Unit I

PH3151 / Engg Physics
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Accredited by NBA, NAAC with ‘A’ Grade & TATA Consultancy Services)
UNIT I
MECHANICS
Multiparticle dynamics: Center of mass (CM) – CM of continuous bodies –

motion of the CM – kinetic energy of system of particles. Rotation of rigid
bodies: Rotational kinematics – rotational kinetic energy and moment of
inertia - theorems of M.I –moment of inertia of continuous bodies – M.I of a
diatomic molecule - torque – rotational dynamics of rigid bodies – conservation
of angular momentum – rotational energy state of a rigid diatomic molecule -
gyroscope - torsional pendulum – double pendulum –Introduction to nonlinear
oscillations.
PART – A
MULTIPARTICLE DYNAMICS
1. Define Multi Particle Dynamics.
The study of dynamics of a system which consists of two or more particle is known
multi particle dynamics.
2. Define Centre of Mass of the System.
Consider the motion of a system consisting of a large number of particles. There is
one point in it which behaves as though the entire mass of the system were concentrated
there and all the external forces were acting at this point. This point is called the center
of mass of the system.
3. What is Centre of Mass (CM)? (Nov 22)
A point in the system at which whole mass of the body is supposed to be
concentrated is called center of mass of the body.
4. Give the example for Motion of Centre of Mass.
Examples for motion of center of mass
 Motion of planets and its satellite
 Projectile Trajectory
 Decay of a Nucleus
5. How center of mass is determined for rigid body and regular shape? (Apr 22)
Centre of mass of some regular objects.
 For a rigid body, the center of mass is a point at a fixed position with respect to
the body as a whole. Depending on the shape of the body and the way the mass is
distributed in it, the center of mass is a point may or may not be within the body.
 If the shape is symmetrical and the mass distribution is uniform, we can usually
find the location of the center of mass quite easily.
I-1

 For a long thin rod of uniform cross section and density, the center of mass is at
the geometrical center.
 For a thin circular plane ring, it is again at the geometrical center of the circle.
 For a rectangle, again the center of mass is at the geometrical center.
6. Mention the characteristic about the energy and momentum of a body at the
center of mass. (April 23)
At the center of mass of the body the energy and momentum is conserved.
7. What is difference between center of gravity and center of mass?
 The center of gravity of a body is a point, where the whole weight of the body
supposed to be concentrated.
 The center of mass of a body is that point, where the whole mass of the body is
supposed to be concentrated.
For uniform geometrically shaped, bodies the center of gravity coincides with center of
mass. However, they do not coincide in bodies whose density is not uniform throughout.
ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES
8. Define rigid body.

A rigid body is defined as that body which does not undergo any change in shape or
volume when external forces are applied on it.
9. Define rigid body rotation.
When a body rotates about a fixed axis, its motion is known as rotatory motion.
A rigid body is said to have pure rotational motion, if every particle of the body moves in
a circle, the center of which lies on a straight line called the axis of rotation.
ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY
10. Define rotational kinetic energy. (Jan 22)

Rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body is defined as the sum of the kinetic energy
of all the particles in the rigid body rotating about the axis of rotation.
11. Write the equation for Kinetic energy of system of particles.
The Kinetic energy of system of particles
1 1
Ek  
2 i
Mv 2 cm   mi v 2 im
2 i
1
Term1: 
2 i
Mv 2 cm represents the kinetic energy of center of mass of the system
I-2

1
Term 2: 
2 i
mi v 2 im represents the sum of kinetic energy of all particles with respect to the
origin.
12.Write the Kinematics of rotational motion.

1. 𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡
1
2. 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡 2
3. 𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2𝛼𝜃
MOMENT OF INERTIA
13. What do you mean by inertia?
The tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or uniform motion along the
same direction is known as inertia.
14. Define moment of inertia. (Jan 22)
The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is the sum of products of the
mass and the square of the perpendicular distance of different particles of the body from
the axis of rotation.
15. What factors the moment of inertia depends?
Moment of inertia depends on mass, distribution of mass and on the position of axis
of rotation.
THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA
16.State parallel axis theorem.(Apr 22)
It states that moment of inertia with respect to any axis is equal to the sum of
moment of inertia with respect to a parallel axis passing through the center of mass and
the product of mass and square of the perpendicular distance between the parallel axes.
17. State Perpendicular axis theorem.
It states that the moment of inertia of a thin plane body with respect to an axis
perpendicular to the thin plane surface is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of a
thin plane with respect to two perpendicular axes lying in the surfaces of the plane and
these three mutually perpendicular axes meet at a common point.
18. Define torque. (Nov 23, Apr 24)
Torque is defined as moment of force acting on the body in rotational motion with
respect to the fixed point.
Torque = Force × radius
I-3

19. State the Newton’s first law for rotational motion.

An object in its state of rest or uniform motion with a constant angular velocity
until it is acted upon by a non- zero net torque.
20. State the Newton’s second law for rotational motion.
When an external torque is applied to an object, the torque produces an angular
acceleration, which is directly proportional to the torque and inversely proportional to
the moment of inertia of the object.
21. Prove that the rotational kinetic energy is conserved in the torque free motion
of the rigid body.
For torque free motion, the angular velocity is constant, the moment of inertia is
time independent. Therefore, the rotational kinetic energy is conserved, if the torque is
not present.
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

22. State the law of conservation of angular momentum. (Nov 22)
If the external torque does not act on the body i.e., 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 , then the angular
momentum of the body will be a constant L is a constant.
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿
𝜏= ; 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 , =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This equation is known as law of conservation of angular momentum.
23. When will be the angular momentum for a system of particles remains
conserved?
If any net external torque does not act on a system, the angular momentum of the
system of particles remains conserved. Therefore, L is a constant.
24. A clock mounted on the wall. What is the value of the angular acceleration of
the second hand of the clock? (Dec 22)
Since the second hand of a clock moves at a constant speed, its angular velocity does
not change over time and hence the angular acceleration is zero.
GYROSCOPE
25. Write a short note on gyroscope.
The principle is product of angular momentum which is experienced by the torque
on the wheel or disc is used to produce a gyroscopic procession in the spinning wheel.
The device is used to measure or maintain the angular velocity and orientation, without
changing its magnitude.
I-4

26. What are the applications of gyroscope?

1. Used as compasses in boats, aircrafts and aero planes.
2. Used for spacecraft navigation to the desired target
3. used for stabilizing ships, satellites and ballistic missiles.
4. Used in gyro theodolites for maintaining the direction in tunnel mining.
TORSIONAL PENDULUM – DOUBLE PENDULUM

27. What is torsional pendulum? (Apr 2024)
A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that executes torsional
oscillation is called torsional pendulum.
28. What are the uses of torsional pendulum?
Torsional pendulum is used to determine
1. Rigidity modulus of the wire.
2. Moment of inertia of the disc.
3. Moment of inertia of an irregular body.
29. What is double pendulum?
A double pendulum is a pendulum attached to the end of another pendulum. If the
motion is small then the pendulum behaves as a simple pendulum. If the motion is large
then it behaves as a chaotic system.
NONLINEAR OSCILLATIONS
30. List the examples of non-linear oscillations.
1. Torsional Pendulum.
2. Double Pendulum.
3. Gyroscope.
31. What is meant by non-linear oscillations? (Nov 2023)

Oscillations in which the force exerted on any particle is not directly proportional to
its displacement with respect to time are known as non-linear oscillations.
32. What is the difference between nonlinear and linear oscillator? (Dec 22)
A linear oscillator will oscillate with a single frequency in to and fro motion which
will be sinusoidal and periodic in nature. A nonlinear oscillator will different frequencies
in the same time interval or in terms of least integer fraction.
I-5

