MEMORY AND FORGETTING Chapter# 2

Memory is essentially the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Three processes are
involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. All three of these processes determine
whether something is remembered or forgotten.
In other words a complex process that allows us to learn and recall a vast amount of information.
Brain parts Hippocampus, thalamus and amygdala are involved in memory.
PROCESS OF MEMORY

Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the learning and memory process:
encoding, storage, and retrieval (Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of
information; storage refers to maintaining information over time; retrieval is the ability to access
information when you need it.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory stores incoming sensory information in detail but only for an immediate. The
capacity of sensory memory is very large, but the information in it is unprocessed. If a flashlight
moves quickly in a circle inside a dark room, people will see a circle of light rather than the
individual points through which the flashlight moved. This happens because sensory memory
holds the successive images of the moving flashlight long enough for the brain to see a circle.
Visual sensory memory is called iconic memory; auditory sensory memory is called echoic
memory.
Short-Term Memory. (STM)
Some of the information in sensory memory transfers to short-term memory, which can hold
information for approximately twenty to twenty five OR THIRTY seconds. Rehearsing can help
keep information in short-term memory longer. When people repeat a new phone number over
and over to themselves, they are rehearsing it and keeping it in short-term memory.
Chunking. As its name implies, chunking involves taking long strings of information like
numbers or letters and grouping (or chunking) them into smaller, more manageable bits of
information.
Example: A person confronted with this sequence NBCBNVOCA
Chunks: BBC-CNN-VOA
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Information can be transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory and from
long-term memory back to short-term memory. Long-term memory has an almost infinite
capacity, and information in long-term memory usually stays there for the duration of a person’s
life. However, this doesn’t mean that people will always be able to remember what’s in their
long-term memory—they may not be able to retrieve information that’s there.

Declarative memory: memory for factual (realistic) information, names, faces, dates and so on.
Such as “a bike has two wheels” In contrast
Procedural memory for skills, and habits, such as how to ride bike or hit a ball. Information
about things are stored in declarative memory; information about how to do things is stored in
procedural memory.
Semantic memory (general memory)
Semantic memory refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that
are not drawn from personal experience. Semantic memory includes things that are common
knowledge, such as the names of colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other
basic facts acquired over a lifetime.
Episodic memory (personal memory)
Episodic memory is a person’s unique memory of a specific event, so it will be different from
someone else’s recollection of the same experience. Celebration of friend birth day at restaurant,
wedding function and taking degree at convocation etc.
Memory and forgetting
Forgetting refers to apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in

an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories

are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Forgetting also helps to merge the storage of new

information with old knowledge. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new

information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults.

Memory performance is usually related to the active functioning of three stages. These three

stages are encoding, storage and retrieval .Many different factors influence the actual process of

forgetting. An example of one of these factors could be the amount of time the new information

is stored in the memory. Events involved with forgetting can happen either before or after the

actual memory process. The amount of time the information is stored in the memory, depending

on the minutes hours or even days, can increase or decrease depending on how well the

information is encoded. Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This

improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long term memory.

Memory loss

It's the stuff movies are made of: After a blow to the head, a person wanders aimlessly, unable to

remember who they are or where they came from. While such sudden, profound loss of memory

is rare, memory loss is a problem that affects most people, to a degree. Whether it's occasional
forgetfulness or loss of short-term memory that interferes with daily life, there are many causes

of memory loss.

Causes of Memory Loss

Here are some of the more common things that can cause memory loss:

Medications. A number of prescription and over-the-counter medications can interfere with or

cause loss of memory. Possible culprits include: antidepressants, antihistamines, anti-anxiety

medications, muscle relaxants, tranquilizers, sleeping pills, and pain medications given after

surgery.

Alcohol, tobacco, or drug use. Excessive alcohol use has long been recognized as a cause of

memory loss.

Smoking harms memory by reducing the amount of oxygen that gets to the brain. Studies have

shown that people who smoke find it more difficult to put faces with names than do nonsmokers.

Illegal drugs can change chemicals in the brain that can make it hard to recall memories.

Sleep deprivation. Both quantity and quality of sleep are important to memory. Getting too little

sleep or waking frequently in the night can lead to fatigue, which interferes with the ability to

consolidate and retrieve information.

Depression and stress. Being depressed can make it difficult to pay attention and focus, which

can affect memory. Stress and anxiety can also get in the way of concentration. When you are

tense and your mind is overstimulated or distracted, your ability to remember can suffer. Stress

caused by an emotional trauma can also lead to memory loss.

Nutritional deficiency. Good nutrition -- including high-quality proteins and fats -- is

important to proper brain function. Deficiencies in vitamin B1 and B12 specifically can affect

memory.

