Unit 6: Further

Engineering
Mathematics
Assignment 1: Sequences & Series
P1 – Solve given problems using routine arithmetic and geometric progression operations

P2 – Solve given problems using routine power series operations

M1 – Solve given problems accurately, using routine and non-routine arithmetic and geometric
progression operations

M2 – Solve given problems accurately using routine and non-routine power series operations

D1 – Evaluate, using technically correct language and a logical structure, engineering problems using
non-routine sequence and series operations, while solving accurately all the given problems using
routine and non-routine operations
What you will need to know
What is a Sequence?
What is a Series?
The difference between arithmetic, geometric and power series
Different ways of presenting a series
How to calculate the sum of a series
The difference between convergence and divergence in a power
series (including geometric series)
How sequences and series calculations can be useful in an
engineering context
What is a Sequence?

A sequence (also called a progression) is simply a set of numbers

that follow a given pattern – for example:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5...

is probably the most simple sequence

What is the next term in the
sequence?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5…
2, 4, 6, 8, 10…
1, 4, 9, 16, 25…
1, 8, 27, 56, 125…
50, 45, 40, 35, 30…
1, 3, 6, 10, 15…
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8…
0, 3, 8, 15, 24…

What is the next term in the
sequence?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5…6
2, 4, 6, 8, 10…12
1, 4, 9, 16, 25…36
1, 8, 27, 56, 125…216
50, 45, 40, 35, 30…25
1, 3, 6, 10, 15…21
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8…13
0, 3, 8, 15, 24…35

The nth term of a sequence
In any sequence, we represent each term algebraically by un where n is the term
number, e.g.

For the first term, n=1 so we represent the first term as u1

For the second term, n=2 so we represent the second term as u2
For the tenth term, n=10 so we represent the tenth term as u10
For the fiftieth term, n=50 so we represent the fiftieth term as u50

…and so on.
This can be very useful when trying to work out a rule to find any term in the
sequence
nth Term continued…

This shows us that any term in this sequence, un is simply equal to n itself
i.e.
Un = n
So we can work out that the 50th term, u50 is going to be 50 and so on…
nth Term continued…

This shows us that any term in this sequence, un is simply equal to 2n

i.e.
Un = 2n
So we can work out that the 50th term, u50 is going to be 100 and so on…
nth Term continued…

This shows us that any term in this sequence, un is simply equal to n2

i.e.
Un = n2
So we can work out that the 50th term, u50 is going to be 2500 and so on…
Find the 10th Term by working out the rule, then
check by completing the first 10 terms of the
sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10…
1, 4, 9, 16, 25…
1, 8, 27, 56, 125…
50, 45, 40, 35, 30…
1, 3, 6, 10, 15…
0, 3, 8, 15, 24…

Find the 10th Term by working out the rule, then
check by completing the first 10 terms of the
sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10…un = 2n
1, 4, 9, 16, 25…un = n2
1, 8, 27, 56, 125…un = n3
50, 45, 40, 35, 30…un = 55-5n
1, 3, 6, 10, 15…un = n(n+1)/2
0, 3, 8, 15, 24…un = n2-1

un = 1/2n
nth term: useful or not?
Finding the nth term of a sequence could be useful to calculate values and make predictions
based on data that follows a sequence. Here are just some examples:

Calculating compound interest earned in a given year on a savings account

Calculating velocity of a rocket as it burns fuel and therefore looses mass (almost all the
mass in a rocket is fuel, therefore dramatic changes in mass during flight lead to variable
acceleration)

Predicting race car lap times (cars usually get slightly quicker each lap due to mass of fuel
reducing - so cars become lighter each lap)

Calculating the future cost of materials and products based on inflation/deflation trends
The Sum of a Series
A series is simply the sum of all the terms in a sequence added together
e.g.

The sequence: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…

Gives the series: Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + …

So the Sum of the first five terms in the series, S5 is 15

Sum of a Series: useful or not?
Finding the sum of a series could be useful to calculate totals and make predictions based on
data that follows a sequence. Here are just some examples:

Calculating total interest earned over a number of years on a savings account

Calculating distance covered by a rocket as its acceleration and velocity constantly change

Predicting how many laps a race car can complete before refuelling (as cars get lighter due to
less fuel they will in turn use less fuel per lap since there is less mass to move)

Calculating the total cost of materials and products over a number of years based on
inflation/deflation trends
Sigma Notation
When working with bigger series with many terms, it could quickly become
quite time consuming to write out all the terms in the series each time in our
calculations e.g.

1+2+3+4+5

Is fine for a series with 5 terms, but imagine if we had 100 terms, or 1000 terms
etc.

We use Sigma Notation as a more effective way to represent the sum of a

series
Sigma Notation continued…
To represent a series using sigma notation, we simply use the upper-case Greek
letter Sigma (which is often used in maths and engineering to mean “the Sum of”,
followed by the rule for the sequence. The numbers below and above the sigma
sign tell us which term to consider first (usually 1) and the last term to consider in
the sequence respectively e.g.

 Last
term
Rule for the
Sigma = Sum series
of…

First term to consider, in this case

u1
Sigma notation continued…

This notation is basically telling us:

“from u1 to u5 what is the sum of the sequence when un is
equal to n”

Or u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5
Which is equal to 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
Sigma Notation continued…

This notation is telling us:
“ from u1 to u10 what is the sum of the sequence when un
= 2n +1”

Or u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 + u6 + u7 + u8 + u9 + u10
Which is equal to 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 = 120
Sigma Notation continued…

This notation is telling us:
“ from u5 to u10 what is the sum of the sequence when un
= 2n +1”

Or u5 + u6 + u7 + u8 + u9 + u10
Which is equal to 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 = 96
Calculate



Calculate



Express the following in Sigma
Notation
3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15
16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 64 + 81
4+2+1+½+¼
Express the following in Sigma
Notation
3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 =


16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 64 + 81 =


4+2+1+½+¼=

or


Something to remember for later…


When b>1
e.g.


Or: u5 + u6 + u7 + u8 + u9 + u10 = (u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 + u6 + u7 + u8 + u9 + u10) – (u1 + u2 + u3 + u4)

Which is equal to 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 – 3 – 5 – 7 – 9 = 96
Arithmetic progressions
An arithmetic progression is one where the rule for the next number in the sequence is equal
to a “common difference” added to the previous number in the sequence
i.e.


Where d is the common difference (note that in ascending progressions such as 1,

2, 3, 4 then d is positive and in descending progressions such 4, 3, 2, 1 then
d is negative)

Furthermore, Arithmetic progressions will always follow a rule:

Where c is a constant equal to un - dn

Example

5, 9, 13, 17, 21
In this example we have+a sequence
+ +starting+ from 5 with a common
4 terms
difference, d of 4 between 4 4 4
So: un = un-1 + 4 and un = 4n + c where c = 1
Finding the nth term for an
arithmetic sequence
Because all arithmetic progressions follow the rule un = dn + c we can
derive an algebraic formula to find the nth term for any arithmetic
sequence.

Consider that:

So we can say that:

= + ( − 1)
𝑛
1
𝑢
𝑢
𝑛
𝑑
Finding the nth term for an
arithmetic sequence
It is quite common to express the first term u1 as a

Therefore: = + ( − 1)

𝑛
1

𝑢
𝑢
𝑛
𝑑
Is often expressed as:

Questions
1. Find the 10th, 20th and 100th terms for the sequence:
3, 6, 9, 12…

2. Find the 12th, 25th, and 80th, terms for the sequence:
100, 97, 94, 91…

3. If a person earns £1 on the first day, andtheach consecutive day earns 50p more than the day
before, how much will they earn on the 30 day, 75 day and 1000 day.
th th

4. The same person donates 50p to charity on the first day, and each day donates 55p more
than he donated the previous day. How many days until he donates a full days pay?
Questions
1. Find the 10th, 20th and 100th terms for the sequence:
3, 6, 9, 12…
30…60…300
2. Find the 12th, 25th, and 80th, terms for the sequence:
100, 97, 94, 91…
78…52…-58
3. If a person earns £1 on the first day, andtheach consecutive day earns 50p more than the day
before, how much will they earn on the 30 day, 75 day and 1000 day.
th th

£15.50 £38.00 £500.50

4. The same person donates 50p to charity on the first day, and each day donates 55p more
than he donated the previous day. How many days until he donates a full days pay?
11 days
Find the sum of an arithmetic series
We should be comfortable that the sum of any series, Sn is just the sum
of all the terms in that series up to the nth term.

i.e.


