Biological classification

In biology, classification is the process of arranging organisms, both living and extinct,
into groups based on similar characteristics. The science of naming and classifying
organisms is called taxonomy. The term is derived from the Greek taxis (“arrangement”)
and nomos (“law”).

Taxonomists classify organisms into a structural hierarchy—a multi-level system in

which each group is nested, or contained, within a larger group. Groups at the highest
level are the largest and most general and contain a wide variety of living things. These
groups are divided into smaller groups of similar organisms. Each smaller group is split
into even smaller groups, which contain organisms with even more similar features:
 For example, a large group that includes all plants would contain smaller groups of
that contain similar types of plants, such as trees, bushes, mosses, flowering plants,
and so forth. Each of these groups would contain still smaller groups; for example, the
tree group might be divided into conifers and broadleaf trees.

Each group in biological classification—that is, each level in the hierarchy—is called a
taxon (plural, taxa).The most basic taxon is the species, a group of closely related
organisms that can breed and produce offspring that in turn can reproduce.

SCIENTIFIC NAMES
 Organizing large amounts of information in a standardized way makes it easy to
locate information and to communicate it to others. Scientists use an
internationally accepted system for classifying and naming organisms. The
system is based on the classification method introduced in 1758 by Carolus
Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist regarded as the founder of modern taxonomy.

The Linnaean system assigns each species a two-part

scientific name composed of Greek or Latin words. The first part of the scientific name
is the organism’s genus, a taxon that includes closely related
species. Wolves, dogs, coyotes, and jackals are all members of the genus Canis.
Conventionally, scientific names are always italicized or underlined, and the genus
name is always capitalized.

 The second part of the scientific name is called the species name, and it is
particular to each species in the genus. The species name of the coyote
 is latrans; that of the gray wolf is lupus. The species name is always written in
lowercase and italicized.
 Together, the genus name and the species name comprise the scientific name of
the species. Thus, the coyote’s scientific name is Canis latrans; the gray wolf’s
name is Canis lupus. The two-part scientific name is sometimes called a binomial—
from the Latin words bi-, meaning two, and nomen, meaning name.

 Using scientific names helps scientists avoid the confusion that can arise when
referring to an organism by its common, or every day, name. For example, the
name robin may refer to the European robin or to the American robin, or even to
any of several other birds; however the robins’ scientific names—Erithacus
rubecula and Turdus migratorius (European robin and American robin,
respectively)—clearly identify the species being referenced. The scientific names
show that the birds are distinct species and verify that they are not closely
related, since each belongs to a different genus.

LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
The classification system commonly used today is based on the Linnean system and
has eight levels of taxa; from the most general to the most specific, these are domain,
kingdom, phylum (plural, phyla), class, order, family, genus (plural, genera), and
species. (For plants, the term division is generally used instead of phylum.) Each level is
contained, or nested, within the level above it. For example, a genus contains one or
more species; a family contains one or more genera; an order contains one or more
families; and so on. The domain is the highest level of organization and is the largest
group.

Following are overviews of each taxonomic level in modern biological classification. (For
a detailed description of domains and kingdoms, see “Classification of Living Things” in
the article living things.)

DOMAIN
The domain is the highest rank in biological classification. There are three domains—
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The Archaea and the Bacteria each
contain prokaryotes (single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus) but differ in
structural, genetic, and biochemical characteristics. The domain Eukarya contains
eukaryotes—organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
KINGDOM
Before the domain taxon was introduced during the 1990s, the kingdom ranked as the
highest taxonomic level in classification. Most scientists today recognize six kingdoms:
Archaea (prokaryotes with distinct cellular characteristics that adapt them to extreme
environments, such as deep-sea vents and hot springs); Bacteria (prokaryotes that are
not archaeans); Protista (chiefly protozoa and algae); Fungi (mushrooms, molds, and
yeasts); Plantae (plants); and Animalia (animals). The kingdoms Archaea and the
Bacteria each constitute a separate domain. The Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia
all belong to the domain Eukarya.

PHYLUM
The phylum (plural, phyla) ranks below the kingdom and above the class in taxonomy.
Scientists generally use the term phylum for archaea, bacteria, protists, fungi, and
animals, but they substitute the term division for plants.

Organisms are classified in a phylum or division based largely on general body plan.
For example, members of the Phylum Arthropoda have external skeletons, segmented
bodies, and jointed legs. Insects, crabs, and arachnids are examples of arthropods. A
muscular foot and a soft unsegmented body that may or may not be covered with a
shell are hallmarks of the Phylum Mollusca; familiar mollusks include mussels, snails,
and clams. Animals of the Phylum Chordata have an internal skeleton and a backbone
or notochord (a primitive backbone). Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
(including humans) are in this group. (See also vertebrate.)