33. If the force of an oscillation is given by 𝐅(𝐱) = −𝐤𝐱 − 𝐛𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐜𝐱 𝟑 , what kind of an

oscillation is this? (April 23)
Nonlinear oscillation.
34. The classroom door is of width 50 cm. if the handle of the door is 20 cm from
the edge and the force of 5 N is applied on the handle, compute torque. (Jan 22)
Solution
Given data
Width of the door = 50 × 10-2 m
Handle of the door = 20 × 10-2 m
20×10−2
Line of action = = 10× 10-2 m
2
Force applied = 5N
Torque = Force applied × Level Arm distance
Level Arm distance= Width of the door - Line of action
20×10−2
= 50 × 10-2− 2
= 50 × 10-2 - 10 × 10-2
= 40 × 10-2
Torque = Force applied × Level Arm distance
= 5 ×40 × 10-2
= 200 × 10-2
0
35. In an HCl molecule, the separation between the nuclei of two atoms is 1.27 A .
Find the position of CM of the molecule. Given that chlorine atom is 35.5 times
heavier than hydrogen atom and that nearly entire mass of the atom is
concentrated in it, nucleus.
Solution
Given data:
Let the mass of hydrogen atom m1  m and it is located at x1  0
0
Mass of chlorine atom m2  35.5 m and it is located at x 2  1.27 A
If X is the distance of the CM of HCl molecule, then
m x  m2 x 2
X 1 1
m1  m2
m  0  35.5 m  1.27  1010


m  35.5 m
I-6

35.5 m  1.27  10 10


36.5 m
45.08  10 10

36.5
X  1.235 1010 m
36. Calculate the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of mass 200 gram and
diameter is 10 cm with respect to its own axis.
Solution
Given data:
Mass (M)= 200g  200 103 Kg

Diameter (D )=10 cm  10  102 m
Radius (R)  5  102 m
Moment of inertia (I)= ?
Moment of inertia I  MR 2
 200 103  (5 102 ) 2

 200 103  25 104
 5000 107
I  5 104 kgm2
37. The earth has a mass of 5.97× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 kg, and the moon has a mass of 7.36× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐
kg. The center of the moon is at a distance of 384,000 km from the center of
earth. Find the center of mass of the earth moon system from the center of
earth.
Solution
Given data:
Mass of earth, 𝑚1 = 5.97 × 1024 kg
Mass of moon, 𝑚2 = 7.36 × 1022 kg
Distance of the center of earth from the origin, 𝑟1 = 0
Distance between center of earth and center of moon, 𝑟2 = 3.84 × 105 m
𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
𝑟=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
0 + 7.36 × 1022 × 3.84 × 105
𝑟=
(5.97 × 1024 + 7.36 × 1022 )
𝑟 = 4.68 × 103 𝑚
I-7

38. A large disc is spun by applying a torque on the top edge. Assuming a force of
100 N is exerted through a rotation of 1 rad, find the final angular velocity and
rotational kinetic energy. Given, the radius of the disc 0.22 m and mass are 5
kg. (Dec 22)
Solution
Given data:
Force, F= 100 N
Radius of the disc, d= 0.22 m
Torque, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 = 100 × 0.22 = 22 𝑁𝑚
Mass of the disc, M= 5 kg
𝑀𝑅 2 5 × (0.22)2
𝐼= = = 0.539 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2 2
𝜏 = 𝐼𝜔
𝜏 22
𝜔= =
𝐼 0.539
𝜔 = 40.83 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Kinetic energy
1 1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔2 = (0.539)(40.83)2
2 2
KE=442.81 J
I-8

PART-B
MULTIPARTICLE DYNAMICS: CENTER OF MASS (CM) – CM OF CONTINUOUS BODIES
1. Derive the expression for center of mass in a one-dimensional system and also
discuss about the center mass in three dimensional systems.
A mechanical system consists of two or more particles is called Multiparticle system.
Let us consider two particles of mass m1 and m2 moving in one-dimension with co-
ordinates X1 and X2 as shown in the fig 1.1
Fig 1.1 System of particles

𝐹⃗ is the force acting on body m1,then according to Newton’s Law,
𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 = 𝐹⃗1
𝑑 2 𝑥1
𝑚1 = 𝐹1
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 2 𝑥1
𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 = 𝐹1 ------------- (1) Where = 𝑥̈ 1
𝑑𝑡 2
The force 𝐹⃗1 can be divided into two parts like
𝐹⃗1 =𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗1𝑒 ------------- (2)
Where F12 is the internal force on particle 1 by particle 2. F1e is the sum of all external
force. Hence Eqn (1) becomes
𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗1𝑒 ------------- (3)
Similarly for particle (2) 𝑚2 𝑎⃗2 = 𝐹⃗2
𝑑 2 𝑥2
𝑚2 = 𝐹2
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 = 𝐹⃗21 + 𝐹⃗2𝑒 ------------(4)
Total force on system of the two particles is given by adding Eqn (3) and (4) we get
𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗21 + 𝐹⃗1𝑒 + 𝐹⃗2𝑒 ------------ (5)
By Newton’s law of motion 𝐹⃗12 =−𝐹⃗21
𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 = 𝐹⃗12 + (−𝐹⃗12 ) + 𝐹⃗1𝑒 + 𝐹⃗2𝑒 ------------ (6)
𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 + 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 = 𝐹⃗1𝑒 + 𝐹⃗2𝑒 = 𝐹⃗𝑒 ------------ (7)
Where 𝐹⃗𝑒 is the net external force on system of two particles.
Let the total mass of the system is equal to
M=𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ------------ (8)
I-9

Multiply and divide equation (7) by M in L.H.S,

𝑚1 𝑥̈ 1 +𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2
𝑀(
𝑀
) = 𝐹⃗𝑒 ------------ (9)
𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑 2 𝑥2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡2
𝑀( ) = 𝐹⃗𝑒
𝑀
𝑑2 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑀 ( ) = 𝐹⃗𝑒
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑀
𝑑2𝑋
𝑀 = 𝐹⃗𝑒
𝑑𝑡 2
⃛ = 𝐹⃗𝑒
𝑀𝑋
𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2
Where X=
𝑀
𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑋= ----------- (10)
𝑚1 +𝑚2
The above equation (10) is called center of mass (CM).
Thus, CM has a location X as weighted average of x1and x2in which the equation can be
rewrite as
𝑚1 𝑥1 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑋= + ---------- (11)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2
If 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀 = 2𝑚 and
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑋=
2 ---------- (12)
The above equation lies midway between the two particles.

If 𝑚1 > 𝑚2 , then X is closer to X1 and vice versa. Therefore, the system should be moved
to a distance of X meters in order to maintain the balanced position of the system.
The distance moved to obtain equilibrium position so called the Centre of mass in one
dimensional system is given by
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3 + 𝑚4 𝑥4 +. . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑁 𝑥𝑁
𝑋= − − − − − (13)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚4 +. . . . . . . . . . +𝑚𝑁
Centre of mass in a three-dimensional system
(i) The center of mass along the X-axis,
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3 + 𝑚4 𝑥4 +. . . ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑋= = − − − − − −(14𝑎)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚4 +. . . ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
(ii) The center of mass along the Y-axis,
𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3 + 𝑚4 𝑦4 +. . . ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑌= = − − − − − (14𝑏)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚4 +. . . ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
I-10

(ii) The center of mass along the Z-axis,

𝑚1 𝑧1 + 𝑚2 𝑧2 + 𝑚3 𝑧3 + 𝑚4 𝑧4 +. . . ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖
𝑍= = − − − − − (14𝑐)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚4 +. . . ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
Therefore, the center of mass of the system in a three-dimensional system can be written
as
𝑚1 𝑟⃗1 +𝑚2 𝑟⃗2 +𝑚3 𝑟⃗3 +𝑚4 𝑟⃗4 +... ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 (𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍) = = ∑𝑛
− − − − − (15)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +𝑚4 +... 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
Where 𝑟⃗𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑖 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑖 𝑘̂
Centre of mass in of Continuous bodies:
When a system contains ‘n’ particles, where the mass and position of each
particle is represented by mi and ri respectively, then
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖
The center of mass of the system 𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = − − − − (16)
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
Eq. (16) represents the summation of center of mass of a system. This equation will not
hold good for continuous bodies, because a continuous body will have infinitesimal small
region.
So, we integrate the above equation to obtain the center of mass of continuous bodies.
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖 ∫ 𝑟⃗𝑑𝑚
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = (or)
𝑀𝑖 →0 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑀
∫ 𝑟⃗𝑑𝑚
𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = − − − − − −(17)
𝑀
The above equation represents the center of mass of continuous bodies.
MOTION OF THE CENTER OF MASS