This ui is shorthand for “all the

terms”
Find the sum of an arithmetic series
Consider that:

Could also be written backwards so that:


Find the sum of an arithmetic series
Also remember that:

So our previous equations become:

And

Find the sum of an arithmetic series
If we add the two expressions:

And
=u1+ =u1+ =u1+ =u1+ =u1+ =u1+
 un un un un un un

We get:

Now we have “n” number of

(u +u )
Find the sum of an arithmetic series
So:

Equates to:


Therefore we can state that:


Find the sum of an arithmetic series
Substituting:

into:


We get:


Which simplifies to:


Find the sum of an arithmetic series
Recalling that sometimes we define:

Can also be expressed as:


Questions
1. Find the sum of the series:

2. A runner runs the first lap of a 400m track in 50 seconds. Each lap she gets 1.2 seconds
slower. How long does it takes to complete 10 laps? How far (in metres) can she run in 2 hours?

3. The person who earns £1 on the first day and an additional 50p more each consecutive day
continues to donate to charity at a rate of 50p on the first day and an additional 55p more each
consecutive day until he completely runs out of money. How long will this be? How much
money will he have given to the charity in total?
Questions
1. Find the sum of the series:


10,600
2. A runner runs the first lap of a 400m track in 50 seconds. Each lap she gets 1.2 seconds
slower. How long does it takes to complete 10 laps? How far (in metres) can she run in 2 hours?
554 seconds 75.86 laps = 30.34km
3. The person who earns £1 on the first day and an additional 50p more each consecutive day
continues to donate to charity at a rate of 50p on the first day and an additional 55p more each
consecutive day until he completely runs out of money. How long will this be? How much
money will he have given to the charity in total?
21 days £126.00
Geometric Progressions
A geometric progression is a special example of a “power series” which we will
look at later on.
A geometric progression is one where the rule for the next number in the
sequence is equal to the previous number in the sequence multiplied by a
“common ratio”
i.e.

Where r is the common difference (note that in ascending
progressions such as 1, 2, 3, 4 then r>1 and in descending
progressions such 4, 3, 2, 1 then r<1)
Example

5, 15, 45, 135, 405

x x x x
In this example we have a sequence starting from 5 with a common
ratio, r of 3 between 3
terms 3 3 3
So: un = un-1 x 3
Finding the nth term for a geometric
sequence
Because all geometric progressions follow the rule un = un-1 x r we can derive an
algebraic formula to find the nth term for any geometric sequence.

Consider that:

So we can say that:

−1
=
𝑛
𝑢
𝑢
𝑟
1
𝑛
Finding the nth term for a geometric
sequence
Bearing in mind that u1 is often expressed as a

We can also say that:


Questions
1. Find the 15th, 27th and 60th terms in the sequence:
1, 3, 9, 27…

2. A racecar uses 15.2L of fuel in the first lap of a race. Each lap it gets lighter
and only uses 95% of the fuel it used on the previous lap. How much fuel is used
on the 10 lap? How many laps before the car is using less than 12L per lap?
th

3. An investor puts £1000 into a 3%PA fixed interest savings account. At the start
of the 5 year, how much money will be in the account? How many years must
th
the money be left in the account for the investor to have doubled his
investment?
Questions
1. Find the 15th, 27th and 60th terms in the sequence:
1, 3, 9, 27…
4.782 x106 2.542 x1012 1.413 x1028
2. A racecar uses 15.2L of fuel in the first lap of a race. Each lap it gets lighter
and only uses 95% of the fuel it used on the previous lap. How much fuel is used
on the 10 lap? How many laps before the car is using less than 8L per lap?
th

9.580L 14 Laps
3. An investor puts £1000 into a 3%PA fixed interest savings account. At the start
of the 5 year, how much money will be in the account? How many years must
th
the money be left in the account for the investor to have doubled his
investment?
£1125.51 25 Years
Finding the Sum of a Geometric
Series


Which can be written as:

We could multiply the expression by r to give:


Finding the Sum of a Geometric
Series

Simplified:


Take common terms outside of Brackets:

And divide each term by (1-r)


Alternative Form
Subtracting the other way round would give:

The Expression:

Alternative Form

Simplified:


Take common terms outside of Brackets:

And divide each term by (r-1)


Finding the Sum of a Geometric
Series
Subtracting would give:

The Expression:

Formulae for Sum of a Series
These two formulas are the same:

And

These will work for
any geometric
series

Note that if u1=r (e.g. un = 2n)then:


And:


These will only work

for geometric series
where u1=r
Questions
1. Find the sum of the series:

2. A rocket uses 5% of its total fuel on the first 100m of flight, and each consecutive 100m uses
96% of the fuel it used on the previous 100m (due to constant acceleration). How much fuel is
used over the first km? How far does the rocket travel before it runs out of fuel?

3. At a party, the first person to leave is given half of the cake. Each person to leave after is
given halfthof the remaining cake (i.e. the 2 person gets ¼ of the cake). How much of the cake
nd
do the 10 , 12 and 20 people to leave get? Does the cake ever run out?
th th
Questions
1. Find the sum of the series:


8184
2. A rocket uses 5% of its total fuel on the first 100m of flight, and each consecutive 100m uses
96% of the fuel it used on the previous 100m (due to constant acceleration). How much fuel is
used over the first km? How far does the rocket travel before it runs out of fuel?
41.90% 3.942km
3. At a party, the first person to leave is given half of the cake. Each person to leave after is
given halfthof the remaining cake (i.e. the 2 person gets ¼ of the cake). How much of the cake
nd
do the 10 , 12th and 20th people to leave get? Does the cake ever run out?
1/1024 1/4096 1/1048576 No, the cake never runs out but the pieces become very tiny
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
Numbers are infinite, meaning they go on forever – there is no number in
existence that we could not add 1 to which in turn would make it 1 bigger.
Because of this, it is plausible that we could also have an infinite sequence or
series.


If n = a number then the series is finite and has n terms

If n = ∞ then the series is infinite and has an infinite number of terms
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
What does this mean? Lets look at a simple example where un = rn so that:

This would give us the formula:

There is an infinite
 number of terms in
this space
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
Now imagine that r = 0: All of these terms = 0 therefore we don’t have
a real progression

This would also give us the formula: Essentially, we end up

adding together an
infinite number of zeros
 which would = 0

Which would simplify to:



This would be equal to 0.

This shows us that for ANY
geometric sequence r cannot
be equal to 0.
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
Now imagine that r = 1: All of these terms = 1 therefore we don’t have
a real progression

This would also give us the formula: Essentially, we end up

adding together an
infinite number of ones
 which would = ∞

Which would simplify to:



Technically we can’t divide by 0, however

this does make up part of the proof that
dividing by 0 would produce a result of ∞.
This shows us that for ANY
geometric sequence r cannot
be equal to 1.
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
Now imagine that r = 2: Now we have a real progression

This would also give us the formula: Essentially, we end up

adding together an
infinite number of
 increasingly large
numbers which would
Which would simplify to: eventually = ∞


2∞ is an infinitely big number so this will

give us a sum for the infinite series of ∞.
This isn’t very helpful, but it does show us
that if r > 1 then any sum to infinity will =
∞.
This is called divergence.
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
Now imagine that r = 3:

This would also give us the formula:

Which would simplify to:



3∞ is an infinitely big number so this will

give us a sum for the infinite series of ∞.
This isn’t very helpful, but it does show us
that if r > 1 then any sum to infinity will =
∞.
This is called divergence.
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
Now imagine that r = ½: We have a real progression

This would also give us the formula: We end up adding

together an infinite
 number of increasingly
small numbers which
would eventually = ?
Which would simplify to:


½∞ is an infinitely small number which we

could consider to be 0. This means that our
formula now returns a real number and
shows us that if r < 1 then any sum to
infinity will = a real number.
This is called convergence.
Sum to Infinity for a Geometric
Series
To Summarise:
Series can be infinite since we can apply the rule to the previous term an unlimited number of times. Depending on
the ratio our sum of the series will diverge (become infinitely big – not useful) or converge (come to equal a single
real number regardless of how many terms we have)

For any geometric series (finite or infinite):


And


For an infinite series, if:


