Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

Poly-phase Induction Motors

1-1 Introduction

The direct-current (dc) and synchronous motors have one thing in common: both
are the doubly-fed type. These motors have direct current in their field windings
and alternating current (ac) in their armature windings. Since the electrical power
is delivered directly to the armature of a dc motor via a commutator, it can also be
referred to as a conduction motor.
Considering a motor in which the rotor receives its power not by conduction but by
induction and is therefore called an induction motor. A winding that receives its
power exclusively by induction constitutes a transformer. Therefore, an induction
motor is a transformer with a rotating secondary winding. From the above
discussion, the following must be evident:

1. An induction motor is a singly-fed motor. Therefore, it does not require a

commutator, slip-rings, or brushes. In fact, there are no moving contacts
between the stator and the rotor. This results in a motor that is rugged,
reliable, and almost maintenance free.
2. The absence of brushes eliminates the electrical loss due to the brush voltage
drop and the mechanical loss due to friction between the brushes and
commutator or the slip-rings. Thus, an induction motor has a relatively high
efficiency.
3. An induction motor carries alternating current in both the stator and the
rotor windings.
4. An induction motor is a rotating transformer in which the secondary winding
receives energy by induction while it rotates.

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

1-2 Types of Induction Motors

There are two basic types of induction motors: single-phase induction motors and
poly-phase induction motors.

Single-phase induction motors are favored for domestic applications. A large

number of these motors are built in the fractional horse power range. We will
discuss single-phase induction motors in section 2. On the other hand, poly-phase
induction motors cover the entire spectrum of horsepower ratings and are
preferably installed at locations where a polyphaser power source is easily
accessible. Owing to the widespread generation and transmission of three-phase
power, most poly-phase induction motors are of the three-phase type.

1-3 Construction
A 3 phase induction motor has two main parts (a) stator and (b) rotor. The rotor
is separated from the stator by a small air-gap.
a) Stator:
The stator of an I.M. is the same as that of a synchronous machine. It is made from
cylindrical core made up of thin laminations of steel (to reduce hysteresis and eddy
current losses) with slots in the inner periphery. The stator carries a poly-phase
winding in these slots. For a 3-ph I.M. the winding is connected in star or delta
connection.
Slot
Stator
Winding

Tooth

Star Delta
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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

b) Rotor:
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a laminated core having slots on its outer
periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of
the following two types:
1) Squirrel-Cage rotor, or 2) Wound rotor.
1- Squirrel-Cage Rotor:
Skewed rotor
slot rotor windings

Shaft End-rings

Squirrel-Cage Rotor

The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the
rotor bars. These bars are short-circuited by two end-rings. The rotor slots are not
quite parallel to the shaft but are given slight skew.
The advantages of skewing are:
1. It makes the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum.
2. It reduces the locking tendency of the rotor. The tendency of the rotor
teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction
between them.
The magnetic hum is reduced because the air gap in a skewed rotor is more
constant reluctance resulting in a more uniform torque and a quieter motor.

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

The skewing factor = KS = The voltage induced in the skewed inductor / The voltage
induced in the unskewed inductor
   
2E m sin   sin  
KS  2 2 
E m 
2
Unskewed Skewed
Where: Em is the max. voltage / unit angle of the skewed inductor (V/rad.), and
 is the angle of skew.
2-Wound Rotor:
Rotor Slot
Slip-rings
Shaft

Brushes terminals

Rotor winding
The rotor core is laminated with skewed slots on its outer periphery. The rotor is
provided with 3-ph, double-layer, distributed windings. The rotor is wound to have
the same number of poles as for the stator. The 3-ph windings are connected in
star formation. The terminals of the rotor star-winding are connected to slip-rings
mounted on the shaft.
1-4 Principle of Operation
When a 3-ph I.M. is supplied with a 3-ph supply, a rotating field will produce. Such
rotating field will cut the rotor conductors with speed equal to the synchronous
speed, and as a result of this, a 3-ph emf will be produced with frequency equal to
the supply frequency. This emf will send a current through the closed rotor circuit
with a direction such as to oppose the very cause producing it, i.e., the rotation of
4
Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

the field. Therefore, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of the
flux and tries to catch up with the rotating flux. This will continue until the speed
near the synchronous speed and therefore, the emf and the current will reduce.
The difference between these two speeds is called slip (S).
𝑁𝑆 −𝑁
𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁𝑆 − 𝑁 → 𝑆 =
𝑁𝑆

