ELECTRICITY

Charge (Q)
Charge is a characteristic property of matter by means of which matter
experiences electric forces. It can be either negative (electron) or positive
(proton).
“Coulomb” is the SI unit of charge, represented by C.
One coulomb
One coulomb (1 C) is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 x 1018
electrons.
Q = ne (n is the number of electrons)
If Q= 1 C, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C (negative charge on electron)
𝑄 1𝐶 100
𝑛= = −19
= x 1018
𝑒 1.6 𝑥 10 16
therefore n = 6.2 x 1018 no of electrons in one coulomb of charge
Current (I)
Rate of flow of net charge is called current. It is denoted by (I)
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
Electric current can also be defined as the amount of charge flowing through
a unit cross-section per second.
SI unit of current is “ampere” denoted by A.
One ampere is defined as one coulomb of charge flowing through a
conductor per second.
1𝐶
1𝐴 =
1𝑠
In an electric circuit the electric current flow in an opposite direction to the
flow of electron (-ve charge). This current is called conventional current. It
flows from the +ve terminal of battery or cell to the -ve terminal. Small
quantity of current are expressed in
mA (milli Ampere) = 10-3 A
μA (micro Ampere) = 10-6 A
Ammeter: It is an instrument used to measure the electric current in a
circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit. It has low resistance
(practically). Ideally ammeter’s resistance must be zero. It is represented as
Electric Circuit: It is a closed path along which the electric current flows.

“The electrons can only flow when there is difference of electric potential”.
For example “water flowing through a tube”. It is only possible when there is
high pressure at one side and low at another side, then it will move from
high pressure to low pressure.
In case of electric current, the flow of charge is made possible due to
chemical action with in a cell that generates the potential difference across
the terminals of the cell.
Electric potential Difference: It is defined as the work done in carrying a
unit charge from one point to another in an electric circuit.
V – Potential Difference
W – Work
Q – Net Charge
SI unit of potential difference is volts denoted by the letter “V”. It is named
after Alessandro Volta.
One Volt When 1 Joule of work is done in carrying one coulomb (1C) of
charge from one point to another of a current carrying conductor then the
potential difference is said to be 1 V.
1𝐽
1𝑉 =
1𝐶
Smaller units millivolt (mV) = 10-3 V
Bigger units kilovolt (kV) = 103 V
Megavolt (MV) = 106 V
Voltmeter It is an instrument, used to measure the potential difference and
represented in an electric circuit by the symbol

It is always connected in parallel across the points between which the

potential difference is to be measured. It has high resistance.
Circuit Diagram: A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram,
electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electric circuit.
Symbols for some commonly used instrument in circuit diagram:

OHM’s LAW
George Simon Ohm found the relationship between the current (I) flowing
through a conductor and potential difference (V) across the terminals of a
conductor using the following circuit diagram.
He observed that the potential difference and current varied linearly.
Ohm’s Law “the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, under standard
temperature and pressure conditions (STP)”.
𝑉 ∝ 𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Where ‘R’ is the proportionality constant for the given metal at given
temperature and is called resistance. The graph between V and I is always
straight line with slope equal to R.
Resistance: It is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of electric
current through it. It is represented by ‘R’ and symbol is ‘Ω’
SI unit of resistance is “Ohm”.
1 Ohm: The resistance of a conductor is said to be one Ohm, when the
potential difference across the conductor is 1 V and the current flowing
through it is 1 A.
V = IR
𝑉
𝐼= {Current through a conductor is inversely proportional to its resistance}
𝑅
So to increase or decrease the current accordingly in the circuit a
component used is called “Rheostat”, that regulates the current without
changing potential difference. Represented by “Rh”.
Its circuit symbol is
If a conductor has less Resistance, then more current will flow through it.
On the basis the electrical properties, materials can be classified into
conductors and insulators.
Conductor: Materials which allows electricity (electric current) to pass
through them are called conductors. A good conductor offers very less
resistance to the flow of electric current. All metals, graphite, human body,
salty water,… are examples of conductors. Silver is the best conductor
among all metals.
Insulator: Materials which offers infinitely high resistance to flow of electric
current and they do not allow the passage of electric current thought them.
Wood, plastic, mica, diamond, glass, rubber, ebonite,… are examples of
insulators. Vacuum is the best insulator.
Factors on Which Resistance of a Conductor Depends
1. On its length (L)
2. On its cross-sectional area (A)
3. On the nature of material.

𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 (Directly proportional to length)

1
𝑅 ∝ (inversely prop to cross-sectional area)
𝐴

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Where ‘ρ’ (rho) is a proportionality constant known as resistivity of the
material of the conductor.
Resistivity or Specific resistance (ρ): The resistance offered by a wire of
unit length and unit cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
Its SI unit is ‘Ωm’.
𝐿
Since 𝑅 = 𝜌
𝐴

𝐴
𝜌=𝑅
𝐿
For a material irrespective of length and area, the resistivity is a constant.
Resistivity of a Material varies with the temperature of the conductor.
Resistivity is the measure of resistance of a material. In other words, up to
what extent will the material resist current flow.
Resistivity of an alloy (homogeneous mixture of metals) is generally higher
than of its constituent metals. Example: Constantan (alloy of Cu & Ni)
Alloys have high resistivity and do not oxidise (burn) readily at high
temperature, for this reason they are commonly used in electrical heating
devices like electric iron, heater, toasters etc. For example “Tungsten” as
filament of electric bulb.
Resistance of a system of resistors
Resistance in Series (Maximum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three conductors/resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 are
connected in series in a circuit.