Then the series diverges

Then the series converges
A brief note about negative values
of r
It is possible to have negative values for the common ratio r. In this instance our terms will alternate between positive
and negative values so as we find the sum of the series our sum might also alternate between positive and negative
values depending on whether n is odd or even. However the following rules would still apply

For any geometric series (finite or infinite):


And


For an infinite series, if:


Then the series diverges

Then the series converges
Absolute Values of r
The absolute value of a number is the magnitude (size) of a number regardless of whether it is positive or negative, for example

The positive number 5 has a magnitude of 5, but the negative number -5 also has a magnitude of 5, it is just negative.
We express the magnitude of a number as like this:


Example:


and


Also:

and

Absolute Values
To simplify the rules we can say

For any geometric series (finite or infinite):


And

For an infinite series, if:

Then the series diverges

Then the series converges
Questions
1. Calculate:


2. The main fuel used at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant was Uranium-235. Uranium-235 undergoes a
nuclear fission reaction and the radioactive waste product Caesium-137 is left behind.
When the reactor exploded in 1986, Large amounts of Caesium-137 was spread around the local area.
Soon after the incident, radiation levels of 300Sv (Sieverts) per hour were recorded (around 10Sv of
exposure can be instantly fatal, and around 5Sv of radiation can be fatal within a few
weeks).
The recommended safe limit of radioactive exposure is 100mSv (milliSieverts) over 5 years. The radiation
energy of caesium is approximately 5.76MJ per Sievert and Caesium-137 has a half life of 30 years.
Using this information, suggest the year in which it would be safe to live at the Chernobyl site if it was left
untreated, and suggest the total radiation energy that will be emitted from the 800kg of Caesium-137.
(assume all years to contain 365 days and each day to be 24 hours)
Questions
1. Calculate:

1.667
2. The main fuel used at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant was Uranium-235. Uranium-235 undergoes a
nuclear fission reaction and the radioactive waste product Caesium-137 is left behind.
When the reactor exploded in 1986, Large amounts of Caesium-137 was spread around the local area.
Soon after the incident, radiation levels of 300Sv (Sieverts) per hour were recorded (around 10Sv of
exposure can be instantly fatal, and around 5Sv of radiation can be fatal within a few
weeks).
The recommended safe limit of radioactive exposure is 100mSv (milliSieverts) over 5 years. The radiation
energy of caesium is approximately 5.76MJ per Sievert and Caesium-137 has a half life of 30 years.
Using this information, suggest the year in which it would be safe to live at the Chernobyl site if it was left
untreated, and suggest the total radiation energy that will be emitted from the Caesium-137. (assume
all years to contain 365 days and each day to be 24 hours)
Will be safe in the year 2885 (899 years after the incident) Total Energy 3.456GJ
Quick note about Chernobyl
889 years is just the time for the Caesium-137 to decay to “safe” levels.
In actual fact, other radioactive materials such as technetium which are
less active but have much longer half-lives (around 10,000 years)
render the area unsuitable for habitation for an estimated 20,000 years.

That said, there are around 500 people living in the area that have
either refused to leave or have returned to the area against advice from
local authorities.
Power Series
A Power Series is any series that has an increasing power with each term, so for example a geometric
series is an example of a power series:
Increasing powers of
 r

A more general power series looks like this:

Where x and c are simply numbers.

Representing functions as a Power
Series
Functions are used all the time in maths and engineering. They can be simple or complex, have
one solution or many solutions – even infinite solutions.

A simple example is a function of the variable x:

We can evaluate the function for different values of x, for example:




And so on…
Representing functions as a Power
Series
Another simple example is a function of the variable x:

We can evaluate the function for different values of x, for example:




And so on…
Representing functions as a Power
Series
A slightly more complex example is a function of the variable x:

We can still evaluate the function for different values of x, for example:




And so on…
Representing functions as a Power
Series
So far these functions only return a single value.

Consider the function:



This function would return 2 values:

The function:


Returns an infinite number of values

This can make evaluating a function difficult

Representing functions as a Power
Series
Furthermore, often we may need to find the derivative or integral of a
function. For simple functions this is not a problem, but for more
complex functions this can become increasingly difficult.

In some cases it may be beneficial to us to approximate a function as

the sum of a power series, such that:


Example
Consider a simple function:

This function can be approximated to:

But how did we get to here?

Example
If a function can be expressed in the form:

Then the function can be approximated to:


Easy Example
Consider the function:

Then the function can be approximated to:


Easy Example 2
Consider the function:

Then the function can be approximated to:


Easy Example 3
Consider the function:

Then the function can be approximated to:


Example
Now consider the function:


This is NOT in the form:

However:

Now in the required


form
Then the function can be approximated to:


Example
Consider the function:

Then the function can be approximated to:


Example
What if:

 Always convert to this

form
Then the function can be approximated to:


Example
Consider the function:

Then the function can be approximated to:


Questions
Represent the following functions as power series:



Interval of Convergence
Unfortunately, our approximations only work if our series converges i.e.

If:


Which will allow us to derive an expression in the form:

This is called the Interval of Convergence, and it tells us the range of values for x that will make our
approximation work.
Questions
Represent the following functions as power series:



Example
Assume the approximation:

In this case:


So our interval of convergence is:


Example 2
Assume the approximation:

In this case:


So our interval of convergence is:


Example 3
Assume the approximation:

In this case:


So our interval of convergence is:


Example 4
Notice that the 7 is
Assume the approximation: irrelevant

In this case:


So our interval of convergence is:


Questions
Find the interval of convergence for the following functions:



Questions
Find the interval of convergence for the following functions:



Taylor Series continued…
A Taylor series works by approximating a function as the sum of its derivatives of the order, n.

Before we continue, we should be comfortable with the notation:


…and so on
A Brief Introduction to Taylor and
Maclaurin Series
A Taylor series is an application of expressing a function as the sum of a
series (or a Polynomial)

Poly- meaning “many” or “more than one”

-nomial meaning “numbers” or “terms”

So the sum of a series is a polynomial as it is an expression with more

than one term.
Taylor Series continued…
Lets assume we have an unknown function,  that we will approximate
as a polynomial function 

f(
x)

x
Taylor Series continued…
If we evaluate  at a known value e.g. 0, and say that , then at the point
x=0 our functions  and p are the same

f(
0)
f
p( (
x) x
)
However, as an approximation of  this is very xpoor
Taylor Series continued…
But if we evaluate  at 0, and  at 0 and say that

then our polynomial function  looks more like this:

f(
0)
f
p( (
x) x
x )

This is still not fantastic, but its improving

Taylor Series continued…
Lets continue and evaluate at 0, and  at 0, and  at 0 and say that

then our polynomial function  looks more like this:

f(
0)
f
(
x
x )

This is again, a much better improvement p(

x)
Taylor Series continued…
Lets evaluate, , and  all at 0, and say that

then our polynomial function  may loo more like this:

f(
0)
f
(
x
x )
p(
x)
Hopefully you can see that with each additional derivative our polynomial function  becomes closer to the original
function .
Arguably then, an infinite number of derivatives would produce a polynomial expression that is identical to the
original function.
Taylor Series continued…
So:

Can we see any patterns here?

u u u u u u
0 1 2 3 4 5
Taylor Series continued…
So:

Can we see any patterns here?

u u u u u u
0 1 2 3 4 5
Taylor Series continued…
So:

Can we see any patterns here?

u u u u u u
0 1 2 3 4 5
Taylor Series continued…
So:

Can we see any patterns here?

u u u u u u
0 1 2 3 4 5
Maclaurin and Taylor Series
What we have derived is the Maclaurin Series:

The Maclaurin series is a special example of a Taylor series that focuses around evaluating the function at
0

A general Taylor Series allows us to evaluate the function at any point, such that:


Example
We will look to express the function:

As a polynomial function in the form:


Example continued…
First let us evaluate the first few derivatives of the function cos(x):
Example continued…
So the polynomial approximation:

Becomes:

Which simplifies to:



Polynomial
expression for
cos(x)
Example 2
We will look to express the function:

As a polynomial function in the form:


Example 2 continued…
First let us evaluate the first few derivatives of the function sin(x):
Example 2 continued…
So the polynomial approximation:

Becomes:

Which simplifies to:



Polynomial
expression for
sin(x)
Example 3
We will look to express the function:


As a polynomial function in the form:


Example 3 continued…
First let us evaluate the first few derivatives of the function ex:
Example 3 continued…
So the polynomial approximation:

Becomes:

Which simplifies to:



Polynomial
expression for
ex
Euler’s Identity (for your interest
only)
From some of the previous slides we should have noticed there is a very close comparison between the polynomial expression for e x
and the combined polynomial expressions for cos(x) and sin(x):


Euler’s Identity continued…
Now consider the function:

Where:

Euler’s Identity continued…
So the polynomial approximation:

Becomes:

Which simplifies to:



Euler’s
Formula
Euler’s Identity continued…
So we can see that:

and

And can therefore deduce that:


Euler’s Identity continued…
Furthermore, if we evaluate at , assuming that we are working in radians:

Becomes:

Which equates to:

Or:
Euler’s
Identity

Example Question
A circuit containing large coil experience a voltage spike when turned
off that produces a current:

1. Express the function I(t) as a Maclaurin’s Series up to the first 5

terms
2.