The frequency of the rotor emf depends upon the relative speed or on slip-speed,
i.e.,
120𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 120𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 120𝑓 120𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑁𝑆 − 𝑁 = → 𝑆𝑁𝑆 = →𝑆∗ =
2𝑝 2𝑝 2𝑝 2𝑝
→ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑆𝑓
120𝑆𝑓
Speed of the rotor field with respect to stator= 𝑁𝑠∙𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑁 = +𝑁 =
2𝑝
𝑁𝑆 −𝑁
𝑆𝑁𝑆 + 𝑁 = ( ) 𝑁𝑆 + 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑆 − 𝑁 + 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑆
𝑁𝑆

EXAMPLE. 1
A 208-V, 60-Hz, 4-pole, three-phase induction motor has a full-load
speed of 1755 rpm.
Calculate:
(a) its synchronous speed,
(b) the slip, and
(c) the rotor frequency.

SOLUTION:
(a) The synchronous speed of the induction motor is

(b) At full load, the slip is

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

(c) The rotor frequency at full load is

1-5 The Equivalent Circuit:

In an induction motor, the energy is transferred magnetically from the stator
winding to the short-circuited, rotor winding. Therefore, an induction motor may
be considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary (short-circuited).
The equivalent circuit of a 3-ph I.M. has a certain similarity with the equivalent
circuit of 3-ph transformer.
I1 R1 X1 N1 : N2 I2 R2 SX2 + Mechanical Load

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑆𝑓
Secondary
V1 E1 E2=SE2 induced emf 𝑁𝑆 − 𝑁
𝑆=
per phase 𝑁𝑆

The main difference between the

Where, induction motor and transformer lies in
the fact that the rotor voltage and its
V1= per-phase the applied stator voltage frequency are both proportional to slip
s. If f is the stator frequency, E2 is the
R1= per-phase stator winding resistance per phase rotor e.m.f. at standstill and
X2 is the standstill rotor
reactance/phase, then at any slip s,
X1= per-phase stator winding leakage reactance these values are:

R2= per-phase rotor winding resistance Rotor e.m.f./phase, E'2 = s E2

Rotor reactance/phase, X'2 = sX2

X2=S X2 = per-phase rotor winding leakage reactance at slip s
Rotor frequency, f' = sf
E1= per-phase induced emf in the stator winding
E2=SE2= per-phase induced emf in the rotor winding at slip s
I1= per-phase current supplied by the source
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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

I2= per-phase rotor winding current

N1 = actual turns per phase of the stator winding
N2 = actual turns per phase of the rotor winding

It is possible to reduce this circuit to:

I1 R1 X1 I2 ‘ R2‘/S X2‘

Io
Ic Im
E1 Rc Xm E2‘
V1

Where,
Xm = per-phase magnetization reactance
Rc = per-phase equivalent core-loss resistance
Im = per-phase magnetization current
Ic = per-phase core-loss current
I0 = Ic + Im

𝑁1 2 ‘ 𝑁1 2 ‘ 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑅2‘ = 𝑅2 ( ) , 𝑋2 = 𝑋2 ( ) , 𝐸2 = 𝐸2 ( ) , 𝐼2‘ = 𝐼2 ( )
𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁1
The quantity R2‘/s is greater than R2‘ since S is a fraction. Therefore, R2‘/s can be
divided into a fixed part R2‘ and a variable part (R2‘/s - R2‘) i.e.,