2. Explain the motion of the center of mass.
The motion of center of mass is nothing but the force required to accelerate the
system of particles with respect to the center of mass.
The motion of the center of mass shall be obtained as follows:
Let us consider an external force F acting on the system of particles along the x-axis.
The center of mass of the system along x-axis shall be written as
mi xi
xcm  
mi
Or 𝑥𝑐𝑚 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 = 𝛴𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Since mi = M, we can write

Mxcm  m1 x1  m2 x2i  m3 x3  ..... …………. (1)
I-11

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time, we get

dxcm dx dx dx
M  m1 1  m2 2  m3 3  .....
dt dt dt dt
Differentiating once again with respect to time
d 2 xcm d 2 x1 d 2 x2 d 2 x3
M  m1 2  m2 2  m3 2  ..... ……………. (2)
dt 2 dt dt dt
d 2x
Since, acceleration a  m1 2 , therefore equation (2) shall be written as
dt
Macm  m1a1  m2a2  m3a3  ..... ……...……. (3)
According to Newton second law, we know F = ma
Equation (3) shall be written as
Fcm  F1  F2  F3  ....
Or Fcm  Fi …………….(4)
Equation (4) represents that the force acting on the center of mass is equal to the sum of
the forces that acting on the system of particles. This force is required to move the
particles with respect to the center of mass or so-called motion of the center of mass.
KINETIC ENERGY OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

3. Obtain the equation for kinetic energy of system of particles.
Let us consider a multiparticle system with ‘n’ number of particle in which each
particle is moving with some velocity. Let ri be the displacement and vi be the velocity of
the ith particle at any instant of time as shown in fig 1.2
Fig 1.2 Multiparticle system
Then the Kinetic energy of the ith particle shall be written as

1
𝐸𝑘 = ∑𝑖 2 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 2 ------------- (1)
I-12

If Vcm the velocity of center of mass with respect to the origin ‘O’ and Vim is the velocity of
the ith particle with respect to center of mass. Then, the velocity of the ith particle can be
written as
Vi=Vcm+Vim ------------- (2)
Substituting equation (2) in (1)
1
𝐸𝑘 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑣𝑐𝑚 + 𝑣𝑖𝑚 )2
2
𝑖
1
𝐸𝑘 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑣 2 𝑐𝑚 + 𝑣 2 𝑖𝑚 + 2𝑣𝑐𝑚 . 𝑣𝑖𝑚 )
2
𝑖
1 1 1
𝐸𝑘 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 2 𝑐𝑚 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 2 𝑖𝑚 + 2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑐𝑚 . 𝑣𝑖𝑚
2 2 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
1 1
𝐸𝑘 = 2 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 2 𝑐𝑚 + 2 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 2 𝑖𝑚 + 𝑣𝑐𝑚 . ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑚 ---------- (3)
The total momentum with respect of center of mass of the system (i.e) ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑀 and ∴
∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖𝑚 = 0
1 1
𝐸𝑘 = 2 𝑀𝑣 2 𝑐𝑚 + 2 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 2 𝑖𝑚 --------- (4)
Equation (4) represents Kinetic energy of system of particles.

1
Term1:2 𝑀𝑣 2 𝑐𝑚 represents the kinetic energy of centre of mass of the system
1
Term 2:2 ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 2 𝑖𝑚 represents the sum of kinetic energy of all particles with respect to the
origin.
ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA (Rotational kinematics)

4. Explain how the moment of inertia of rigid bodies affects their rotational kinetic
energy. (Jan 22)
The rotational kinetic energy of a rotating object can be expressed as half of the
product of the angular velocity of the object and moment of inertia around the axis of
rotation.
Let us consider a rigid body rotating about an axis XX’ with constant angular
velocity ‘ω’ as shown in fig 1.3. Let v1, v2,……vi be the linear velocities of the particles of
masses m1, m2 ,……mi, rotating about the axis of rotation at distance r1, r2 ,……ri ,
respectively.
I-13

Fig 1.3 Rotational motion of a rigid body

1
The K.E of the particle with mass m1 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣1 2
1
The K.E of the particle with mass m2 = 2 𝑚2 𝑣2 2
1
The K.E of the particle with mass mi=2 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 2
Rotational kinetic energy of all the particles.

1 1 1
∴ 𝐸𝐾 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 +. . . . . 2 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 2 -------- (1)
Since all the particles move with same angular velocities (ω) but with different linear
velocities (v1, v2,……vi) at different distances (r1, r2 ,……ri) from the axis of rotation.
We can write v1= r1ω; v2= r2ω……. vi= riω
∴ Equation (1) becomes
1 1 1
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔2 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 𝜔2 +. . . . . 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝜔2
2 2 2
1 2
𝐸𝑘 = 2 (∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 )𝜔2 ---------- (2)
Since I is the Moment of inertia of body about the axis XX’ axis and is given by
2
𝐼 = ∑𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 --------- (3)
So, the Equation (2) becomes
1
𝐸𝐾 = 𝐼𝜔2 --------- (4)
2
Equation (4) represents the Rotational Kinetic energy of the particles in a rigid body.
𝑖𝑓 𝜔 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1
𝐼 = 2 𝐸𝐾
Moment of inertia of a body is equal to twice the kinetic energy of a rotating body whose
angular velocity is one radian per second.
I-14

Role of moment of inertia and its physical significance.

For a given force, the greater the mass, the higher will be the opposition for motion,
or larger the inertia. Thus, in translator motion, the mass of the body measures the
coefficient of inertia. In rotational motion also, a body, which is free to rotate about an
axis, opposes any change desired to be produced in its state. The measure of opposition
will depend on the mass of the body and the distribution of mass about the axis of
rotation.
THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA(M.I)
5. Discuss about the Parallel and Perpendicular axis theorem. (Or) State and prove
parallel and perpendicular axis theorem with a neat sketch. (Nov 22)
Parallel Axis Theorem:
It states that moment of inertia with respect to any axis is equal to the sum of moment of
inertia with respect to a parallel axis passing through the center of mass and the
product of mass and square of the perpendicular distance between the parallel axes.
Proof:
Let us consider a body of mass ‘M’, for which the center of mass acts at G. Let AA’
be an axis parallel to XX’ passing through G. Let ‘x’ be perpendicular distance between
the parallel axis AA’ and XX’ as shown in fig 1.4
Fig1.4 M.I parallel axis theorem

The body consists of ‘n’ number of particles with different masses and at different
distances from the XX axis. Let mi be the mass of one such particle in the body, located
at a distance ri from the XX’ axis.
The moment of inertia of this particle with respect to XX’ axis is
𝑑𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 ---------- (1)
The moment of inertia of the entire body with respect to XX’ axis is
𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = ∑ 𝑑𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 ----------- (2)
I-15

Similarly, the moment of inertia of this particle with respect to AA’ axis is
𝑑𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑚𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 + 𝑥)2 ---------- (3)
The moment of inertia of the entire body with respect to AA’ axis is
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑑𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 + 𝑥)2
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 2 + 2𝑟𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 + ∑ 2𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝑥 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥 2 ----------- (4)

Substituting equation (2) in equation (4), we get
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑋𝑋′ + 2𝑥 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑀𝑥 2 ------------ (5)
Where M  m i [Mass of the body]
According to center of mass for a rigid body ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0