3. Find the total charge to pass a point between 0 and 5 seconds after
turning the circuit off
Assignment 2: Matrices, Determinants and
Complex Numbers
P3 – Solve given problems using routine matrices and determinant operations

P4 – Solve given problems using routine complex number operations

M3 – Solve given problems accurately, using routine and non-routine matrices and
determinant operations

M4 – Solve given problems accurately, using routine and non-routine complex number
operations

D2 – Evaluate, using technically correct language and a logical structure, engineering

problems using non-routine matrices, determinant and complex operations, while solving
accurately all the given problems using routine and non-routine operations.
Matrices
A matrix is simply a rectangular table of numbers organised into rows and columns. The numbers can be anything we choose (i.e. positive, negative,
fractions, decimals, Zeros, algebraic terms etc.)

Matrices are often used to present large sets of data neatly, and can be interpreted by computers which makes them very useful for programmers.

To save time, we often label matrices with a capital letter, which is then used to represent that matrix in later calculations e.g.

We could then say:

 instead of +
Describing a Matrix
Matrices come in all different sizes, and are described by the number of rows and columns respectively
e.g.

 is a 2x2 matrix

 is a 2x3 matrix

 is a 6x3 matrix
Matrix Elements
Each number in a matrix is called an element. Each element is described in
the format:

Where m is the row number and n is the column number

So a matrix with m rows and n columns looks like:


Question
Draw a 4x3 matrix and label each element and highlight a23
Question
Draw a 4x3 matrix and label each element and highlight a23


Special types of Matrix
Square Matrix (has same number of rows and columns) e.g.

Diagonal Matrix (Square matrix filled with zeros except for the elements on the top left to
bottom right diagonal) e.g.

Notice that the

diagonal
elements could
still be 0 as well
The Identity Matrix (Unit Matrix)
The Identity Matrix (sometimes called the Unit Matrix) is a diagonal
matrix where each diagonal element is 1. The matrix is always called :

The identity matrix will be important later on…

Symmetric Matrices
A Matrix is considered to be symmetric if it is a square matrix and is
symmetrical about the diagonal, e.g.

Or

Symmetric Matrices
A Matrix is considered to be symmetric if it is a square matrix and is
symmetrical about the diagonal, e.g.

Or

Transposing Matrices
When a matrix is transposed, the columns and rows are switched (i.e. the first row
becomes the first column and the first column becomes the first row, the
second column becomes the second row and the second row becomes the
second column etc. etc.)
The transpose of matrix A would be denoted AT.


Transposing Matrices
When a matrix is transposed, the columns and rows are switched (i.e. the first row
becomes the first column and the first column becomes the first row, the
second column becomes the second row and the second row becomes the
second column etc. etc.)
The transpose of matrix A would be denoted AT.


Transposing Matrices
When a matrix is transposed, the columns and rows are switched (i.e. the first row
becomes the first column and the first column becomes the first row, the
second column becomes the second row and the second row becomes the
second column etc. etc.)
The transpose of matrix A would be denoted AT.


Transposing a Symmetric Matrix
Interestingly, the transpose of a symmetric matrix will be identical to
the original matrix.

So for any symmetric matrix, A


Questions
Transpose the following matrices:


Questions
Transpose the following matrices:


Adding and Subtracting Matrices
Adding or subtracting matrices could be useful in data handling, however the matrices
we want to add or subtract must be compatible. To be compatible, the matrices
must have the same number of rows and columns.

Consider:

Of the four matrices above, only B and D are compatible

The transpose of C would be compatible with B and D, but A is completely
incompatible.
Adding and Subtracting Matrices
When adding or subtracting matrices from each, we simply add or substract the corresponding elements.

e.g.:


Questions


Calculate the following, highlighting any incompatible sums:


Questions


Calculate the following, highlighting any incompatible sums:


Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix
Since a matrix is compatible with itself in terms of addition, we can add it to itself as
many times as we like. This has the effect of multiplying the matrix by a single number,
which is called Scalar Multiplication. For example, if:


Then


Or

Questions


Calculate:



Questions


Calculate:



Matrix Multiplication of a Matrix
It is very common that we may wish to multiply two or more matrices
together (i.e. multiply a matrix by another matrix instead of by a
singular number). This is called Matrix Multiplication.

Matrix multiplication is only possible if the number of rows in the

second matrix is equal to the number of columns in the first matrix

Matrix multiplication is also called the Product of Two

Matrices.
Matrix Multiplication continued…
Consider the matrices:


To find AB, we multiply the 4 and 3 and add this to the product of the 6
and 8 as shown:


Matrix Multiplication continued…
Algebraically:


And

Matrix Multiplication continued…
Now consider the following matrices:


Multiplying:

Matrix Multiplication continued…
Algebraically:


And:

Questions
Solve:



Questions
Solve:



Matrix Multiplication continued…
Generally, we can multiply two matrices of any size providing that the
number of rows in the second is equal to the number of columns in the
first. The product of the multiplication will always be another matrix,
however in the examples we have seen so far the resulting matrix has
only been a 1x1 matrix – i.e. a single number

If we multiply an (m x n) matrix by a (p x q), providing n = p, then the

product matrix will be (m x q) in size

n=
p
Matrix Multiplication continued…


Because A is a 2x2 matrix and B is a 2x1 matrix, the product C will be a

2x1 matrix. These matrices can be multiplied since the number of rows
in B is equal to the number of columns in C


Matrix multiplication continued…
Algebraically:


Then:

Matrix Multiplication continued…


A is 2x2 and B is 2x2. The number of rows in B is equal to the number of

columns in A so the matrices are compatible for multiplication. The
product will be a 2x2 matrix.


Matrix Multiplication continued…
Algebraically:


Then:


Matrix Multiplication continued…
Algebraically:


Then:

Notice that AB would not be the same as BA…

Matrix Multiplication continued…
Algebraically:


Then:

So we must be very careful that we take care when reading and writing calculations
More examples



More examples



More examples



Questions


Which combinations are compatible for multiplication?

Questions


Which combinations are compatible for multiplication?

AB, BA, BC, BE, CA, CE, DA, DC, DE, ED, EF and FD
Questions



Multiplying by the Identity Matrix
Notice what happens when you multiply a matrix by its compatible identity
matrix:


Multiplying by the Identity Matrix
Notice what happens when you multiply a matrix by its compatible identity
matrix:


Multiplying by the Identity Matrix
So any Matrix multiplied by its compatible Identity Matrix returns the
original matrix.

Is this useful…?
Dividing Matrices
We have seen how it is possible to multiply two matrices by each other.
Naturally we would think the next step is to try and divide two matrices by each
other.

But dividing two matrices is NOT possible in the same way that multiplying
them is. However, we can multiply a matrix by something called the Inverse
of another matrix. This has the same effect as dividing the first matrix by the
second.

We will look at finding the inverse for a matrix over the next few slides…
The determinant
A Square matrix has a corresponding singular quantity (a single
number) which is called the determinant. The determinant by
itself is fairly useless, however it can be used when trying to find the
inverse of a matrix.

Remember, we need to find the inverse of a matrix if we want to divide

one matrix by another.
Determinant of a 2x2 Matrix
Consider:


The determinant of A, denoted as det(A) or |A| is calculated by

multiplying terms a11 and a22 and subtracting the product of terms a12
and a21
That is:

Determinant of a 2x2 Matrix
continued…
Algebraically, if:

Then:

Note that this

formula ONLY
works for a 2x2
matrix
Singular and Non-singular Matrices
A matrix is said to be Singular if its determinant is equal to 0, eg.