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

I1 R1 X1 I2 ‘ R2‘ X2‘

Io
IC Im
1−𝑆 ‘
E1 RC Xm E2‘ ( ) 𝑅2
V1 𝑆

1−𝑆 ‘
𝑅2‘ /𝑆 = 𝑅2‘ + ( ) 𝑅2
𝑆
(i) The first part 𝑅2‘ is the rotor resistance/phase, and represents the rotor Cu loss.
(ii) The second part is a variable-resistance load. The power delivered to this load
represents the total mechanical power developed in the rotor. Thus mechanical
load on the induction motor can be replaced by a variable-resistance load of value
Also, this circuit can be reduced to:

‘
I1 I2‘ R1+R2 X1+X2‘

Io
Ip Im
Ro Xm 1−𝑆 ‘
V1 ( ) 𝑅2
𝑆

8
Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

1-6 3-Ph Induction Motor Phasor Diagram:

V1
I1X1

I1R1
E1 I1
θ1 I2
‘

Io
IC

I2R2 Im
φo
θ2

I2 I2SX2 SE2

1-7 Equivalent circuit calculations

Equivalent circuit parameters can be determined by performing the following two
tests on the machine:
No-load test
The motor should run with no-load at rated voltage, the Vo, Io, and Wo (the voltage,
Io
current, and power per phase) must be noted.
𝑊𝑜 IC Im
Cos ∅𝑜 = → 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜 sin ∅𝑜 , 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑜 cos ∅𝑜 Wo
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 RC Xm
V1
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝑅𝐶 = , 𝑋𝑚 =
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝑚
The equivalent circuit of the 3-ph I.M. gets reduced to that shown above since at
no-load the slip is very small (normally assumed to be zero).

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

Blocked-rotor test
In this test the rotor of the machine is held stationary and a reduced voltage (VS per
phase) is applied to the armature winding such that it will allow rated current (I S)
in the armature winding. In blocked-rotor test the equivalent circuit of the machine
gets reduced to that shown below:
R1+R2‘ X1+X2‘
I2 ‘
𝑊𝑆 𝑉 2 2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2‘ = , 𝑋1 + 𝑋2‘ = √( 𝑆 ) − (𝑅1 + 𝑅2‘ ) , VS WS
𝐼𝑆2 𝐼
𝑆

𝑋1 = 𝑋2‘
The dc value of R1 can be measured by voltmeter-ammeter method
(R1=R1dc*1.2(skin effect)).

1-8 Production of Rotating Field:

It can be shown that symmetrical 3-ph windings when supplied from a balance 3-
ph power supply produce a rotating field. The figure below shows a 3-ph, 2-pole
I.M.

N S

I II III I II III

Fig-1-

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 Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

Φ
II
I II III
Φm
120̊
I 120̊
1 3 5 θ
0 2 4 6 120̊

III

Fig-3- The +ve direction of the fluxes

winding
Fig-2- The flux due to the 3-phase
winding

∅1 = ∅𝑚 sin 𝜃, ∅2 = ∅𝑚 sin(𝜃 − 120° ), ∅3 = ∅𝑚 sin(𝜃 − 240° )

At point 0, θ=0
II III
∅1 = 0, ∅2 = −2√3∅𝑚 , ∅3 = √23∅𝑚 , →∴ ∅𝑟 = 32∅𝑚

Φr
̊
At point 1, θ=60 I

∅1 = √23∅𝑚 , ∅2 = −2√3∅𝑚 , ∅3 = 0, →∴ ∅𝑟 = 32∅𝑚

Φr II
Φr III
At point 2, θ=120̊
∅1 = √23∅𝑚 , ∅2 = 0, ∅3 = −2√3∅𝑚 , →∴ ∅𝑟 = 32∅𝑚
I
Φr