∴ We can write equation (5) as
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑋𝑋′ + 𝑀𝑥 2 ------------ (6)
Equation (6) represents the equation for Parallel Axis Theorem.
Perpendicular Axis Theorem:
It states that the moment of inertia of a thin plane body with respect to an axis
perpendicular to the thin plane surface is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of a
thin plane with respect to two perpendicular axes lying in the surfaces of the plane and
these three mutually perpendicular axes meet at a common point.
Proof:
Let us consider the thin plane body of mass M and three mutually perpendicular axes
XX’, YY’, ZZ’ passing through the point O.
Let YY’ &ZZ’ axes lie in the surface of the thin plane, and xx’ axis lie perpendicular to
plane surface as shown in fig 1.5. Let mi be the mass of one such particle in the body
located at a distance ri from the point O.
Fig 1.5 M.I perpendicular axis theorem
I-16

The moment of inertia of this particle with respect to XX’ axis is

𝑑𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 ------------ (1)
The moment of inertia of the entire body with respect to XX’ axis is
𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = ∑ 𝑑𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 ------------ (2)
From the fig 1.5, we can write
ri2=yi2+zi2 ------------ (3)
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), we get
∴ 𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑦𝑖 2 + 𝑧𝑖 2 )
∴ 𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖 2 ) ------------ (4)

The moment of inertia of a thin plane with respect to YY’ axis is𝐼𝑌𝑌′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 2
The moment of inertia of a thin plane with respect to ZZ’ axis is𝐼𝑍𝑍′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖 2
So Equation (4) becomes
𝐼𝑋𝑋′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌′ + 𝐼𝑍𝑍′ ------------- (5)
Equation (5) represents the equation for perpendicular axis theorem.
6. Describe the positions of Centre of mass for two-point masses.

With the equations of center of mass, let us find the center of mass for two-point
masses m1 and m2, which are at positionsx1 and x2 respectively on the X-axis.
For this case, we can express the position of center of mass in the following three ways
based on the choice of the co-ordinate system.
i. When the masses are on positive X-axis.
The origin is taken arbitrarily so that the masses m1 and m2 are at positions x1 and
x2 on the positive X-axis as shown in fig 1.6. The center of mass is on the positive X-axis
at XCM and it is given by the equation,
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Fig 1.6 Masses on positive X axis.
I-17

ii. When the origin coincides with any one of the masses.
The calculation is minimized if the origin of the coordinate system is made to
coincide with any one of the masses as shown in fig. 1.7.
Fig 1.7 Origin coincides with any one of the masses.

When the origin coincides with the point mass m1, its position x1 is zero. Then,
𝑚1 (0) + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
The equation further is simplified as,
𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑋𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
iii. When the origin coincides with the center of mass itself.
If the origin of the coordinate system is made to coincide with the center of mass as
shown fig 1.8 then, XCM=0 and the mass m1is found to be on the negative X-axis. Hence,
its position x1 is negative,
Fig 1.8 Origin coincides with the center of mass itself.

𝑚1 (−𝑥1 ) + 𝑚2 𝑥2
0=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
0 = 𝑚1 (−𝑥1 ) + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑚1 𝑥1 = 𝑚2 𝑥2
The equation given is known as principle of moments.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF CONTINUOUS BODIES

7. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a uniform rod.
(i) About an axis through its center and perpendicular to its length.
(ii) About an axis passing through on end of the rod and perpendicular to its
length.
I-18

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A THIN UNIFORMROD

a) About an axis through its center and perpendicular to its length.
Let AB be a thin uniform rod of length𝑙and mass M. The rod is free to rotate about an
axis 𝑋𝑋 ′ perpendicular to its length and passing through its center O as shown in fig 1.9
Fig 1.9 Moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod about an axis through its center and
perpendicular to its length.
Consider a small element of length dx of the rod at a distance x, from O and mass of the
small element is dm.
The moment of inertia of the small element is 𝑑𝐼 = (𝑑𝑚)𝑥 2 --------(1)
As the mass is uniformly distributed,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Linear density =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑀
𝜇=
𝑙
Mass of the element = Linear density × length of the small element
𝑑𝑚 = µ × 𝑑𝑥
𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 --------(2)
𝑙
Substituting eqn (2) in (1), we get
𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 --------(3)
𝑙
Since the rod is a continuous body, we get the moment of inertia of the entire rod by
𝑙 𝑙
integrating eqn (3) within the limits (− )to( )
2 2
𝑙⁄
2 𝑀 2
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−𝑙⁄2 𝑙
I-19

𝑙
𝑀 ⁄2 2
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 −𝑙⁄
2
𝑙⁄
𝑀 𝑥3 2
= [ ]
𝑙 3 −𝑙⁄
2
𝑀 𝑙3 𝑙3
= [ + ]
3𝑙 8 8
𝑀
= (2𝑙 3 )
24𝑙
𝑀𝑙 2
𝐼 𝑋𝑋 ′ =
12
b) About an axis through one end of the rod and perpendicular to its length.
Fig 1.10 Moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod about an axis passing through one end of
the rod and perpendicular to its length.
Let 𝐴𝐴′ be the rotating axis at the edge of the rod which is perpendicular to the rod
length. 𝑋𝑋 ′ is an axis passing through the centre of rod is parallel to 𝐴𝐴′ as shown in fig
1.10
Based on the parallel axis theorem, we can write
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ + 𝑀𝑅2 ---------(5)
𝑀𝑙 2
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ =
12
Substitute the value 𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ in eqn(5)we get,
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑙 2
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = +𝑀( )
12 2
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀𝑙 2
= +
12 4
I-20

𝑀𝑙 2 + 3𝑀𝑙 2 4𝑀𝑙 2
= =
12 12
𝑀𝑙 2
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ =
3
8. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a circular ring.

(i) About an axis through its center and perpendicular to the ring plane.
(ii) About an axis at the edge of the ring and perpendicular to the ring plane.
(iii) About an axis passing through the diameter of the ring.
(iv) About an axis at the edge of the ring and parallel to the ring plane.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A CIRCULAR RING

(i) About an axis through its center and perpendicular to the ring plane.
Let as consider a circular ring with radius‘R’ and mass ‘M’ rotating about an axis
𝑋𝑋 ′ passes through center of ring ‘O’as shown in fig 1.11 whose circumference length L.
Fig 1.11 Moment of inertia of acircular ring about an axis through its center and
perpendicular to its ring plane.
Consider an elemental portion of the ring whose mass (dm) and length (dx)
The moment of inertia of the elemental ring
𝑑𝐼 = (𝑑𝑚)𝑅2 --------(1)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑀
𝜇= --------(2)
2𝜋𝑅
Mass of the elemental ring = Density × length of the elemental ring
𝑑𝑚 = µ × 𝑑𝑥
I-21

𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 -------(3)
2𝜋𝑅
𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 2
2𝜋𝑅
𝑀𝑅
= 𝑑𝑥 -------(4)
2𝜋
Since the circular ring is a continuous body, we get the moment of inertia of the entire
ring by integrating eqn (4) within the limits 0 to 2πR
2𝜋𝑅
𝑀𝑅
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋
0
2𝜋𝑅
𝑀𝑅
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋
0
𝑀𝑅 2𝜋𝑅
= [𝑥]0
2𝜋
𝑀𝑅
= (2𝜋𝑅)
2𝜋
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝑀𝑅2
(ii) About an axis at the edge of the ring and perpendicular to the ring plane.
Let 𝐴𝐴′ be the rotating axis at the edge of the ring which is perpendicular to the
ringplane as shown in fig 1.12. 𝑋𝑋 ′ axis which is passing through the center of ringis
parallel to 𝐴𝐴′ axis.
Fig 1.12 Moment of inertia of a circular ring about an axis at the edge of the ring and
perpendicular to the ring plane.
I-22

𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ + 𝑀𝑅 2 ---------(5)

𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑀𝑅2 + 𝑀𝑅2
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 2𝑀𝑅2
(iii) About an axis passing through the diameter of the ring.