If the determinant is not equal to 0, the matrix is non-singular.

Questions
Find the determinants of the following matrices, identifying any singular matrices if relevant:


Questions
Find the determinants of the following matrices, identifying any singular matrices if relevant:

Singula
r
The Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix
Consider the matrices:

Note that:

And also that:


This is a special case where the two matrices can be multiplied either way round and the resulting
product is the identity matrix. When this is the case, we say that one matrix is the inverse of the other.
The Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix
continued…
The inverse of a matrix, A is denoted as A-1.
Note that in this case A-1 does not mean 1/A.
A matrix can only have an inverse if it is non-singular. Singular
matrices DO NOT have an inverse.
We know we have the inverse of a matrix if:

That is, if the product of the two matrices (either way round) is the
identity matrix – then one matrix is the inverse of the other.
Finding the Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix
Providing that the matrix is non-singular, the inverse is found as follows:
If


then


Note that ad-bc is the determinant of a 2x2 matrix

Example
Find the inverse of the matrix:


This is our
 answer
Check:

And

Questions
Find the inverse of the following matrices, highlighting any singular matrices
(which have no inverse). Check your answers by confirming that MM-1 and M-1M
are equal to :


Questions
Find the inverse of the following matrices, highlighting any singular matrices (which have no
inverse). Check your answers by confirming that MM and M M are equal to :
-1 -1

 Singula
r



Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
As the size of a matrix increases, the process to find the determinant
becomes increasingly complex. However the basic process is the same
– just with a greater number of iterations.

We will see in detail how the determinant of a 3x3 matrix is found,

before briefly discussing how the determinant is calculated for bigger
matrices.
Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Consider the matrix:


Each element in a square matrix has its own Minor. The minor is a
value gained by finding the determinant of the resultant matrix if the
element’s row and column are deleted.
Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Consider the matrix:


Lets look at element a11

If we delete the corresponding row and column of a11 we are left with
the 2x2 matrix:


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
We can now find the determinant for this 2x2 matrix:

So the minor for element a11 is 18.

We can create a new matrix containing the minors for corresponding elements from the
original matrix, ie.


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a12:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a12 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a12 is -14


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a13:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a13 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a13 is -10


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a21:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a21 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a21 is 28


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a22:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a22 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a22 is 11


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a23:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a23 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a23 is -9


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a31:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a31 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a31 is 32


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a32:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a32 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a32 is 21


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Now lets look at element a33:


If we delete the corresponding row and column of a33 we are left with the 2x2 matrix:


The determinant of which is:


So the minor of element a33 is 15


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
So the matrix:


Has a matrix of minors:


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Each element of a square matrix has a Place Sign. The place sign of a11 is always +. The following rows and
columns then alternate between + and – such that:


…and so on
Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Cofactors – each element in a square matrix also has its own cofactor. The cofactor
is a product of that element’s minor and its place sign. We can build a matrix of
cofactors:

Therefore
+ − +
( + + )
 − + −
−
Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
So the matrix:


Has a matrix of minors:

And a matrix of cofactors:


Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
Finally, the Determinant can now be found. To do this, we must
select a single row or column (it does not matter which). This will
contain three elements. We then multiply each of the 3 elements by its
cofactor and add together the 3 results. The sum will be the
determinant of the 3x3 matrix, A.

So |A| = 118
Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
continued…
To prove that it doesn’t matter which column or row we choose, lets
look at a different set of 3 elements.

So |A| = 118 (again)

You can check any row or column, the result will always be 118 for this
matrix!!!
Question
Find the matrix of minors, matrix of cofactors and the determinant for
the matrix:


Question
Find the matrix of minors, matrix of cofactors and the determinant for
the matrix:


A quicker way to find the determinant of
a 3x3?
As we’ve seen, we only need 1 row or column of elements and their
corresponding cofactors to find the determinant of a 3x3 matrix. Whilst having
multiple corresponding rows and columns is useful for checking our answers, it
is very time consuming to work out each minor.

We could save time by only working out the minors and cofactors for one row or
column and using those 3 pairs of numbers to calculate the determinant. This
will greatly reduce the time taken to find the determinant, but will not give us
the ability to check our result.

When we look at bigger matrices, we will definitely want to save as much time
as possible finding determinants.
Question
Find the determinant of this 3x3 matrix using the quicker method of
selecting a single row to work with:


Determinants of bigger matrices…
Consider this 4x4 Matrix:

To find the determinant, you would first find the Minors for the top row
which would involve finding the determinants of 4 3x3 matrices…each
of which involves finding the determinant of 3 2x2 matrices (resulting in
12 calculations in total)
Question
Find the determinant of this 3x3 matrix using the quicker method of selecting a single row to work with:


Determinants of bigger matrices…
Consider this 4x4 Matrix:

To find the determinant, you would first find the Minors for the top row
which would involve finding the determinants of 4 3x3 matrices…each
of which involves finding the determinant of 3 2x2 matrices (resulting in
12 calculations in total)
Determinants of bigger matrices…
Consider this 4x4 Matrix:

To find the determinant, you would first find the Minors for the top row
which would involve finding the determinants of 4 3x3 matrices…each
of which involves finding the determinant of 3 2x2 matrices (resulting in
12 calculations in total)
Determinants of bigger matrices…
Consider this 4x4 Matrix:

To find the determinant, you would first find the Minors for the top row
which would involve finding the determinants of 4 3x3 matrices…each
of which involves finding the determinant of 3 2x2 matrices (resulting in
12 calculations in total)
Determinants of bigger matrices…
Consider this 4x4 Matrix:

To find the determinant, you would first find the Minors for the top row
which would involve finding the determinants of 4 3x3 matrices…each
of which involves finding the determinant of 3 2x2 matrices (resulting in
12 calculations in total)
Determinants of bigger matrices…
Consider this 5x5 Matrix:

To find the determinant, you would first find the Minors for the top row which would
involve finding the determinants of 5 4x4 matrices, each of which involves finding the
determinant of 4 3x3 matrices, each of which involves finding the determinant of 3 2x2
matrices (resulting in 60 calculations in total)
Determinants of bigger matrices…
6x6 matrices would require 360 calculations

7x7 matrices would require 2520 calculations

8x8 matrices would require 20160 calculations…and so on

So is there a better way?

Gaussian Elimination Method
This method involves applying a series of matrix rules to manipulate the
rows of a matrix and the values of its elements in order to produce a
“triangular” matrix with diagonal elements that sum to a factor of the
determinant.

You do not need to know the Gaussian elimination method to complete

your assignment, but we may look at it later on.
Use of Excel
Excel can be used to perform many matrix operations including finding
the determinant of a square matrix. Whilst you will need to show your
working in the assignment, it is an easy way of checking your answers.
Consider the matrix from slide 200:


Use of Excel continued…
Type the matrix into excel using the rows and columns of cells in the
same way as rows and columns in the matrix:
Use of Excel continued…
In a blank cell, type in the formula:

=MDETERM(

And highlight the matrix inside of the brackets…

Use of Excel continued…

Press enter to calculate the determinant:

The Inverse of a 3x3 matrix
Now we are able to find the determinant of a 3x3 matrix we can find its
inverse.

The formula for finding the inverse of any matrix, M is:

Where |M| is the determinant and adj(M) is the Adjoint of the

Matrix
The Adjoint Matrix
In order to find the Adjoint of a matrix, first we must find the matrix of cofactors. The Adjoint is
then simply the transpose of the matrix of cofactors:


The Inverse of a 3x3 Matrix


So:

To Check…


And

Question
Find the Inverse of:

Question
Find the Inverse of:


So:

Use of Matrices to Solve Simultaneous
Equations
One key use of matrices is for computers to solve simultaneous
equations. We will first look at the Inverse Matrix Method

Consider the simultaneous equations:



Use of Matrices to Solve Simultaneous
Equations



We can convert these 2 equations to a single equation involving 3 matrices.

If:


Then:

Use of Matrices to Solve Simultaneous
Equations



We can convert these 2 equations to a single equation involving 3 matrices.