CLASS
The class ranks below the phylum and above the order in taxonomy. Members of a
class share more characteristics with each other than they do with other organisms in
the same phylum. Amphibians and reptiles both belong to the Phylum Chordata, but
each belongs to a different class. Members of the Class Amphibians (chiefly frogs,
toads, and salamanders) have moist, smooth skin and reproduce by laying large
quantities of jellylike eggs in water. Members of the Class Reptilia (snakes, lizards,
turtles, and tortoises) reptiles have dry scaly skin and reproduce by laying small
clutches of leathery eggs on land.
ORDER
The order ranks below the class and above the family in the taxonomic hierarchy. The
groups in an order have more in common with each other than they do with other
members of the same class. Because reindeer (caribou) and whales both belong to the
Class Mammalia, they share the basic traits of mammals, such as feeding milk to their
young; however, each belongs to a different order. Reindeer are part of the Order
Artiodactyla, which includes cloven-hoofed mammals; cows, pigs, antelope, and giraffes
are fellow artiodactyls. Whales belong the Order Cetacea, a marine mammal order that
counts porpoises and dolphins as members

FAMILY
In taxonomy, the family ranks below the order and above the genus. Members of the
same taxonomic family are more closely related to each other than they are to other
members of the same order. For example, foxes, coyotes, lions, cats, otters, and
weasels all belong to the Order Carnivora. However, foxes and coyotes belong to the
family Canidae. Lions and cats belong to the family Felidae; otters and weasels are part
of the family Mustelidae.

GENUS
The genus (plural, genera) is the taxonomic rank between family and species. The
groups of organisms in a genus share many structural similarities and are very closely
related. Members of a genus are more closely related to each other than they are to
other genera in the same family. The cat family, Felidae, includes lions, tigers, ocelots,
domestic cats, bobcats, and lynx. However, lions and tigers belong to the
genus Panthera, ocelots and domestic cats are part of the genus Felis, and lynx and
bobcats are in the genus Lynx.

SPECIES
The species is the most fundamental unit in taxonomy and ranks at the base of the
biological classification hierarchy. Members of the same species share the same
evolutionary history and are more closely related to each other than they are to any
other organisms, including other members of the same genus. Organisms are grouped
into a species based on physical and genetic similarities. All members of a species have
the same number of chromosomes.

Successfully interbreed
The most important factor in species classification is the ability of members to
successfully interbreed—that is, to mate and produce viable offspring (those that can in
turn breed and produce more offspring). Individuals of the same species can
successfully interbreed with one another but almost never with members of other
species.

Different species within a genus have been known to produce hybrid offspring, but the
offspring are almost always sterile. An example of this is the mating of a horse and a
donkey, which produces a mule. Because mules are sterile, the interbreeding is not
considered successful.

Each species has its own scientific name, composed of the genus name and species
epithet. The lion’s scientific name is Panthera leo, whereas the scientific name of the
tiger is Panthera tigris.

Some species include groups with such distinctive traits that they are classified as
subspecies; in these cases, a subspecies name is added to the end of the species
name. Subspecies of Panthera tigris include the Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica)
and the Indian, or Bengal, tiger (Panthera tigris).

HOW CLASSIFICATION WORKS

Modern scientists use both physical and genetic evidence to classify organisms into
taxa. The coyote is classified as follows:

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Carnivora

Family Canidae

Genus Canis (coyotes, wolves, dogs, and jackals)

Species Canis latrans (coyotes)

n general, the more levels species share, the more closely they are related. Coyotes,
gray wolves (Canis lupus), domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), and jackals
(four Canis species) all belong to the same top seven taxa (domain, kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, and genus). This indicates that these species share many physical
and genetic traits and are closely related.

In contrast, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), though a member of the family Canidae,
belongs to the genus Vulpes. Thus—though the red fox is related to wolves, coyotes,
dogs, and jackals— it is less closely related to them than they are to each other.

CHANGES IN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

In Linneaus’s time, scientists characterized organisms as either plants or

animals. Linnaeus followed this general rule, dividing all living things into two kingdoms
—the Kingdom Plantae (plants) and the Kingdom Animalia (animals). His system was
later modified by other scientists, especially as advances in microscopy revealed key
differences among organisms at the cellular level. For example, Linneaus classified
fungi and algae in the plant kingdom. When later scientists noted key differences in the
cell structures of these groups, algae and fungi were reclassified in different kingdoms.
 Over time, the Linnean classification system was expanded, first to three
kingdoms and then to four. By the 1960s, scientists had organized living things into five
kingdoms—the Monera (bacteria), Protista (protozoa and algae), Fungi (mushrooms,
yeasts, and molds), Plantae (plants), and Animalia (animals). The five-kingdom system
was widely accepted and used for many years.
 In the late 1970s, American microbiologist Carl Woese reported on several key
genetic differences he had observed in prokaryotes. Woese’s findings led scientists to
split the Kingdom Monera into two kingdoms—the Bacteria and the Archaea. The six-
kingdom system has been the standard used in taxonomy since the 1990s. Woese
further proposed a major change in classification by placing all organisms into three
domains—Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea—to reflect their three separate lines of
evolution.

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