Ohm’s law stated

V = I Reff
The current (I) flowing through the resistance in series will remain same,
whereas the potential difference (V) across each resistor will be different.
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
Total potential difference V = V1 + V2 + V3
I Reff = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
Reff = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus, we conclude that effective Resistance of the several resistors joined in
series is equal to the algebraic sum of their individual resistances. Also, the
net resistance increases when resistors are connected in series.
Resistance in Parallel (Minimum Effective Resistance)
Let us take three resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 are connected in
parallel in the electric circuit.
 V
Total through the combination of resistors 𝐼 =
Reff
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝑅 , 𝐼2 = 𝑅 and 𝐼3 = 𝑅
1 2 3

Total current I = ( I1 + I2 + I3 )
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Thus, we conclude that the reciprocal of total effective resistance of the

several resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances. Also, the net resistance reduces when resistors
are connected in parallel.
Disadvantage of Series Connection in an Electric Circuit
1. In series connection if any of the component fail to work, the circuit will
break and then none of the component (ex. TV, bulb, fan..) will work.
2. It is not possible to connect a bulb and a heater in series, because they
need different value of current to operate properly.
Hence, to overcome this problem we generally use parallel circuit.
Heating Effect of Electric Current
Explanation
Battery or a cell is a source of electrical energy.
1. Battery or cell (Chemical reaction in it will produce potential difference at
its two terminals)
2. Electron will come in motion to flow current through resistor
3. To maintain this current, the sources has to keep expending its energy.
4. Part of this energy is consumed in useful work (Like rotating of fan)
5. Rest of energy of source is converted into heat, that raises the
temperature of gadget.
6. This is known as heating effect of electric current.
7. This effect is utilized in devices such as electric heater, iron etc.
Mathematical Expression
Let us suppose that current (I) is flowing through a resistor of resistance(R)
for the time (t). The potential difference across the resistance is (V).
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
Work done in moving the charge Q will be
𝑊=𝑄𝑉
𝑊
Then power,𝑃 = [Rate of change of work done]
𝑡
𝑄𝑉
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑄
𝑃 = 𝑄 𝐼 (𝐼 = 𝑡 )

Heat energy supplied by the source for time t will be

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝐻 = 𝑃 𝑡 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
= 𝑉𝐼𝑡
= (𝐼𝑅)𝐼𝑡 (𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
H = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
This is known as Joule’s Law of heating.
This law states that the heat produced in a resistor is:
(i) directly proportional to square of the current (I)
(ii) directly proportional to resistance (R) for given current
(iii) directly proportional to time (t) for which current flow through resistor.
Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current
1. Used in electric iron, toaster, oven, heater etc.
2. It is also used in bulb to produce light.
(Filament of bulb is made of strong metal with high melting point such as
tungsten (melting point = 33800 C). This filament can retain as much of the
heat generated as possible, to become very hot and emit light)
3. It is also used in the “fuse connected in an electric circuit”. Fuse is a
safety device, that protects the circuits and appliances by stopping the flow
of high current.
The wire of fuse is made of an alloy of metals e.g., Aluminium, Copper,
Iron, Lead etc. The alloy should be of low melting point and high resistivity,
fuse is always connected in series circuit. When large current flows through
the circuit, the temperature of fuse wire will increase. This melts the fuse
wire and breaks the circuit.
“Fuses” used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A etc.
for various operations depending upon the power of appliance using.
Example: let us consider an appliance “electric Iron” which consume1 KW
electric power, at 220 V
P=VI
𝑃 1 𝑘𝑊 1000 𝑊
𝐼= = =
𝑉 220 𝑉 220 𝑉
I = 4.54A
In this case a 5 A fuse is required.
Electric Power: In case of electricity, it is defined as the rate of change of
electrical energy dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit.
P = VI
Or 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑉2
Or 𝑃=
𝑅

SI unit of electric power is “Watt” (W)

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
(𝑃 = )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
1 Watt is defined as the power consumed by a device, when 1 A of current
passes through it at the potential difference of 1 V.
P=VI
1 Watt = (1 Volt) x (1 Ampere)
𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡
Where E = Electrical Energy
E=Pt
SI unit of electrical energy is joule (J)
Commercial unit of electrical energy is kilo watt hour (KWh) or one unit. The
electrical energy consumed by an appliance of power 1 kilowatt (1000 watts)
in one hour.
E = 1 kW x 1 hour
= 1000 W x 3600 s
= 36 x 105 Ws
= 3.6 x 106 J (SI unit of Ws = J)
Therefore 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
One horse power = 1 HP = 746W