If:


Then:

Use of Matrices to Solve Simultaneous
Equations
Furthermore, If:


Then:


So:

Example
Consider:



So:

Example with 3 Unknowns





Questions
Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations:










Questions
Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations:





Questions
Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations:





Questions
Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations:





Notice that it
 may be simpler
to leave the 1/|
 A| outside the
matrix, but we
need to
remember to
include it at the
end
Questions
A manufacturing company makes two types of pump, Type A and Type B. In a
test, 3 Type A pumps and 2 Type B pumps are used to produce a volumetric
flow rate of 85L/min. In a second test, 4 Type A pumps and 1 Type B pump
produce a flowrate of 80L/min. Assuming each pump is run at its maximum
rated output, determine the maximum rated output of a Type A pump and a
Type B pump.

An electronics company produces capacitors in 3 colours: Blue, Red and

Yellow. 3 parallel circuits are made and the total capacitance measured as
follows:
1 Red + 1 Blue + 1 Yellow = 8.4µF
4 Red + 2 Blue = 23.2µF
3 Blue + 3 Yellow = 11.1µF
Determine the value of each colour capacitor
Questions
A manufacturing company makes two types of pump, Type A and Type B. In a test, 3
Type A pumps and 2 Type B pumps are used to produce a volumetric flow rate of
85L/min. In a second test, 4 Type A pumps and 1 Type B pump produce a flowrate of
80L/min. Assuming each pump is run at its maximum rated output, determine the
maximum rated output of a Type A pump and a Type B pump.
Type A = 15L/min Type B = 20L/min

An electronics company produces capacitors in 3 colours: Blue, Red and Yellow. 3

parallel circuits are made and the total capacitance measured as follows:
1 Red + 1 Blue + 1 Yellow = 8.4µF
4 Red + 2 Blue = 23.2µF
3 Blue + 3 Yellow = 11.1µF
Determine the value of each colour capacitor
Blue = 1.5µF Red = 4.7µF Yellow = 2.2µF
Using Matrices to Solve Simultaneous
Equations
There is a second method to using matrices to solve sets of
simultaneous equations called the Cramer Method.

This relies on Cramer’s Rule which states that the solutions to a

set of simultaneous equations can be found by determining the ratio of
two matrices produced for each solution.
Cramer’s Rule for 2 Unknowns
Consider the algebraic expression:




x and y can be found by:


Example of Cramer’s Rule for 2
Unknowns
Consider the expression:




x and y can be found by:


Cramer’s Rule for 3 Unknowns
Consider the algebraic expression:





x, y and z can be found by:


Example of Cramer’s Rule for 3
Unknowns
Consider the algebraic expression:





x, y and z can be found by:


Questions
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following simultaneous equations:







Questions
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following simultaneous equations:





 Questions
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following simultaneous equations:






Questions
Octane molecules (C8H18) have an atomic mass of 114. Propane molecules (C3H8)
have an atomic mass of 40. What is the molecular mass of individual Hydrogen
and Carbon atoms?

A solar panel company makes 3 classes of photovoltaic cell: Bronze, Silver and
Gold. An area of 1m is completely covered with a combination of cells and the
2
resulting voltages produced:
0.5m2 Silver + 0.5m2 Gold = 30V
0.25m2 Bronze + 0.3m2 Silver + 0.45m2 Gold = 26.5V
0.5m2 Bronze + 0.1m2 Silver + 0.4m2 Gold = 23V
Determine the voltage output of each class in V/m2
Questions
Octane molecules (C8H18) have an atomic mass of 114. Propane molecules (C 3H8) have
an atomic mass of 40. What is the molecular mass of individual Hydrogen and Carbon
atoms?
Carbon = 12 Hydrogen = 1

A solar panel company makes 3 classes of photovoltaic cell: Bronze, Silver and Gold. An
area of 1m is completely covered with a combination of cells and the resulting
2
voltages produced:
0.5m2 Silver + 0.5m2 Gold = 30V
0.25m2 Bronze + 0.3m2 Silver + 0.45m2 Gold = 26.5V
0.5m2 Bronze + 0.1m2 Silver + 0.4m2 Gold = 23V
Determine the voltage output of each class in V/m 2
Bronze = 10V/m2 Silver = 20V/m2 Gold = 40V/m2
Other Uses of Matrices
Matrices can be used in the encryption/decryption of data so that
information can be sent and stored securely. Only someone with the
decryption matrix would be able to read an encrypted message, so
even if an encrypted message was intercepted by an unintended
recipient; the information would be useless to them.

Consider a code where the letter a = 1, b=2, c=3 and so on. 0 = space.

The Matrix (8 5 12 12 15) would read =

Other Uses of Matrices
Matrices can be used in the encryption/decryption of data so that
information can be sent and stored securely. Only someone with the
decryption matrix would be able to read an encrypted message, so
even if an encrypted message was intercepted by an unintended
recipient; the information would be useless to them.

Consider a code where the letter a = 1, b=2, c=3 and so on. 0 = space.

The Matrix (8 5 12 12 15) would read = HELLO

Other Uses of Matrices
This would of course be an unencrypted message which anyone could
read fairly easily. However, if we encrypted the message by halving
each value, the message is not so clear:

(8 5 12 12 15) = HELLO
0.5(8 5 12 12 15) = (4 2.5 6 6 7.5) = D?FF?

Only someone who knew that each element in the encrypted message
had to be doubled would be able to decrypt and access the
information.
Cracking Codes
Once a piece of information has been encrypted, the only easy way to access that information
is to know how to decrypt it again.
For various reasons, people may want to decrypt codes to access information that has been
“hidden”. Unless they have the decryption method, the only way to do this is through a trial-
and-error method.
Trial-and-error, if carried out relentlessly enough, would eventually be able to decrypt any
encoded message. Computers which can carry out many operations each second are excellent
at carrying out trial-and-error decryption methods as they can work 24:7 without rest.
The “secureness” of encrypted information depends on how long it would take for a trial-and-
error machine to break down the code, where a poor encryption may be broken down in
fractions of a second and a good encryption may take thousands of years at current computer
work rates. As computers become faster and more powerful, the number of trials they could
carry out each second increases and so encryption techniques need to be constantly improved
to maintain the level of security.
Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
There are a number of ways that matrices could be used to encrypt
information. For example, a message could be grouped into a square
matrix and then multiplied by a “random” square matrix of equal size.
The resulting matrix would then be an encrypted version of the original
information. The inverse matrix of the random square matrix would
then be required to decrypt the code. It could be very time consuming
even for a computer to trial a number of matrices and multiply the
encrypted message by each one to see if the resulting code made
sense.
Example of Matrix Multiplication
Encryption
A 4 letter word is encrypted by being multiplied by a random 2x2
matrix. The encrypted message reads:

Without decrypting the message this reads:

?P??
Example of Matrix Multiplication
Encryption


We are then told the “random” 2x2 matrix only contains single-digit
numbers. With this information we can tell that there can only be 104
possible variations on a 2x2 matrix. (this would be a very weak
encryption as a computer that could carry out at least
10,000 iterations a second would be able to successfully
decrypt the message in under 1 second.)
However we are still unable to read the message without it first being
decrypted…
Example of Matrix Multiplication
Encryption


We are then told the “random” 2x2 matrix is:

So by finding A-1 and multiplying M by it, we should be able to decrypt

the message and access the hidden 4-letter word
Example of Matrix Multiplication
Encryption



Example of Matrix Multiplication
Encryption



Example of Matrix Multiplication
Encryption


=MATH Math: an American version

of mathematics, much less
advanced than the British
equivalent!
This is a simple example of how difficult it can be (for humans) to
decrypt even basic information using Matrix Multiplication encryption.
A more complex message with an equally more complex encryption
matrix would be much more difficult (or time consuming) to
decrypt.
Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
Another way matrices could be used to encrypt information could be
for individual pieces of information (for example single letters) to be
equal to the determinant of an encryption matrix. For example, the 4-
letter name of a well-known car manufacturer is encrypted in this
message:

3431230752433213
Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
3431230752433213

The encrypted message could be grouped into a 4x4 square matrix:


Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
3431230752433213

The encrypted matrix could also be considered to be a 2x2 matrix of 4

individual 2x2 matrices:


Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
3431230752433213

The determinant of each 2x2 matrix could then be a letter in the

encrypted message:


Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
3431230752433213

1.21 4 9
A U D I
Using Matrices to Encrypt
Information
3431230752433213

1.21 4 9
A U D I

One major advantage of this method is that there are many 2x2 matrices that have a determinant of 1,
therefore “A” for example could be encrypted in multiple forms. This is a good defence against more
advanced hacking programs that look for patterns in encrypted information to trial more likely solutions
as a priority and possibly reduce the time to decrypt information.
Combination Encryption techniques
Since modern computers are so good at trial-and-error techniques, the complexity of encryption needs to be on such
a high level that even when trialling millions of iterations a second, the number of possible solutions must be so high
that it would still take too long to extract useable information from an encrypted set of data.

