufacturing Processes and Operations Analysis

Instructor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Saliha Karadayı Usta

Textbook: Kalpakjian, S & Schmid. S. R, 2014, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 7th Edition, Pearson.
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Manufacturing Processes and Operations Analysis

First section
Week-1: Introduction to Engineering Materials

Week-2: Introduction to Metal Casting

Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Week-3: Introduction to Machining Processes

Introduction to Metal Forming

Office hours : with appointment

Email : [email protected]
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Introduction
to
Manufacturing
Processes

Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

What is Manufacturing?
Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into products.

1. Engineering materials:
• Ferrous alloys
• Nonferrous alloys
• Polymers
• Ceramics
• Composites

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Manufacturing Processes
A broad category of manufacturing processes:
• Casting

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Manufacturing Processes

• Forming and shaping

Rolling

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Manufacturing Processes

• Forming and shaping

Forging

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Manufacturing Processes

• Forming and shaping

Extrusion

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Manufacturing Processes

• Forming and shaping

Drawing

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Manufacturing Processes

• Machining
Turning

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Manufacturing Processes

Machining
Drilling,
boring &
reaming

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Manufacturing Processes

• Machining
Milling

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Manufacturing Processes

• Machining
Grinding

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Manufacturing Processes
• Machining
Drilling

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Manufacturing Processes
A broad category of manufacturing processes:

• Joining
Welding

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Manufacturing Processes
A broad category of manufacturing processes:

• Joining
Soldering

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Manufacturing Processes
A broad category of manufacturing processes:

• Joining
Adhesive bonding

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Manufacturing Processes
A broad category of manufacturing processes:

• Joining
Mechanical joining

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Selecting Manufacturing Processes

There is often more than one method for a production of part from a given material.
Most of the time, a sequence of processes needs to be employed for production of a
part.
The selection of the manufacturing process depends on :
1. Geometric features : dimensional tolerances, surface texture required
2. Workpiece material
3. Cost of the production: Availability of machines and equipment

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Selecting Manufacturing Processes

Some Challenges :
 Brittle and hard materials cannot be shaped or formed without the risk of fracture,
recommended methods are casting and machining.
 Some metals become less formable during subsequent processing.
 Flat parts and thin cross-sections can be difficult to cast.
 Complex parts generally cannot be shaped easily and economically by forging.
 Dimensional tolerances and surface finish in hot-working operations are not as fine as
those obtained in operations performed at room temperature.

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Introduction to Metals
Structure and general properties

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Metals

Ferrous metals contain iron as their

base metal.

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Production of Metals

Finding Mining the Extracting Product design

Manufacturing
the Ore Ore the Metal

Geological Mining Metallurgical Industrial

Engineers Engineers Engineers /Mechanical
Engineers

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Ferrous Metals Steel beams

Ferrous metals contain iron as their

base metal.

Ferrous metals are among the most useful of all the metals. Ferrous metals make up to
70% to 85% by weight of structural and mechanical components. About 60% by
weight of US vehicles is steel.

Due to:
• Low cost
• Ease of manufacturing
• Wide range of
• Mechanical
• Physical
• Chemical properties 16

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Iron-carbon phase diagram

There are 3 reaction taking place in iron-carbon system:

Different
mechanical
characteristics such
as modulus of
elasticity,
elongation at break

2.11%
Softer, but more
elastic

Solid solutions:
Solute: minor element that is added to the solvent
Solvent: major element Harder, but more brittle 17

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Iron-carbon phase diagram

Exists in nature. It is not Iron-carbon phase diagram The alloy of iron and carbon
invented, but discovered by shows us that amount of can be steel or cast iron
scientists during experiments. carbon solved in iron can be depending on the mass
changed by increasing the percentage of carbon solved
temperature of material, and in iron.
it leads to materials with
different mechanical
behaviour.

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Iron-carbon phase diagram

Why are we interested in different alloys of iron and carbon?

Because, different alloys of iron and carbon have different mechanical characteristics which
is required for different applications.

For example, you cannot use same material to produce engine block of an internal
combustion engine and food service equipment. For an engin block, due to the high forces
applied in combustion chamber, you need a harder material which is suitable for
machining and drilling. However, to manufacture food service equipment, you need a
softer material which can be shaped easily under lower levels of forces. therefore, you
need to use cast iron to produce engine block but tempered austenite steel is required to
produce food service equipment.

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Crystal structures and phases in iron-carbon system

Body-centered cubic (BCC)

Face-centered cubic (FCC)

There are 3 reaction taking place in iron-carbon system:

Austenite (γ): FCC structure, a solid solubility of 2.11% C at 1148 °C
Ferrite (α): Alpha ferrite is a solid solution of BCC iron, maximum
solubility of 0.022% C at 727 °C.