At point 3, θ=180̊
∅1 = 0, ∅2 = √23∅𝑚 , ∅3 = −2√3∅𝑚 , →∴ ∅𝑟 = 32∅𝑚 III II

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

At point 4, θ=240̊ II Φr

∅1 = −2√3∅𝑚 , ∅2 = √23∅𝑚 , ∅3 = 0, →∴ ∅𝑟 = 32∅𝑚

I
I
At point 5, θ=300̊
∅1 = −2√3∅𝑚 , ∅2 = 0, ∅3 = √23∅𝑚 , →∴ ∅𝑟 = 32∅𝑚
III Φr

At point 6, θ=360̊
II III
−√3 √3 3
∅1 = 0, ∅2 = 2
∅𝑚 , ∅3 = ∅𝑚 , →∴ ∅𝑟 = ∅𝑚
2 2

Φr

From this, it is clear that the resultant flux is constant and is rotating with
synchronous speed.
in order to change the direction of Rotation of the magnetic field, it is necessary
only to change the phase sequence of the applied voltage. For a three-phase
supply, this can be done by interchanging any two of the three lines (changing the
phase sequence from RST to SRT).

For one current (or flux) cycle → 360° elec. Angle

∝𝑒 360°
∝𝑒 =∝𝑚 ∗ 𝑝 →∝𝑚 = → mech. Angle → 𝑝1 revolution
𝑝 𝑝

For f cycles of current (or flux) → 𝑝𝑓 revolution/sec

2𝑓
→ 2𝑝 revolution/sec
120𝑓
The synchronous speed → 𝑁𝑆 = r.p.m
2𝑝

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

1-9 Speed Control of 3-Phase Induction Motors

120𝑓
Since the speed of the I.M. 𝑁 = (1 − 𝑆)𝑁𝑆 = (1 − 𝑆)
2𝑝

Which reveals that the speed N of an induction motor can be varied by changing (i)
supply frequency f (ii) number of poles P on the stator and (iii) slip s. The change of
frequency is generally not possible because the commercial supplies have constant
frequency. Therefore, the practical methods of speed control are either to change
the number of stator poles or the motor slip. However, depending on the rotor type
the speed can be changed as following:
1. Squirrel cage motors
The speed of a squirrel cage motor is changed by changing the number of stator
poles. Only two or four speeds are possible by this method. Two-speed motor has
one stator winding that may be switched through suitable control equipment to
provide two speeds, one of which is half of the other. For instance, the winding may
be connected for either 4 or 8 poles, giving synchronous speeds of 1500 and 750
r.p.m. Four-speed motors are equipped with two separate stator windings each of
which provides two speeds. The disadvantages of this method are:
(i) It is not possible to obtain gradual continuous speed control.
(ii) Because of the complications in the design and switching of the
interconnections of the stator winding, this method can provide a maximum of four
different synchronous speeds for any one motor.
2. Wound rotor motors
The speed of wound rotor motors is changed by changing the motor slip. This can be achieved
by; (i) varying the stator line voltage
(ii) varying the resistance of the rotor circuit
(iii) inserting and varying a foreign voltage in the rotor circuit

13
Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

1-10 Power Stages in an Induction Motor

Stator iron loss (consisting of eddy and hysteresis losses) depends on the supply
frequency and the flux density in the iron core. It is practically constant. The iron
loss of the rotor is, however, negligible because frequency of rotor currents under
normal running conditions is always small. Total rotor Cu loss = 3 I22 R2.
Different stages of power development in an induction motor are shown below:

1-11 Torque Developed by an Induction Motor

An induction motor develops gross torque Tg due to gross rotor output Pm.
Its value can be expressed either in terms of rotor input P2 or rotor gross output Pm
as given below:

in terms of rotor input

in terms of rotor output

The shaft torque Tsh is due to output power Pout which is less than Pm because of
rotor friction and windage losses.

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Section one 3-phase Induction Motors

The difference between Tg and Tsh equals the torque lost due to friction and
windage loss in the motor.
In the above expressions, N and Ns are in r.p.s. However, if they are in r.p.m., the
above expressions for motor torque become:

15