Let 𝑌𝑌 ′ be the rotating axis passing through the diameter of the ring which is
perpendicular to𝑋𝑋 ′ axis as shown in fig 1.13
Fig 1.13 Moment of inertia of a circular ring about an axis passing through the diameter of
the ring.
Based on the perpendicular axis theorem, we can write
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝐼𝑍𝑍 ′ ---------(6)
For circular ring
𝐼𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′
So, we can write eqn(6) as
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 2𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′
𝐼𝑋𝑋′
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ = ---------(7)
2
𝑀𝑅2
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ =
2
I-23

(iv) About an axis at the edge of the ring and parallel to the ring plane.
Let 𝐴𝐴′ be the rotating axis at the edge of the ring which is parallel to the ring plane.𝑌𝑌 ′
be the rotating axis passing through the diameter of the ring which is parallel to𝐴𝐴′ axis
as shown in fig 1.14
Fig 1.14 Moment of inertia of a circular ring about an axis at the edge of the ring and
parallel to the ring plane.

𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝑀𝑅 2 ---------(8)
1
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ = 𝑀𝑅2
2
Substitute the value 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ in eqn(8)we get,
1
2
3
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑀𝑅2
2
9. Find the expression for the moment of inertia of a solid disc with respect to its
own axis (i) Perpendicular to the disc surface (ii) About a diameter (iii) Parallel to
the disc surface.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A CIRCULAR DISC
(i) About an axis through the center of mass.
Let as consider a circular ring with radius ‘R’ and mass ‘M’ rotating about an axis
passing through the center of the disc ‘O’. The disc shall be assumed to contain
infinitesimally small rings. Let us consider one such ring of mass ‘dm’ and thickness ‘dr’
which is located at distance ‘r’ from the center ‘O’ as shown in fig 1.15
I-24

Fig 1.15 Moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis through the center of mass.
The moment of inertia of the small ring

𝑑𝐼 = (𝑑𝑚)𝑟 2 --------(1)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑀
𝜎= --------(2)
𝜋𝑅 2
Mass of the small ring = Density × Area of the ring
= Density × circumference of the ring × Thickness of the ring
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜎 × 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑑𝑟
𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝜋𝑅 2
2𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 --------(3)
𝑅2
2𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 2
𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑟 2
𝑅
2𝑀 3
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 -------(4)
𝑅2
Since the circular disc is a continuous body, we get the moment of inertia of the entire
disc by integrating eqn (4) within the limits 0 to R
𝑅
2𝑀 3
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑅2
0
I-25

𝑅
2𝑀
= 2 ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝑅
0
𝑅
2𝑀 𝑟 4
= 2[ ]
𝑅 4 0
2𝑀 𝑅4
= 2( )
𝑅 4
1
2
(ii) Perpendicular to the disc surface.
Let 𝐴𝐴′ be the rotating axis at the edge of the disc which is perpendicular to the disc
plane.𝑋𝑋 ′ is an axis passing through the centre of disc is parallel to 𝐴𝐴′ axis as shown in
fig 1.16
Fig 1.16 Moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis perpendicular to the disc
surface.
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ + 𝑀𝑅 2 ---------(5)
𝑀𝑅2
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ =
2
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = + 𝑀𝑅 2
2
3
2
(iii) About an axis passing through the diameter of the disc.

Let 𝑌𝑌 ′ be the rotating axis passing through the diameter of the disc which is
perpendicular to𝑋𝑋 ′ axis as shown in fig 1.17
I-26

Fig 1.17 Moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis through the diameter of the disc.
Based on the perpendicular axis theorem, we can write
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝐼𝑍𝑍 ′ ---------(6)
For circular disc
𝐼𝑍𝑍 ′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′
So, we can write eqn (6) as
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = 2𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′
𝐼𝑋𝑋′
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ = ---------(7)
2
𝑀𝑅 2
2
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ =
2
𝑀𝑅2
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ =
4
(iv) Parallel to the disc surface.
Let 𝐴𝐴′ be the rotating axis at the edge of the disc which is parallel to the disc plane.𝑌𝑌 ′
be the rotating axis passing through the diameter of the disc which is parallel to𝐴𝐴′ axis
as shown in fig 1.18.
Fig 1.18 Moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis parallel to the disc surface.
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝑀𝑅 2 ---------(8)
I-27

1
𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ = 𝑀𝑅2
4
Substitute the value 𝐼𝑌𝑌 ′ in eqn (8) we get,
1
4
5
4
10. Find the expression for the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder with respect
to its own axis
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID CYLINDER
(i) About an axis through the center of mass
Let us consider a solid cylinder of mass M, Length L and radius R which contains
infinitesimally thin cylinders as shown in fig 1.19
Let consider one such thin cylinder having mass dm, thickness dr and length L located
at distance r from central axis of the solid cylinder.
The moment of inertia of the thin cylinder

𝑑𝐼 = (𝑑𝑚)𝑟 2 --------(1)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑀
𝜌= --------(2)
𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿
Fig 1.19 Moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about an axis through center of mass.
I-28

Mass of the thin cylinder = Density × Volume
= Density × Area × Length
= Density × circumference × Thickness × Length
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 × 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑑𝑟 × 𝐿
𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐿
𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿
2𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 --------(3)
𝑅2
2𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 2
𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑟 2
𝑅
2𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 2 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟 -------(4)
𝑅
Since the Solid cylinder is a continuous body, we get the moment of inertia of the entire
cylinder by integrating eqn (4) within the limits 0 to R
𝑅
2𝑀 3
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑅2
0
𝑅
2𝑀
= 2 ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝑅
0
𝑅
2𝑀 𝑟 4
= 2[ ]
𝑅 4 0
2𝑀 𝑅4
= 2( )
𝑅 4
1
2
11. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a Hollow cylinder about an
axis passes through the center and parallel to its length. (Dec 22)
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A HOLLOW CYLINDER
(i) About an axis through the center of mass.
Let us consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius R1, outer radius R2 with mass M and
length L contains infinitesimally thin cylinders as shown in fig 1.20
Let consider one such thin cylinder having mass dm, thickness dr and length L located
at distance r from central axis of the hollow cylinder.
I-29

Fig 1.20 Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder about an axis through center of mass.
The moment of inertia of the thin cylinder

𝑑𝐼 = (𝑑𝑚)𝑟 2 --------(1)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑀
𝜌= --------(2)
𝜋(𝑅22 −𝑅12 )𝐿
= Density × Area × Length
= Density × circumference × Thickness × Length
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 × 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑑𝑟 × 𝐿
𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐿
𝜋(𝑅22 −𝑅12 )𝐿
2𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 --------(3)
(𝑅22 −𝑅12 )
2𝑀 2
𝑑𝐼 = 2 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑟
(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
2𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟 -------(4)
(𝑅22 −𝑅12 )
Since the Solid cylinder is a continuous body, we get the moment of inertia of the entire
cylinder by integrating eqn (4) within the limits 0 to R
I-30

𝑅2
2𝑀
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
(𝑅22 − 𝑅12 )
𝑅1
𝑅2
2𝑀 3
= 2 2 ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
𝑅1
𝑅
𝑟4 2
2𝑀
= 2 [ ]
(𝑅 − 𝑅2 ) 4 𝑅
2 1 1
2𝑀 𝑅24 − 𝑅14
= 2 ( )
(𝑅2 − 𝑅12 ) 4
𝑀 (𝑅22 + 𝑅12 )(𝑅22 − 𝑅12 )

= 2 ( )
(𝑅2 − 𝑅12 ) 2
𝑀 2
𝐼𝑋𝑋 ′ = (𝑅 + 𝑅12 )
2 2
12. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a solid sphere about an axis
passes through the center of mass.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID SPHERE
Let us consider a solid sphere of radius R rotating about the diameter.
The mass M is uniformly distributed all over the volume of the solid sphere as shown in
fig 1.21. The solid sphere shall be sliced up into infinitesimally thin circular discs.
Let consider one such thin circular disc having mass dm, thickness dx and located at
distance x from center of the sphere.
Fig 1.21 Moment of inertia of a solid sphere about an axis through center of mass.
The moment of inertia of a circular disc is
I-31