Cementite : Iron carbide Fe3C, having carbon content of 6.67%.

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Types of cast irons

Historically, the first classification of cast iron was based on its fracture surface:
– Gray Cast Iron: Exhibits a gray fracture surface because fracture occurs along
the graphite flakes
– White Cast Iron: Exhibits a white fracture surface because fracture occurs along
the iron carbide (Fe3C) plates.

Later, additional classification made depending on the microstructural features

such as:
– Graphite shape
• Flake Graphite (FG)
• Spheroidal (nodular) Graphite (SG)
• Compacted (vermicular) Graphite (CG)
• Temper Graphite (TG)
– Matrix
• Ferritic
• Pearlitic
• Austenitic
• Martensitic
• Bainitic
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Properties of Cast Irons

GRAY (a.k.a. GREY)
• contains graphite ( = pure carbon) flakes
• flakes act as stress raisers
• weak in tension
• strong in compression
• capacity to damp vibrations (used as tool-bases and machinery structures)

WHITE
• contains iron carbide ( = Fe3C)
• cooling cast iron fast create White cast
iron
• very hard
• wear-resistant
• very brittle
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Ductile (Nodular) iron

• In the ductile-iron structure, graphite is in a nodular or spheroid form.

• Material is somewhat ductile and shock resistant.

• The shape of graphite flakes can be changed into nodules (spheres), by

small additions of magnesium and/or cerium to the molten metal prior to
pouring.

Gray Cast Iron Ductile Cast Iron

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The Iron-carbon system: Steels

Commercial steel generally contains up to
2.11%, by weight carbon.
Depending on the temperature, iron forms different
atomic structures :

Austenite : fcc structure, a solid solubility of 2.11% C

at 1148 °C
Ferrite: Alpha ferrite is a solid solution of bcc iron.
maximum solubility of 0.022% C at 727 °C.
Cementite : Iron carbide Fe3C, having carbon content
of 6.67%.

Pearlite: lamellar microstructure of alternating ferrite

and cementite

Martensite (bct) = body-centered-tetragonal structure is

formed when the austenite is quenched (cooled very
fast).
Bainite: as a result of fast cooling of austenite, the
carbon partitions into the residual austenite and
precipitates as cementite between the ferrite platelets 2
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The Iron-carbon system

The microstructure of steels are dependent on how
fast you pass the eutectoid temperature:
- Slow - Coarse pearlite
- Moderate - Fine pearlite
- Fast - Bainite
- Quench - Martensite

Matrix: Ferrite
Flakes: Cementite
Ferrite + Cementite = Pearlite

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/bainitic-microstructure

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The Designation of Steels

Steel is an alloy that consists of iron as main element and carbon
content between 0.2-2.1% (weight )
Designation of AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) and SAE
(Society of Automotive Engineers) for carbon and alloy steels.

A four-digit number: the first two digits indicate the alloy content; the
last two, the carbon concentration

41 40
Identifies major alloying element(s) Percentage of carbon

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Carbon and alloy steels

Carbon content by weight: e.g. 40 means 0.40 %. 25

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Carbon steels
Carbon steels are classified by
their carbon content.
Low-carbon steel (mild steel ) :
• less than 0.30% C.
• Application : common industrial products such as
bolts, nuts, sheets (do not require high strength )
Medium-carbon steel:
• has 0.30-0.60 C.
• higher strength than low-carbon steel.
Application : automotive parts such as gear, axels
connection rods

High-carbon steel:
• has more than 0.60 C.
• Application: high strength, hardness such as
cutting tools, cables, music wires 26

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Stainless Steels
These steels are characterized by their corrosion resistance, high
strength and ductility
• Have a high content of chromium (>10%).
• In the presence of oxygen (which is in air), these steels develop a thin and hard
film of chromium oxide that protects the metal from the corrosion (passivation).
• The higher the carbon content is, the lower is the corrosion resistance.
• Applications: cutlery, kitchen equipment, health care and surgical equipment,
chemical and food processing.

• 200 & 300 series: Austenitic, have Cr, Ni, Mn. Most
ductile of all stainless steels. Excellent corrosion
resistance.
• 400 series: Ferritic, high Cr. Good corrosion resistance
but they are less ductile than Austenitic stainless steels.
Application in nonstructural products.
• 400 & 500 series: Martensitic. They have high strength
hardness, good ductility and moderate corrosion resistance 27

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