Head injury. A severe hit to the head -- from a fall or automobile accident, for example -- can

injure the brain and cause both short- and long-term memory loss. Memory may gradually

improve over time.

Stroke. A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is stopped due to the blockage of a

blood vessel to the brain or leakage of a vessel into the brain. Strokes often cause short-term

memory loss. A person who has had a stroke may have vivid memories of childhood events but

be unable to recall what they had for lunch.

Dementia. Dementia is the name for progressive loss of memory and other aspects of thinking

that are severe enough to interfere with the ability to function in daily activities. Although there

are many causes of dementia -- including blood vessel disease, drug or alcohol abuse, or other

causes of damage to the brain -- the most common and familiar is Alzheimer's disease.
Other causes. Other possible causes of memory loss include an underactive or overactive

thyroid gland, illegal drug use, and infections such as HIV, tuberculosis, and syphilis that affect

the brain.

Forgetting In Short-term memory:

There are three ways in which you can forget information in the STM:

Decay

This occurs when you do not 'rehearse' information, i-e you don't think of it. The physical trace

of such memory is thought to fade over time.

Displacement

Displacement is quite literally a form of forgetting when new memories replace old ones.

Everyone knows the potentially vast capacity of memory, particularly long-term memory, but

research by Norman has shown that numbers can replace old ones being memorized

Interference

It's sometimes difficult to remember information if you've been trying to memorize stuff that's

similar, e g words which sound similar (in 1966, psychologist Baddeley found that participants

of his study found it easier to remember words which were more distinguished). Interference can
either be proactive (this is when old memories interfere with new ones) or retroactive, when new

information distorts old memories.

What is Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia. The word dementia describes a set

of symptoms that can include memory loss and difficulties with thinking, problem-solving or

language. These symptoms occur when the brain is damaged by certain diseases, including

Alzheimer's disease. This page describes the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, how it is

diagnosed, and the factors that can put someone at risk of developing it. It also describes the

treatments and support that are currently available.

Alzheimer's disease, named after the doctor who first described it (Alois Alzheimer), is a

physical disease that affects the brain. There are more than 520,000 people in the UK with

Alzheimer's disease. During the course of the disease, proteins build up in the brain to form

structures called 'plaques' and 'tangles'. This leads to the loss of connections between nerve cells,

and eventually to the death of nerve cells and loss of brain tissue. People with Alzheimer's also

have a shortage of some important chemicals in their brain. These chemical messengers help to

transmit signals around the brain. When there is a shortage of them, the signals are not

transmitted as effectively. As discussed below, current treatments for Alzheimer's disease can
help boost the levels of chemical messengers in the brain, which can help with some of the

symptoms.

Alzheimer's is a progressive disease. This means that gradually, over time, more parts of the

brain are damaged. As this happens, more symptoms develop. They also become more severe.

The hallmark symptom of Alzheimer’s is difficulty in recalling new information. As Alzheimer’s

progresses, the following may occur:

Memory loss. This may be severe enough to disrupt daily life (for example, the person may get
lost in a previously familiar neighborhood).
Cognitive decline. The individual may also experience decline in cognitive ability (finding it
hard to make decisions, solve problems, or make good judgments).
Mood or personality changes. An individual with Alzheimer’s may undergo significant
changes in mood and personality (such as becoming more irritable, hostile, or apathetic).

Alzheimer’s is severely debilitating, and death usually occurs within three to nine years after it is
diagnosed. Five drugs have been approved for treating Alzheimer’s, but they alleviate symptoms
only slightly.

Types of amnesia

Amnesia is the general term for a condition in which memory (either stored memories or the

process of committing something to memory) is disturbed or lost, to a greater extent than simple

everyday forgetting or absent-mindedness.

Amnesia may result either from organic or neurological causes (damage to the brain through

physical injury, neurological disease or the use of certain drugs), or from functional or

psychogenic causes (psychological factors, such as mental disorder, post-traumatic stress or

psychological defense mechanisms.

 Another distinction between two major types of amnesia is based on whether the patient is

forgetting past facts or forgetting things as they happen.

In Retrograde amnesia, patients forget events that occurred in their lives before they

experienced the trauma, and the oldest facts are the ones least likely to be forgotten.

Recovery is possible, but the events that occurred closest to the time of the accident are harder to

retrieve and may be lost forever.

Here too, episodic memory is more severely affected than semantic memory. Typically, the

patient remembers words and general knowledge, such as who their country’s leader is.

Retrograde amnesia is often associated with neurodegenerative pathologies such as senile

dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. In such cases, the further the disease progresses, the more the

memories of the past dissolve.

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to memorize new facts, and hence the inability to learn.

This is sometimes referred to as “forgetting as you go”.