There are a large number of ways of doing this, and encryption-software engineers are constantly developing new
and more complex methods of encrypting information.

Some common ways of doing this are combination encryption techniques i.e. decrypting one piece of information
releases a second encrypted message which must then be decrypted using a different technique. A long chain of
combination encryptions can make for very secure data – but the disadvantage is that even when you know the
decryption method it can still take a long time to decrypt the information. This makes it unsuitable when high-speed
data transfer is desireable e.g. using the internet.

Another way of increasing security without increasing decryption time is to have a decryption matrix that changes
each time a decryption attempt is made. In order for this to be successful though, the change must follow a set
pattern – and the pattern could be hacked rendering the changing pattern useless.
Complex Numbers
The second part of assignment 2 looks at complex numbers.
Complex numbers are very useful in engineering, particularly in
dynamics and electronics.
The only problem is that complex numbers contain elements that don’t
actually exist – called imaginary numbers…
Imaginary Numbers
What is an “Imaginary” number?

First lets consider “real” numbers – the numbers we use everyday…

Every real number has a place on the number line

Imaginary Numbers
What is an “Imaginary” number?

First lets consider “real” numbers – the numbers we use everyday…

0 5

𝜋
-
6.
5

Every real number has a place on the number line

Imaginary Numbers continued…
Now try this…

Take any real number and square it. What is the answer?
Try squaring a few more numbers. Use a range of positive and negative
integers, fractions, decimals etc.

What do you always notice about the answer?

Imaginary Numbers continued…
The result of squaring any real number is that we always get a positive
answer, regardless of the sign of the original number.

This is interesting and also quite useful.

It is useful because we can take an array of data that has both positive and
negative values, square all the values and then square root the results to gain an
array of data with the same magnitudes but only positive elements. An example
of this is finding RMS values for AC currents and voltages.

Secondly, it shows us that a positive number can have more than one square
root – a positive and a negative value.
Imaginary Numbers continued…
It also tells us that it must be impossible to have the square root of a
negative number – since there is no real number that can be squared
to give a negative result.

This is where imaginary numbers become useful – sometimes we might

have a situation where it would be helpful to find the square root of a
negative number (for example looking at variables in AC circuits). When
dealing with real numbers this is impossible.
Imaginary Numbers continued…
Take the number 1…

What about the number -1…

There is no solution, so for now we will give the answer as an algebraic term, j…

Therefore

Imaginary Numbers continued…
Take the number 1…

What about the number -1…

 Note that frequently in

mathematics,  is usually
denoted by the letter 
There is no solution, so for now we will give the answer as an algebraic term, j… However, since a
common application of
 complex numbers is in
electronics,  could easily
be confused for current.
Therefore So in engineering we
 tend to use j
Imaginary Numbers continued…


Now take the equation:



We can apply some basic surd laws:

Such that:


Questions
Solve:



Questions
Solve:



Imaginary Numbers continued…
Also note that since:

Then


Questions
Complete the table:
Questions
Complete the table:
Solving Unsolvable Quadratics
Consider the Quadratic:


This quadratic cannot be solved using regular methods since there are no “real” solutions.

However, we can use the quadratic formula to say:


Question
Solve:


Question
Solve:


Complex Numbers
A complex number is simply a number that has both a real and an imaginary part.

For example:

 is a real number
 is an imaginary number

 is a complex number

Algebraically we say that a complex number, z:


Where  is real andis imaginary
Questions
State the real and imaginary parts of the following:


Questions
State the real and imaginary parts of the following:


Adding and Subtracting Complex
Numbers
Consider:




and

So when adding or subtracting complex numbers, we simply add or subtract all

the real parts and all the imaginary parts respectively.
Questions
Consider:




Solve:


Questions
Consider:




Solve:


Multiplying Complex Numbers
When multiplying 2 complex numbers, we treat it like multiplying our 2 sets of brackets e.g:




Collect like terms, remembering 


Multiplying Complex Numbers
continued
Algebraically:





Questions
Consider:




Solve:


Questions
Consider:




Solve:


Division of Complex Numbers
Dividing two complex numbers is a little more complicated, and is
simplified by finding something called the Complex Conjugate.

To find the complex conjugate of a complex number, we simply change

the sign of the imaginary part e.g.

 has a complex conjugate 

 has a complex conjugate 

Questions
Give the complex conjugates for the following:


Questions
Give the complex conjugates for the following:


Note About Conjugate Pairs
If we multiply any complex number by its complex conjugate, we always
get left with a real number:

This is a useful property that we will see later on.

Division of Complex Numbers
continued…
Consider:



We cannot solve this equation in its current form. However, we can multiply the top and
bottom of the fraction by the complex conjugate of . Since we are multiplying the top and the
bottom by the same amount this has no effect on the value of the fraction.


Division of Complex Numbers
continued…



Division of Complex Numbers
continued…
Algebraic derivation of formula:


Questions




Using the conjugate method, solve:



Using the formula, solve:




Questions




Using the conjugate method, solve:



Using the formula, solve:




The Argand Diagram
The Argand diagram is a simple visual representation of a complex number and is extremely useful
as the complex number can then be represented as a vector.

The diagram works by plotting a point on a pair of axes, where the horizontal axis shows the real
element and the vertical axis shows the imaginary element. Consider:


5
j
4
j
3
j
2
j
1
j

- - - - 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 2 11
-j
2
j-
3
j
Questions
Plot the following complex numbers on an Argand Diagram:

2+3j
-1+5j
4-2j
-3-3j
Questions
Plot the following complex numbers on an Argand Diagram:
2+3j
-1+5j
4-2j
-3-3j

5
j
4
j
3
j
2
j
1
j

- - - - 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 2 11
-j
2
j-
3
j
Cartesian and Polar Form of Complex
Numbers
So far we have described a complex number by its real and imaginary
parts, e.g.

re imaginar
al y
The real and imaginary parts work like Cartesian coordinates (x, y)
when producing the Argand diagram.

Therefore we call this Cartesian Form.

Polar Form
Now lets look at the complex number 4+3j on the Argand diagram:

5
j
4
j
3
j
2
j
1
j

- - - - 1 2 3 4 5 6
We can see that the resulting vector has a length equal to 5
3 2 11
-j

(Pythagoras) and the angle CW from x-axis is 36.87° (Trig.)

2
j-
3
j
Polar Form continued…
So the complex number 4+3j (Cartesian form) could also be expressed
as:

This is called Polar form.

The length of the line is called the Modulus, and the angle is called
the Argument.
Polar Form continued…
So the complex number 4+3j (Cartesian form) could also be expressed
as:

This is called Polar form.

The length of the line is called the Modulus, and the angle is called
the Argument.
Converting from Cartesian to Polar Form
When we have the Cartesian form:


The Modulus is:



And the argument is:

 Note that  will depend on
the quadrant that our vector
sits in (see next slide)
Converting from Polar to Cartesian
Form
When we have the Polar Form:


We must first make , based on A, such that:

Using the following rules…

Further Rules for the Argument
If a and b are both positive:


If a is positive and b is negative:



If a is negative and b is positive:



If a and b are both negative:


Rules for 
If 0° < A < 90° then

a and b are both positive

If 90° < A < 180° then


a is negative and b is positive

If 180° < A < 270° then


a and b are both negative

If 270° < A < 360° then


a is positive and b is negative
Converting from Cartesian to Polar Form
continued…
When we have the Polar Form:


The sign of a and b depends on the rule followed on the previous slide.
Questions
Convert:



to Polar form, and:



To Cartesian form.
Questions
Convert:



to Polar form, and:



To Cartesian form.
Is This Useful?
In AC circuits, the source voltage constantly changes between positive and negative values in a sinusoidal pattern. The sine wave can
be represented by an Argand diagram with a constant angular velocity where the number of revolutions per second is equal to the
frequency in Hz.
Trying to determine a mean value for the source voltage will always give a value of 0 which makes non-instantaneous calculations
seemingly impossible. However AC voltage can be expressed as a constant Magnitude (Peak value) with an Angular Velocity equal to
the source frequency. At any instant, this could be considered to be a complex number in Polar form. Other parameters can be
described in the same way, and by converting Parameters to Cartesian form we can then perform addition and multiplication
operations on the parameters easily. For example:

The current is proportional to the voltage and acts in the same direction so has a Phase angle of +0°

Impedance (AC form of resistance) acts in the opposite direction to current. The voltage drop is equal to the source voltage with a
phase angle of +180°

Inductors produce an EMF relative to the rate of change of current that alternates at the same frequency as the current, but with a
phase angle of -90°

Capacitors also provide a voltage to a circuit that alternates at the same frequency as the current but has a phase angle of +90°
Phasor Diagram for an RLC Circuit

I = current
VR = Voltage drop over
Resistor
VC = Capacitor EMF
VL = Inductor EMF
Z = Impedance (Resistance)
Simple Example
A simple AC circuit has a 230V source operating at 50Hz. There is an impedance, Z of 1kΩ. Find the instantaneous current and power at 0.002 seconds.