𝑀𝑅2
I=
2
The moment of inertia of a thin circular disc is
1
𝑑𝐼 = (𝑑𝑚)𝑟 2 --------(1)
2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑀
𝜌=4
𝜋𝑅3
3
3𝑀
𝜌 = 4𝜋𝑅3 --------(2)
= Density × Area × Thickness
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 × 𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑥
3𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝑅 3
3𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥 --------(3)
4𝑅 3
3𝑀
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥𝑟 2
4𝑅 3
𝑑𝐼 =
2
3𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟 4 𝑑𝑥 -------(4)
8𝑅 3
Since the Solid sphere is a continuous body, we get the moment of inertia of the entire
sphere by integrating eqn (4) within the limits -R to R
𝑅
3𝑀 4
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑥
8𝑅3
−𝑅
We can R2 = x2 + r2
𝑅 3𝑀
r2 = R2 – x2 = 2 ∫0 3 (𝑅
2
− 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
8𝑅
3𝑀 𝑅
r4 = (R2 – x2)2 = 3 ∫0 (𝑅4 + 𝑥 4 − 2𝑅2 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
4𝑅
I-32

3 𝑅
3𝑀 4 𝑥 5 2𝑅2 𝑥
= 3 [𝑅 𝑥 + − ]
4𝑅 5 3
0
3 𝑅
3𝑀 4 𝑅 5 2𝑅2 𝑅
= 3 [𝑅 𝑅 + − ]
4𝑅 5 3
0
3𝑀 5
𝑅5 2𝑅5
= 3 (𝑅 + − )
4𝑅 5 3
3𝑀 15𝑅5 + 3𝑅5 − 10𝑅5
= 3( )
4𝑅 15
3𝑀 8𝑅5
= 3( )
4𝑅 15
2𝑀𝑅2
I=
5
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A DIATOMIC MOLECULE
13. Derive the relation moment of inertia of diatomic molecule (or) Derive the
relation between rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia and give a
short note on moment of inertia of diatomic molecule. (Apr 22, 23 & 24,Nov 23)
The rotational kinetic energy of a rotating object can be expressed as half of the
product of the angular velocity of the object and moment of inertia around the axis of
rotation.
1
Rotational kinetic energy = 𝐼 𝜔2
2
Where I - Moment of inertia, ω – Angular velocity

Let us consider a rigid diatomic molecule containing two atoms of masses m1 and
m2, separated by a distance 'x'. The center of mass of the system (diatomic molecule) lies
between the two atoms and is denoted by the point 'O'. Let x1 and x2 be the distance of
two atoms from the point 'O' as shown in Fig 1.22.
Fig 1.22 Rigid diatomic molecule
I-33

From Fig, we can write,

𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ---------------1
Since the system is balanced with respect to the center of mass, we can write
𝑚1 𝑥1 = 𝑚2 𝑥2 -------------2
From eqn(1),
𝑥2 = 𝑥 − 𝑥1 -------------3
Sub eqn(3) in eqn(2),
𝑚1 𝑥1 = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑚1 𝑥1 = 𝑚2 𝑥 − 𝑚2 𝑥1
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥1 = 𝑚 2 𝑥
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑥1 = 𝑚2 𝑥
𝑚2 𝑥
𝑥1 = (𝑚 ------------4
1 +𝑚2 )
𝑥1 = 𝑥 − 𝑥2 -------------5
Subs eqn(5) in eqn(2),
𝑚1 (𝑥 − 𝑥2) = 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑚1 𝑥 − 𝑚1 𝑥2 = 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑚1 𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑥2 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑥2 = 𝑚1 𝑥
𝑚1 𝑥
𝑥2 = (𝑚 ------------6
1 +𝑚2 )
𝐼 = 𝑚1 𝑥12 + 𝑚2 𝑥22 ------------7

𝑚2 𝑥 2 𝑚1 𝑥 2
𝐼 = 𝑚1 ( ) + 𝑚2 ( )
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )(𝑚1 𝑚2 ) 𝑥 2
𝐼=
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )2
(𝑚1 𝑚2 )
𝐼= 𝑥2 ------------8
𝑚1 +𝑚2
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia (I) of a diatomic molecule with respect to an axis passing through
centre of mass of the system shall be written as
𝐼 = µ𝑥 2 -------------9
(𝑚1 𝑚2 )
µ= (Reduced mass of the diatomic molecule)
𝑚1 +𝑚2
Eqn (9)𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒.
I-34

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

14. Discuss in detail the concept of conservation of angular momentum. (Jan 22)
When no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum of a rotating
rigid body remains constant. Product of linear momentum and perpendicular distance of
its line of action from axis of rotation.
Angular momentum of first particle = m1r12ω = m1r12ω
Angular momentum of second particle = m2r22 ω and so on.
Angular momentum = (m1r12ω + m2r22ω + m3r32ω +…. + mnrn2ω)
= ω (m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + …. + mnrn2)
Total Angular momentum is L = I ω
The relation between torque (t) and angular momentum (L) is,
Torque  = dL/dt
If no net external torque is acting on the body i.e., if net =0, then the angular momentum
(L) of the body will become a constant.
i.e., if =0 dL/dt = 0
Therefore, L is a constant.
The above equation is known as the law of conservation of angular momentum. t shows
that the angular momentum of the rigid body is constant at any instant of time “t”, if the
net torque is zero.
In other words, we can say that if the net torque is zero, then the angular momentum in
a rigid body will be equal.
If L1 and L2 are the angular momentum, then we can write
L1= L2
I11 = I22 = A, constant (or)
I  I/
Therefore, for a rigid body when the moment of inertia increases, then, the angular
velocity will decrease (and vice-versa), if the external net torque is zero.
Fig. 1.23 Conservation angular momentum
I-35

Let us consider one striking example as an ice dancer dancing as shown in Fig.1.23.
The dancer spins slowly when the hands are stretched out.
The dancer spins faster when the hands are brought close to the body.
Reason
(1) When the hands are stretched away from body the moment of inertia (I) increases,
thus the angular velocity (o) decreases resulting in slower spin.
(2) When the hands are brought close to the body the moment of inertia (I) decreases,
and thus the angular velocity () increases resulting in faster spin.
ROTATIONAL ENERGY STATE OF A RIGID DIATOMIC MOLECULE

15. Derive the relation for moment of inertia of rotating diatomic molecule of the
rigid bodies. (Or) Discuss in detail the rotational energy states of a diatomic
molecule. (Dec 22& April 23)
Let us consider a rigid diatomic molecule having two atoms of masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 weight
less rod of length 'x'. This rigid diatomic molecule rotates with an angular velocity ω, with
respect to an axis through the center of mass 'O' and is perpendicular to the connecting
rod as shown fig 1.24.
Fig 1.24 Rotating rigid diatomic molecule

w.k.t, Kinetic energy of diatomic molecule is given by,
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔2 ---------- 1
2
w.k.t, the angular momentum of rotating body is

𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
𝐿
𝜔= --------- 2
𝐼
Substitute 2 in 1, we get
1 𝐿2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐼 2
2 𝐼
𝐿2
𝐾. 𝐸 = --------- 3
2𝐼
I-36