In this type of amnesia, short-term memory and procedural memory are preserved, because they

are independent. Affected individuals retain their skills but not the memory of having acquired

them (since that would involve episodic explicit memory).

Anterograde amnesia often occurs following an acute event such as a concussion, a heart attack,

oxygen deprivation, or an epileptic attack.

Many amnesias have both anterograde and retrograde components, and the recovery process may

affect each of these components differently. But these two types of deficits still have well

defined characteristics that help us understand severe cases of amnesia, such as patient H.M.
Wernicke-Korsakoff's syndrom

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) is a severe neurological disorder caused

by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, and is usually associated with chronic excessive alcohol

consumption. It is characterized clinically by oculomotor abnormalities (eye motor

abnormalities), cerebellar dysfunction and an altered mental state. Korsakoff's syndrome is also

characterized by profound amnesia, disorientation and frequent confabulation (making up or

inventing information to compensate for poor memory). A survey published in 1995 indicated

that there was no connection to the national average amount of alcohol ingested by a country in

correlation to a range of prevalence within 0 and 2.5%.

Symptoms of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome include confusion, amnesia, and impaired

short-term memory. WKS also tends to impair the person's ability to learn new information or

tasks. In addition, individuals often appear apathetic and inattentive and some may experience

agitation. WKS symptoms may be long-lasting or permanent and its distinction is separate from

acute effects of alcohol consumption and from periods of alcohol withdrawal

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined

with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.

Seven normal memory problems

1. Transience

This is the tendency to forget facts or events over time. You are most likely to forget information

soon after you learn it. However, memory has a use-it-or-lose-it quality: memories that are called

up and used frequently are least likely to be forgotten. Although transience might seem like a
sign of memory weakness, brain scientists regard it as beneficial because it clears the brain of

unused memories, making way for newer, more useful ones.

2. Absentmindedness

This type of forgetting occurs when you don't pay close enough attention. You forget where you

just put your pen because you didn't focus on where you put it in the first place. You were

thinking of something else (or, perhaps, nothing in particular), so your brain didn't encode the

information securely. Absentmindedness also involves forgetting to do something at a prescribed

time, like taking your medicine or keeping an appointment.

3. Blocking

Someone asks you a question and the answer is right on the tip of your tongue — you know that

you know it, but you just can't think of it. This is perhaps the most familiar example of blocking,

the temporary inability to retrieve a memory. In many cases, the barrier is a memory similar to

the one you're looking for, and you retrieve the wrong one. This competing memory is so

intrusive that you can't think of the memory you want.

Scientists think that memory blocks become more common with age and that they account for

the trouble older people have remembering other people's names. Research shows that people are

able to retrieve about half of the blocked memories within just a minute.

4. Misattribution

Misattribution occurs when you remember something accurately in part, but misattribute some

detail, like the time, place, or person involved. Another kind of misattribution occurs when you
believe a thought you had was totally original when, in fact, it came from something you had

previously read or heard but had forgotten about. This sort of misattribution explains cases of

unintentional plagiarism, in which a writer passes off some information as original when he or

she actually read it somewhere before.

As with several other kinds of memory lapses, misattribution becomes more common with age.

As you age, you absorb fewer details when acquiring information because you have somewhat

more trouble concentrating and processing information rapidly. And as you grow older, your

memories grow older as well. And old memories are especially prone to misattribution.

5. Suggestibility

Suggestibility is the quality of being inclined to accept and act on the suggestions of others. One

may fill in gaps in certain memories with false information given by another when recalling a

scenario or moment, e-g children are told by their parents they're good singers, so from then on

they believe they are talented while their parents were in fact being falsely encouraging.

6. Bias

Inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be

unfair. Even the sharpest memory isn't a flawless snapshot of reality. In your memory, your

perceptions are filtered by your personal biases — experiences, beliefs, prior knowledge, and

even your mood at the moment. Your biases affect your perceptions and experiences when

they're being encoded in your brain. And when you retrieve a memory, your mood and other

biases at that moment can influence what information you actually recall.
Although everyone's attitudes and preconceived notions bias their memories, there's been

virtually no research on the brain mechanisms behind memory bias or whether it becomes more

common with age.

7. Persistence

Most people worry about forgetting things. But in some cases people are tormented by memories

they wish they could forget, but can't. The persistence of memories of traumatic events, negative

feelings, and ongoing fears is another form of memory problem. Some of these memories

accurately reflect horrifying events, while others may be negative distortions of reality.

People suffering from depression are particularly prone to having persistent, disturbing

memories. So are people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD can result from

many different forms of traumatic exposure — for example, sexual abuse or wartime

experiences. Flashbacks, which are persistent, intrusive memories of the traumatic event, are a

core feature of PTSD.