Note that a DC circuit with V=230 and R=1kΩ, I would =0.23A and P=52.9W
Reactance and RLC Example
If we consider a DC resistance to produce a voltage drop (i.e. negative voltage), then we need to consider Impedance to be the same thing.

In a DC circuit, all components cause resistance (or negative voltage) in the same direction and therefore a total resistance for the circuit can be used. In AC
however, components produce their “voltages” at different phase angles and so the impedance is more complicated. The voltages produced by components
such as capacitors and inductors is called Reactance (denoted X) and the impedance, Z is therefore expressed as:


and

Where:


Where XC is capacitive reactance and XL is inductive reactance. Note that X is the sum of reactances, but X C and XL are 180° out of phase


Where C is capacitance, L is inductance and f is frequency.
RLC Example
An RLC circuit has a 230V source operating at 50Hz. R=1kΩ, L=0.5H and C=220µF. Determine the current and power at 0.0015seconds.


Question
The following circuit is constructed:

V = 240V at 75Hz
R = 1200Ω
L = 0.4H
C = 290µF
Find the Current and Power at t = 0.001 secs
Question
The following circuit is constructed:

V = 240V at 75Hz
R = 1200Ω
L = 0.4H
C = 290µF
Find the Current and Power at t = 0.001 secs
I = 0.1608 + 0.06247j = 0.1725 ∠ 21.2
P = 27.58 + 30.88j = 41.41 ∠ 46.26
Assignment 3: Statistical and Probability
Techniques
P5 – Solve an Engineering problem using routine central tendency, dispersion and probability
distribution operations

P6 – Solve an Engineering problem using routine linear regression operations

M5 – Solve an Engineering problem accurately, using routine and non-routine central tendency,
dispersion and probability distribution operations, providing an explanation of the process

M6 – Solve Engineering problems accurately, using routine and non-routine regression operations,
providing an explanation of the process

D3 – Evaluate the correct synthesis and application of statistics and probability to solve engineering
problems involving accurate routine and non-routine operations
P5 – Solve an Engineering problem using routine central
tendency, dispersion and probability distribution operations

Central Tendency and Dispersion refer to analysing continuous data

and finding:

The Mean
The Median
The Mode
The Range
The Standard Deviation

Probability Distribution involves making predictions based on the

“spread” of recorded data
Simple Example
A simple example would involve measuring the height of 100 Adults.
The Mean height would be the sum off all the heights divided by the
number of readings taken (sometimes incorrectly called the “average”). For
example the mean height may be 175cm.
The Median height would be the “middle value” if all 100 readings were
placed in numerical order (note, if there are an odd number of readings
there will be an obvious middle number. But if there are an even number of
readings then the median will fall between 2 middle numbers and a mean
value of the 2 must be taken – in this example the median would be the
mean of the 50th and 51st values)
The Mode is simply the number that occurs most often. There can be a
single mode, multiple modes or no modes.
Simple example continued…
The Range simply describes the “broadness” of values collected,
and is worked out by subtracting the smallest value recorded from
the largest value recorded.

In our example, say the tallest person was 190cm and the shortest
was 155cm, the range would be 190 – 155 = 35cm

We could say that the range of heights in the group is between

155cm and 190cm, or the range is 35cm.
Simple example continued…
The Standard Deviation describes the “average” amount that
a value will differ from the mean value.
For example – imagine the mean height is 175cm. It is highly unlikely that a
single person picked at random will be exactly 175cm. 10 people picked at
random are even more unlikely to all be 175cm tall. Instead, there will be an
“average” amount that the 10 people differ from 175cm – for example some
will differ by perhaps 1cm whilst others may differ by 5cm. We could add up
all the differences and divide them by the number of differences to find the
mean difference.

This mean difference is called the Standard deviation.

Simple example continued…
The Probability Distribution goes a step further from simply
analysing data to making predictions based on the data collected.

For example, lets say we wanted to predict how tall a child will be when they
grow up (technically, this not a good example as we should
really consider the historical trend in average height to predict
future outcomes – but this is a simple example). The “average”
child should be 175cm tall when the are fully grown; however the actual
chance of them being exactly 175cm is very small.

Instead, we can look at the distribution (spread) of the data and make
reasonably accurate statements such as “there is a 70% chance that the child
will grow up to be between 172cm and 178cm.”
Engineering Example
Say you were a quality control engineer tasked with analysing data output
from a CNC machining operation – for example turning.

The machine is producing cylindrical parts with a diameter of 20mm. 10 parts

are checked – the diameters measured and recorded:

19.98 19.99 20.01 20.01 19.99 20.03 19.98

19.99 19.99 and 20.02

Find the mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation and the percentage
probability that a part will fall between 19.99 and 20.01mm
Why is this useful in engineering?
This is useful for a number of different reasons depending on the
application, but in general:

We can measure and track “quality” following a process

We can make predictions of the future “quality” of a process

We can intervene if necessary – sometimes before a problem occurs e.g.

changing a worn machine tool before it breaks.
Use of Excel for Central Tendency
Analysis
P6 – Solve an Engineering problem using routine linear
regression operations

Regression describes the relationship between an independant

and dependant variable.
An Independent Variable is something we can either control or measure at set intervals
e.g. voltage in a circuit or time (recorded at predetermined intervals)
A dependant variable is something that we have no control over, instead it changes
depending on the independent variable e.g. current in a circuit will change with the
voltage, or the temperature of a cup of coffee will change over time.
A Linear Regression shows that the dependant variable will
change proportionally to the independent variable e.g. if we
double the voltage across a circuit then the current will also double
(assuming no change in resistance)
Linear Regression continued…
A Linear Regression can show a positive or negative relationship
between the two variables

A Positive relationship would show a dependant variable that

increases as the independent variable increases e.g. current
increases as voltage increases

A Negative relationship would show a dependant variable that

decreases as the independent variable increases e.g. temperature of
coffee decreases as the time increases
Why is this useful in engineering?
The regression of two variables can allow us to make estimations in a given situation
and act upon the outcome.

For a simple example, as a turning tool wears over time the resulting diameter of the
part is likely to increase. By comparing the cutting time (independent) to the turned
diameter (dependant) we are likely to see a positive linear regression. If we saw that
after 100 mins of cutting the diameter of the parts had increased by 0.02mm, we
could compensate by adjusting the tool to remove and extra 0.02mm of material.
We could then make the same adjustment every 100 minutes to maintain the
quality of the part without the need to change the tool as frequently.

Realistically we could also use the data to estimate the cutting time at which the tool
will need replacing – and replace it before it fails completely.
Use of Excel for Linear Regression
D3 – Evaluate the correct synthesis and application of statistics
and probability to solve engineering problems involving accurate
routine and non-routine operations

D3 will require you to look at how data is collected and analysed, and
the effect that this may have on the statistical outcome. You will
need to write a short report for this question where you will talk
about the strengths and weaknesses of different data collection
methods and identify areas that may produce errors in the results.
You will also need to suggest possible improvements that could be
made to data collection methods that could reduce these errors.

To help, there are some possible discussion points on the next slide
D3 discussion points.
How might data be collected in different circumstances?
Does the time at which the data is collected have an impact?
How does the number of readings impact on results?
Should anomalies (unexpected extreme values) be ignored?
How does grouping data affect the results? What differences does
the group resolution make?
Do central tendency analyses provide us with useful information?
And if so what is the information used for?