W.K.T, The moment of inertia of rotating diatomic molecule is

𝐼 = µ𝑥 2 ----------- 4
Where µ is the reduced mass. Subs eqn (4) in (3),
𝐿 2
𝐾. 𝐸 = ----------- 5
2µ𝑥 2
Equation (5) represents the classical equation for kinetic energy of a rigid diatomic
molecule. The energy levels are continuous for all possible values of 'L'.
But, according to quantum mechanics, the energy values are discrete.
Based on the quantum theory, the angular momentum 'L' can be written a
𝐿 = √𝐽(𝐽 + 1) ħ ----------- 6
Where, J is the total angular momentum quantum number and its values are 0, 1,2, 3,
and so on. Substituting equation (6) in equation (5) we get
2
(√𝐽(𝐽+1) ħ)
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐽 = ------------- 7
2𝜇𝑥 2
Eqn(7) represents the rotational kinetic energy of a rigid diatomic molecule, quantum
mechanically.
Special cases
(i) When J=0, 𝐸0 = 0
2ħ2 ħ2
(ii) When J=1, 𝐸1 = => 𝐸1 =
2µ𝑥 2 µ𝑥 2
2 (3)ħ2 3ħ2
(iii) When J=2, 𝐸2 = => 𝐸2 = =>𝐸2 = 3𝐸1
2µ𝑥 2 µ𝑥 2
3 (4)ħ2 6ħ2
(iv) When J=3, 𝐸3 = => 𝐸3 = =>𝐸3 = 6𝐸1
2µ𝑥 2 µ𝑥 2
GYROSCOPE
16. Describe the principle, construction, and working of Gyroscope and mention its
application in various field. (Apr 22, 23 & 24, Nov 23)
A gyroscope is a device which is used to measure (or) maintain the angular velocity and
orientation, without changing its magnitude.
The device has a spinning wheel (or) disc mounted on a base in which the axis of
rotation of the disc will freely move to maintain its orientation, irrespective of the
movement of the base.
I-37

Principle
The principle used in gyroscope is the product of angular momentum which is
experienced by the torque on the wheel (or) discussed to produce a gyroscopic procession
in the spinning wheel.
Design
The gyroscope consists of four main parts
• Rotor
• Gimbals
• Spinning wheel
• Gyroscope frame with base
In gyroscope the massive rotor is fixed on the supporting rings known as gimbals as
shown in fig 1.25.
Fig 1.25 Gyroscope

The rotor will have three degrees of rotation, which will be helpful to alter the following
parameters.
(i) Angular velocity(ω)
(ii) Angular Momentum (L)
(iii) Torque (τ)
The above three parameters are interrelated. Here the direction of angular momentum
act in the same direction as that of the rotational axis in symmetrical bodies as shown in
fig 1.26
Fig 1.26 Schematic diagram of gyroscope
I-38

Working - Without Spinning

If there is no wheel spinning, the free end only moves due to gravitational force.
With Spinning
If there is wheel spinning, the free end move towards downward direction simultaneously
produces a torque and angular momentum.
Therefore, gyroscope movement steadily increases depends upon time interval in

horizontal direction based on the equation is given by
∑ 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝐿 ---------------(1)
From equation (1), we can see that the gyroscope experiences a net torque and therefore
angular momentum must change.
Due to the constant direction, torque and angular momentum will alter its direction
without change of magnitude. As a result, the axis of rotation of wheel does not fall.
Thus, the gyroscope maintains its orientation even though the base is moved to any
place direction such that it is zero at the center and increases linearly towards the outer
periphery.
Applications
1. Used as compasses in boats, aircrafts and aero planes.
2. Used for spacecraft navigation to the desired target.
3. Used for stabilizing ships, satellites and ballistic missiles.
4. Used in gyro theodolites for maintaining the direction in tunnel mining.
TORSIONAL PENDULUN
17. Derive an expression for the Twisting couple on a wire. (May 2019)
Consider a cylindrical wire of length ‘l’ and radius ‘r’ fixed at one end and twisted
by an angle ‘’ by applying a couple at its lower end. Now it is under torsion as shown in
fig 1.27
Fig 1.27 cylindrical wire under torsion
I-39

Due to its elastic property, the internal restoring couple is equal and opposite to the
external twisting couple. Let us imagine the cylinder consists of a large number of thin
hollow coaxial cylinders. Let cylinder of radius x and thickness dx.
AB is a line parallel to PQ on the cylinder surface.
As the cylinder is twisted, the line AB is shifted to AC through an angle BAC = 
Shearing strain or Angle of shear = 
Twisted Angle at the free end = 
Now, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑥 𝜃 = 𝑙 𝜑
xθ
φ= ..........(1)
𝑙
Shearing Stress
Rigidity Modulus 𝑛=
Shearing Strain
Shearing Stress = n X Shearing Strain = n

nx

l
Shearing Force = Shearing Stress X Area over which the force acts
Area which the force acts = 2π𝑥𝑑𝑥
Hence,
nx 2 n 2
shearing force F  2xdx  x dx
l l
2 n 2
F x dx
l ..........(2)
Moment of force acting on the entire cylinder = force X perpendicular distance
2 n 2
 x dx.x
l
2 n 3
 x dx
l .........(3)
The moment of the force acting on the entire cylinder of radius r is obtained by
integrating equation (3) between the limits x = 0 and x = r.
Hence, twisting couple
r
2πnθ 3
C=∫ 𝑥 dx
𝑙
0
r r
2πnθ 3
2πnθ x 4
= ∫ x dx = [ ]
𝑙 𝑙 4 0
0
Applying the limits, we have

2πnθ r 4 2πnθr 4
C= [ − 0] =
𝑙 4 4𝑙
I-40

 n r 4
C
2l ….......(4)
If  = 1 radian, we get twisting couple per unit twist,
 n r4
C
2l ........(5)
This is the required twisting couple to produce a twist of unit radian in the cylinder is
called Torsional Rigidity of the cylinder.
18. Derive an expression for rigidity modulus and explain how rigidity modulus of a
wire can be determined using a Torsional pendulum. (Or) Derive the period of
torsional pendulum and arrive at the equation of torsional rigidity. (Nov 22)
“A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that executes torsional
oscillation is called torsional pendulum”.
Description:
It consists of a metal Wire suspended vertically with the upper end fixed. The lower
end of the wire is connected to the center of a heavy circular disc as shown in fig 1.28.
When the disc and the wire is rotated by applying a twist, through an angle .
Then, the restoring couple set up in the wire = Cθ........(1)
where C - couple per unit twist.
Fig 1.28 Torsional pendulum

dθ
If the disc is released, it oscillates with angular velocity in the horizontal plane.
dt
These oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.
d2 θ
If the angular acceleration produced in the disc and I it’s moment of inertia.
dt2
I-41

𝑑2𝜃
Applied couple = I ........(2)
𝑑𝑡 2
In equilibrium, applied couple = restoring couple
d 2
I  C
dt 2
d 2 C

dt 2 I .......(3)
This equation represents simple harmonic motion.
d2 θ
Angular acceleration is proportional to angular displacement  and is always
dt2
directed towards the mean position.
Hence, the motion of the disc being simple harmonic motion, the time period of the
oscillation is given by
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜃
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐶
𝐼
×𝜃
I
T  2
C ..........(4)
Squaring on both sides, we have
2
 I 
T 2  22  2  

 C .......(5)
4 2 I
T2 
C ........(6)
nr 4
C
2l
Substituting couple per unit twist in eqn.(6)we have,
4 2 I 2l  4 2 I
T2  
 n r4  n r4
2l .........(7)
The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire
8 I  l 
n  
r4 T 2 
I-42

DOUBLE PENDULUM
19. Derive an expression for displacement, velocity, Kinetic energy, Potential
energy and Lagrangian equation can be determined using a double pendulum.
Fig 1.29 (a) Double pendulum

Double pendulum consists of two pendulums in which one pendulum is attached to
the end of the other pendulum. If the motion is small then the pendulum behaves as a
simple pendulum. If the motion is large then it behaves as a chaotic system.
Description
Let us consider a double pendulum suspended to a point 'O, ml- mass of pendulum-1
m2- mass of pendulum-2, 𝑙1 - length of pendulum-1, 𝑙2 - length of the pendulum-2.
If the double pendulum is made to oscillate, then both pendulum-1andpendulum-2 will
oscillate at an angle Ɵ1 and Ɵ2 as shown in fig 1.29 (a)
Displacement
Let x1(OA) and x2(OB) be the displacement of pendulum-1 and pendulum-2
respectively, along the x-axis.
Let y1(OC) and y2(OD) be the displacement of pendulum-1andpendulum-2 respectively,
along the negative y-axis.
From figure1.29 (b),∆𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝐴𝑚1
𝑥
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 1
𝑙1
𝑥1= 𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 -------------1
𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥 ′ -------------- 2 Fig 1.29 (b)
I-43