11 Methods for Improving Your Memory

Is it really possible to improve your memory? If you've ever found yourself forgetting where you

left your keys or blanking out information on important tests then you have probably wished that

your memory was a bit better. Fortunately, there are plenty of things that you can do to help

improve your memory.

 Obviously, utilizing some sort of reminder system can help.

 Setting up an online calendar that sends reminders to your phone helps you keep track of

all those appointments and meetings.

  Creating daily to-do lists can ensure that you don't forget important tasks that need to be

completed.

But what about all the important information that you need to actually paste into your long-term

memory? It will take some effort and even involve change or dramatically changing your normal

study routine, but there are a number of strategies you can utilize to get more out of your

memory.

Before your next big exam, be sure to check out some of these tried and tested techniques for
improving memory. These 11 research-proven strategies can effectively improve memory,
enhance recall, and increase retention of information.

1. Focus Your Attention

Focusing can help improve memory
Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to move from
your short-term memory into your long-term memory, you need to actively attend to this
information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music, and other
diversions.

Getting rid of distractions might be a challenge, especially if you are surrounded by energetic
roommates or noisy children.
Set aside a short period of time to be alone.
Ask your roommates to give you some space or ask your partner to take the kids for an hour so
you can focus on your work.

2. Avoid Cramming (ratta)

Study regularly to improve memory
Studying materials over a number of sessions gives you the time you need to adequately process
information. Research has continuously shown that students who study regularly remember the
material far better than those who do all of their studying in one marathon session.1
3. Structure and Organize
Organize information to improve memory
Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in related clusters.
You can take advantage of this by structuring and organizing the materials you're studying.
Try grouping similar concepts and terms together, or make an outline of your notes and textbook
readings to help group related concepts.

4. Utilize Mnemonic Devices

Use mnemonics to improve memory

Mnemonic devices are a technique often used by students to aid in recall. A mnemonic is simply

a way to remember information. For example, you might associate a term you need to remember

with a common item that you are very familiar with. The best mnemonics are those that utilize

positive imagery, humor, or novelty.

Come up with a rhyme, song, or joke to help remember a specific segment of information.

5. Elaborate and Rehearse

Rehearse information to improve memory
In order to recall information, you need to encode what you are studying into long-term memory.

One of the most effective encoding techniques is known as elaborative rehearsal.

An example of this technique would be to read the definition of a key term, study the definition

of that term, and then read a more detailed description of what that term means. After repeating

this process a few times, you'll probably notice that recalling the information is much easier.

6. Visualize Concepts
Use visualization to improve memory
Many people benefit greatly from visualizing the information they study. Pay attention to the

photographs, charts, and other graphics in your textbooks. If you don't have visual cues to help,

try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes or use highlighters or

pens in different colors to group related ideas in your written study materials.

Sometimes even just making flashcards of various terms you need to remember can help cement

information in your mind.

7. Relate New Information to Things You Already Know

Relating information can improve memory
When you're studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this information
relates to what you already know. By establishing relationships between new ideas and
previously existing memories, you can dramatically increase the likelihood of recalling the
recently learned information.

8. Read Out Loud

Teach others to improve your memory
Research published in 2017 suggests that reading materials out loud significantly improves your
memory of the material.3 Educators and psychologists have also discovered that having students
actually teach new concepts to others enhances understanding and recall.
Use this approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or
study partner.

9. Pay Extra Attention to Difficult Information

Focus on difficult information first to improve memory
Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember information at the beginning or
end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the order of information can play a role in recall,
which is known as the serial position effect.4
While recalling middle information can be difficult, you can overcome this problem by spending
extra time rehearsing this information. Another strategy is to try restructuring what you have
learned so it will be easier to remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept,
devote some extra time to memorizing the information.

10. Vary Your Study Routine

Change your routine to improve memory
Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you're
accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot during your next
study session. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing
the information you studied the previous night.
By adding an element of novelty to your study sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of
your efforts and significantly improve your long-term recall.

11. Get Some Sleep

Sleep can help improve your memory
Researchers have long known that sleep is important for memory and learning. Research has
shown that taking a nap after you learn something new can actually help you learn faster and
remember better.
In fact, one study published in 2014 found that sleeping after learning something new actually
leads to physical changes in the brain. Sleep-deprived mice experienced less dendritic growth
following a learning task than well-rested mice.5
So the next time you're struggling to learn new information, consider getting a good night's sleep
after you study.
References
https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-
http://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/forgetting.php
http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/memory/section1/page/3/. Retrieved 0n 13.10.2015
http://study.com/academy/lesson/chunking-method-definition. Retrieved on 13.10.2015
http://www.livescience.com/43682-episodic-memory.html

https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/forgetfulness-7-types-of-normal-memory-probl
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