From fig1.29 (c),∆𝑙𝑒 𝑚1 𝐵𝑚2
𝑥′
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 =
𝑙2
𝑥 ′ = 𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ---------------3
Fig 1.29 (c)
Sub (1) and (3) in eqn (2)
𝑥2 = 𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 --------------4
From fig1.29 (d),∆𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝐶𝑚1

𝑦1
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = −
𝑙1
𝑦1= − 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 -----------------5
𝑦2 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦′ ---------------- 6
Fig 1.29 (d)
From fig,1.29(e),∆𝑙𝑒 𝑚1 𝐷𝑚2

𝑦′
Cos 𝜃2 = − 𝑙
2
′
𝑦 = −𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 ---------------7
Sub (5) and (7) in eqn (6) Fig 1.29 (e)
𝑦2 = −𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2 -------------8

Equations (1), (4), (5) & (8) represents the displacement at various positions of the double
pendulum
Velocity
Differentiating equation (1)we get,
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑(𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) 𝑑𝜃1

𝑣𝑥1 = = = 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃1
= 𝜃1̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑥1 = 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ ------------ 9
Differentiating equation (4)we get

𝑑(𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 +𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
𝑣𝑥2 = = 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ + 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 𝜃2̇ -----------10
𝑑𝑡
I-44

𝑑(−𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 )
𝑣𝑦1 = = 𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ ------------ 11
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(−𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 −𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 )
𝑣𝑦2 = = 𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ + 𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝜃2̇ ----------- 12
𝑑𝑡
Kinetic Energy
We know, the kinetic energy of the system is

2
1 2 2
𝑇 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦𝑖 )
2
𝑖=1
1 2 2 1 2 2
𝑇 = 𝑚1 (𝑣𝑥1 + 𝑣𝑦1 )+ 𝑚2 (𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 ) ------------13
2 2
Subs (9), (10), (11) and (12) in eqn 13
1
𝑇 = 2 𝑚1 ( l1 Cos 2 𝜃1 𝜃12̇ +
2
l12 Sin2 𝜃1 𝜃̇12 ) + 12 𝑚2 [(𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ + 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 𝜃2̇ )2 +
2
(𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ + 𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝜃2̇ ) ] ------------14
Eqn (14) represents the kinetic energy of the double pendulum.
Potential Energy
We know the potential energy of the system
𝑉 = 𝑚1 𝑔𝑦1+ 𝑚2 𝑔𝑦2 ------------15

Sub (5) & (8) in eqn (15)
𝑉 = −𝑚1 𝑔𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝑚2 𝑔(𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) ------------16

Lagrangian
Eqn (18) represents the Lagrangian equation for double pendulum
L=T–V ------------17
1
𝑚1 ( l1 Cos 2 𝜃1 𝜃12̇ + l12 Sin2 𝜃1 𝜃12̇ )
2
𝐿=
2
1 2
+ 𝑚2 [(𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ + 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 𝜃2̇ )2 + (𝑙1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝜃1̇ + 𝑙2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝜃2̇ ) ]
2
+𝑚1 𝑔𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝑚2 𝑔(𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) ---------------18
Eqn (18) represents the Lagrangian equation for double pendulum.
I-45

20. Write the characteristics and explain non-linear Oscillations.

A nonlinear oscillator will oscillate with different frequencies in the same time
internal (or) in terms of least integer fractions.
Examples
1. Torsional Pendulum (or) double pendulum.
2. Damped oscillator.
Characteristics
The major characteristics for non-linear oscillations are as follows:
1. In non-linear oscillations, the period of oscillations depends on the amplitude of the
oscillations.
2. For some type of non-linearity, the frequency of the oscillator will change with
amplitude.
3. Therefore, the non-linear oscillations will have multiple steady state solutions.
4. Non-linear oscillations will have jumping phenomena.
5. The non-linear oscillations will have complex (or) irregular motion.
6. These oscillations will possess internal resonances, i.e, different parts of the system
will oscillate at different frequencies.
Explanation
Let us consider a non-linear oscillator which oscillates with different frequencies(fn).
1
𝑓𝑛 = ……..……..(1)
𝑇𝑛
Where T is the time period.

In non-linear oscillator, the time period will be the same (or) it be the least integer
fractions such as T, T/2, T/3 etc.
We can write
𝑇
𝑇𝑛 = ………………(2)
𝑛
where n is the integer i.e., n = 1,2,3..
Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1), we get
𝑛
𝑓𝑛 = ……………(3)
𝑇
From equation (3) we can conclude that the frequency of the non-linear oscillatory
motion is inversely proportional to the time period.
For various values of 'n' the frequency of oscillations will change and the first four
harmonics are shown in fig 1.30
I-46

Fig 1.30 Frequency verses time
Inference
1. From Fig.1.30 At the midpoint, all the harmonics are zero.
2. The even harmonics will happen for the integer number of cycles and hence it goes
positive.
3. The odd harmonics will happen for 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 etc number of cycles and hence it
goes negative.
4. Thus the motion of the non-linear oscillator will have complex motion.
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART B QUESTIONS

1. Explain how the moment of inertia of rigid bodies affects their rotational kinetic
energy. (Jan 22)
2. Discuss in detail the concept of conservation of angular momentum. (Jan 22)
3. Derive the relation moment of inertia of diatomic molecule (or) Derive the relation
between rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia and give a short note on
moment of inertia of diatomic molecule. (Apr 22, 23 & 24, Nov 23)
4. Describe the principle, construction, and working of Gyroscope and mention its
application in various field. (Apr 22, 23 & 24, Nov 23)
I-47

Unit I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PH3151 / Engg Physics

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Multiparticle dynamics: Center of mass (CM) – CM of continuous bodies –

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES

8. Define rigid body.

ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

10. Define rotational kinetic energy. (Jan 22)

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

12.Write the Kinematics of rotational motion.

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

19. State the Newton’s first law for rotational motion.

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

26. What are the applications of gyroscope?

TORSIONAL PENDULUM – DOUBLE PENDULUM

31. What is meant by non-linear oscillations? (Nov 2023)

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

33. If the force of an oscillation is given by 𝐅(𝐱) = −𝐤𝐱 − 𝐛𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐜𝐱 𝟑 , what kind of an

m  0  35.5 m  1.27  1010

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

35.5 m  1.27  10 10

Mass (M)= 200g  200 103 Kg

 200 103  (5 102 ) 2

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Fig 1.1 System of particles

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Multiply and divide equation (7) by M in L.H.S,

The above equation lies midway between the two particles.

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

(ii) The center of mass along the Z-axis,

MOTION OF THE CENTER OF MASS

Since mi = M, we can write

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time, we get

According to Newton second law, we know F = ma

Equation (3) shall be written as

Or Fcm  Fi …………….(4)

KINETIC ENERGY OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

Fig 1.2 Multiparticle system

Then the Kinetic energy of the ith particle shall be written as

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Equation (4) represents Kinetic energy of system of particles.

ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA (Rotational kinematics)

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Fig 1.3 Rotational motion of a rigid body

Rotational kinetic energy of all the particles.

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

Role of moment of inertia and its physical significance.

Fig1.4 M.I parallel axis theorem

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,

𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑑𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 + 𝑥)2

𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 2 + 2𝑟𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )

𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 + ∑ 2𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝑥 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥 2 ----------- (4)

Where M  m i [Mass of the body]

According to center of mass for a rigid body ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0

Fig 1.5 M.I perpendicular axis theorem

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai,