

 DAIRY PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

ANDM313

FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND AGRICULTURE

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE SCIENCES

ANIMAL SCIENCE

Compiled by: PROF U MARUME

  Welcome note
Welcome to Animal Science programme under the School of Agricultural Sciences in the
Faculty of Natural and Agriculture Science (FNAS) welcomes you to this module (Dairy
Production and Management – ANDM 313. In order to be competitive in today’s dairy
industry still requires a healthy balance between possessing a thorough understanding of the
scientific principles of dairy cattle production and management and the practical art of
implementing those principles.

The instructor hopes this module comprehensively covers aspects in dairy production and
management that you will find informative and interesting.

This module covers the principles of dairy cattle production and management as well as the
practical aspects of implementing those principles.

 Module Information
Module title: Dairy Cattle Production and Management

Module qualification: National Diploma in Agriculture – Animal Science

Module structure:

Credits : 12
NQF – Level :7
Module Code : ANDM313
Module Type : Core
Duration : 16 weeks
Semester :1
 LEARNING CONTENT

Unit 1: South African dairy cattle industry

Unit 2: Milk production systems

Unit 3: Dairy cattle breeding

Unit 4: Reproduction management in dairy cattle

Unit 5: Dairy cattle nutrition and feeding.

Unit 6: Calf rearing

Unit 7: Milk secretion, milking and milk records

Unit 8: Milk composition, quality control and processing

Unit 9 : Dairy Cattle Herd Health Management

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon successful completion of this module, the student(s) should be able to:-

1. Identify dairy cattle breeds, their production characteristics and their economic importance
to the South African dairy industry

2. Plan and implement management practices in dairy cattle herds

3. Integrate dairy cattle breeding, feeding and reproduction for total management of the dairy
cattle enterprise

4. Formulate, keep and use dairy cattle records systems (production and financial)

5. Develop, implement and manage health programmes in dairy herds for prevention and the
diagnoses of various diseases for assurance of dairy cattle health.
  General Info for the module

 Regular class attendance of this module is crucial to remain current with class
discussions as there is no substitute for regular class attendance. Practical’s are held
on the afternoons (14H00) at Molelwane (University Farm), make sure that you are on
time to catch the bus (specific practical dates will be arranged in class).
 Questions are invited at all times as long as they are aiming toward meeting class
and/or module objectives.
 There are rules and regulation pertaining to sick tests or missed tests. These tests are
written only if the learner(s) submit or show a valid medical proof from a registered
Doctor or a certified proof.

 Recommended reading

1. Milk Production and Processing (Ibraheem Kutty)

2. Understanding the Dairy Cow 3rd Edition (John Webster)
3. The dairy Farming Handbook (Link on eFundi Resources: Prescribed books):
  UNIT 1: OVERVIEW OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN DAIRY INDUSTRY

 South Africa contributes approximately 0.5% to the world milk production.

 There are four major dairy breeds in South Africa namely, Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey
and Ayrshire.
 The industry comprises of number of different economic activities and significant
differences exist between farming methods and processing of dairy products.
 Activities involve the production and marketing of raw milk, pasteurized milk and
cream, fermented milk, long-life milk and cream, yoghurt, cheese and its by-product
milk powder, sweetened and unsweetened concentrated milk, butter and butter oil.

 Dairy representative organisations

 Milk SA is the umbrella organisation
 Entrusted by the Government to administrate statutory regulations
 pursuits of strategic direction to broaden the market for milk and other dairy products,
improve the international competitiveness of the dairy industry and empower
previously disadvantaged persons.
 The primary and secondary industry sectors of the South African dairy industry are, in
respect of issues of collective interest, united in Milk South Africa and therefore, the
Milk Producers Organization (MPO) and the SA Milk Processors Organization
(SAMPRO) are the members of Milk South Africa.
 The MPO is the representative body of the producers of unprocessed milk
and SAMPRO is the representative body of the milk processors and manufacturers of
dairy products in South Africa.

 Important roles of Milk SA

 Educate the consumer about the nutrition and health benefits of dairy;
 Improve the quality and safety of dairy products;
 Publish reliable statistical and other information;
 Promote the South African dairy trade dispensation;
 Co-ordinate, initiate and fund research and development projects; and
 Transfer knowledge and skills to previously disadvantaged persons.

 Two milk production areas in RSA:

 Coastal Areas: more suitable due to mild temperatures and good rainfall ensuring
good quality of natural and artificial pastures.
 Inland Areas: less favourable for milk production. Dairy farming in these areas
necessitate intensive and high cost feedlot production systems.
 Western Cape contributed 27% followed by Eastern Cape and KwaZulu–Natal which
took up 24% each; Free State contributed 13%; North–West 5%; Mpumalanga 4%,
Gauteng, Northern Cape and Limpopo shared the 3%.

 Economic importance of RSA Dairy Industry

 Exports
 The dairy industry is also an important earner of foreign exchange. In 2011, exports of
dairy products amounted to 44 million kilograms valued at over R 38 million.

 Employment
 Over 4 000 milk producers employing 60 000 farm workers and providing 40 000
people with indirect jobs within the value chain like milk processing and milling
industry.

 Nutrition
 Primary source of Calcium and Vitamin D for strong bones and teeth. Potassium may
help to maintain healthy blood pressure (e.g. Yogurt, fluid milk, and soymilk).

 Market Structure: RSA dairy industry

 Dairy market is divided into 60% liquid and 40% concentrated products.
 Liquid milk products:
 Pasteurized milk contributes 52% followed by UHT (long life) 28%; yoghurt 13%;
mass & buttermilk 5%. Flavoured milk 2% share.
 Condensed milk products:
 Condensed milk products consist of 38% of hard and semi cheese followed by milk
powder with 19%, cheese 16%, Condensed milk 7%, and buttermilk powder 1%.
 UNIT 2 DAIRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
 Starting a Dairy enterprise
 Planning Dairy Production System
 The dairy cow has a remarkable ability to convert fodder into human food. A good
cow can produce the equivalent of double her own carcass weight at a rate of
conversion of feed into milk. Full exploitation of the ability of the dairy cow
(selection + management) makes the modern dairy a remarkable biological factory.
 Dairy cows are subjected to a high level of metabolic and management stress.
Metabolic and management stress include the following: - a dairy cow can produce 10
– 20 times the amount of milk that nature requires for the rearing of a calf, She
produces and suspends 10 kg of milk in her udder twice daily than that was supposed
to be done by a calf, which is done by the machine. Concentrates far in excess of the
levels that ruminant naturally take are converted into milk every day, which greatly
accelerates the metabolic rate in dairy. Heart & respiratory rates of highly-fed dairy
cows are accelerated by more than 30% even when they are at rest.

 The multi-facet nature of a dairy enterprise:

 Each facet is highly specialized, although they are intergraded in the overall planning
& operation of dairy production
1. Specialized Facets/aspects are as follows:
2. The Milking Herd
3. Milking Facilities
4. Production of forage
5. Feeding Systems
6. Financial aspects

 The milking herd

 Involves factors that closely affect dairy herd productivity and profitability for
example breed selection & environmental compatibility of the animals.
 Feeding which involves the production of feed, fodder flow programme &
compilation of balanced diets according to their production level, reproduction
management & care of post-calving cows.
 Genetic improvement: bull selection and culling.
 Herd health: preventative and therapeutic measures and mastitis control.

 Milking facilities
 Design and layout of the milking parlour
 Handling and housing facilities to optimize flow of animals for milking, feeding and
special procedures
 Production of forage
 Environmental factors and soil quality that affect self-produced feed
 Decision-taking on intensive pastures, silage or hay production

 Financial Aspects
 Finances
 Capital
 Cash Flow and
 Decisions taking on purchases and cost-accounting

 Production systems
1. Landless peri-urban dairying:
 This is a purely market-oriented production system located within and close to the
boundaries of cities.
 Peri-urban dairy producers benefit from their closeness to markets, but their production is
based on purchased inputs and may encounter problems of feed supply and waste disposal.
 In recent decades, a peri-urban dairy sector has developed very rapidly around the larger
cities of many developing countries, in response to expanding market demand.
 The concentration of milk production in close proximity to urban centres may threaten
human health.
2. Rural smallholder dairying:
 Dairying is often part of a mixed farming system in which manure is used for cash crop
production.
 Dairy animals are fed on grass, crop residues and cultivated fodder. Supplementary feeding
is practised only when feasible.

3. Pastoral/agropastoral dairying:
 These systems are land-based and milk is often the most important subsistence item.
 Dairy production is generally associated with cropping, but nomadic pastoralists practise
little or no agriculture and roam the land in search of grazing grounds and water.

4. Commercial dairy production

 Commercial farming is when the main purpose is to sell and/or add value to agricultural
products, such as milk, for profit.
 Choices about what or how much to produce are determined by the market, not by the
needs of the farmers and their families.
 The scale of operations is large, the milk is produced in large quantities and is sold in bulk to
large dairy processors, and sold for export purposes as well.
 With commercial dairy farming one has to keep in mind that success in the dairy market
depends on various factors.
 Commercial dairy farming is not simply “a way of life”; it is a business, and without the
relevant business skills, a dairy enterprise cannot be sustainable.

 Important management aspects

 Management skills required
 Delegation and Administration
 Farm planning and Labour management
 Animal Health and welfare
 Animal breeding and genetics
 Animal nutrition
 Mechanical and technical expertise
 Integrated system
  UNIT 3: DAIRY CATTLE SELECTION AND BREEDING

 Dairy Cattle Breeds

 Good breeding matters because you want good quality milk and lots of it so you
cannot just milk any cow at random.
 There are six major dairy breeds in South Africa, namely:
1. Holstein
2. Jersey
3. Guernsey
4. Ayrshire
5. Brown Swiss
6. Dairy shorthorn

 Holstein-Friesian
 Origin: Netherlands
 Vary between 550 - 650 kg
 Holstein-Friesian has a capacity to produce more milk than all the other breeds. But,
low butterfat content

 Jersey
 Origin: Channel Island of Jersey
 Range between 400 to 500 kg.
 High butterfat content of her milk and the lower maintenance costs

 Guernsey
 Origin: British Channel Island of Guernsey
 Average of 450 kg body weight
 Guernsey has similarities to the Jersey for calving ease and milk with high butterfat
content. They are larger than the Jersey.
 Owing to the low numbers of this breed, the availability of bulls is limited.

 Ayrshire
 Origin: South-West Scotland
 They are medium-sized and white mixed with brown or red on colour.
 Ranging from 450 to 500 kg
 Have good slaughter weights.
 Brown Swiss
 Origin: Switzerland
 Produce an average of 4% butterfat and 3.5% protein, which is excellent for cheese.
 Long gestation period, immense size, large furry ears, and an extremely docile
temperament.
 Resilient breed of cattle; hardy and capable of subsisting with little care or feed.

 Dairy Shorthorn
 Origin: Great Britain
 Produce an average of 3.8% butterfat & 3.3% protein.
 Weighing 640 to 680 kg
 Colours: red, red with white markings, white, or roan
 High levels of fertility, grazing efficiency, and ease of management
  Durability, longevity, and ease of calving as well as their versatility in a number of
production environments.

Milk Production Facts

Breed Percent Butterfat Kg's Butterfat Milk Production
Holstein 3.66 703 19.185
Ayrshire 3.95 569 14.398
Jersey 4.75 618 13.020
Brown Swiss 4.03 606 15.062
Guernsey 4.57 611 13.363

Activity
1. Which breed produced the most total kgs of milk? Why do think this is so?

2. Why would butterfat be important to milk?

3. What breed produced the lowest total kgs of butterfat?

4. What would you think the most popular breed of Dairy cattle would be judging from this
data? Why?

5. What is the definition of milk production? Why would a cow be lactating?

  Selection process
 The goal of dairy cattle production is to provide highly desirable dairy for milk
production in the most efficient manner for longer production period.
 Knowledge of breeding and selection, feeding, management, disease control and the
milk market is fundamental to the economical production of desirable milk.

 In dairy cattle breeding, certain traits of economic importance must be targeted. These
include:
 Milk production
 Productive life
 Reproduction
 Functional characteristics
 Other traits

 Principle of selection:
 more traits = less progress is made.
 Selection criteria can be mainly based on the following:
 milk yield (volume)
 fat and protein yield
 Somatic cell score
 feet and legs
 udders
 capacity (body size)
 "dairyness"
 Calving ability

 Selection Methods
 Tandem:
 Selection of one trait at a time
 Appropriate if rapid change in one trait is needed quickly
 Can result in loss of genetic progress of other traits
 Typically, not recommended

 Independent Culling:
 Minimum culling levels for each trait in the selection program
 Second-most effective type of selection method, but most used
 Most useful when number of traits in selection is relatively few
 Disadvantage – may cull genetically superior animals for marginal performance of a
single trait

 Selection Index:
 Recognizes the value of multiple traits with and economic rating related to each trait
 Allows for ranking of individuals objectively
 Difficult to develop
 Disadvantages – shifts in economic value of some traits over time, failure to identify
defects or weaknesses

 Heifer Selection
 Reasons for Heifer selection:

 Replacement of culled animals.

 Heifers are the future of any dairy farm
 Genetic improvement/ upgrading of herd-high fertility.
 Heifer group should poses the best genetics on a farm compared to the rest of the
cows

 Selection Process
 Weight of 60% (Mature body weight).
 Performance records of dam (economic traits).
 Visual appraisal for (linear traits) e.g. stature, chest width, udder attachment, teat
placement etc.
 Select from sires that transmit desired milk production and mature size with early
sexuality to calve 22-24 months, reach puberty (cycling 12-14 months).
 Keep heifers of desired body type and farmer size. Determined by level of nutrition to
gain target weight- avoid overfeeding.
 Selection for Milk yield, fat & protein yield, feet and legs, udders, capacity, dairyness.
 Vaccination, for vibriosis, blackleg, brucellosis.
 Breed with bull with calving ease.
 Separate from mature cow to give more attention.

 Response to selection
 Five factors influence the rate with which populations can be changed by selection.
1. Heritability
2. Selection Differential
3. Genetic Correlation
4. Generation Interval
5. No. of traits for which one selects
  Heritability
 Heritability is the proportion of observable differences in a trait between individuals
within a population that is due to genetic differences. Heritability of a trait varies from
one population to another and from environment to another. Heritability is always
positive ranging from 0 to 1.0 (i.e. 0 – 100).
 Heritability is important in selection: the accuracy of selection is higher for a highly
heritable trait than a low heritable trait. The larger the accuracy of selection, the larger
is the expected response due to selection.
 With selection based on phenotypic values:
 Large h2 means high accuracy of selection, therefore phenotypic value is a good
indicator of breeding value.
 Small h2 means low accuracy of selection, thus phenotypic value is not a good
indicator of breeding value.

 Repeatability
 Repeatability (r) is the proportion of the phenotypic variance that is due to permanent
effects (genetic effects and permanent environmental effects):
 What does the repeatability measure?
 The strength (consistency/ reliability) of the relationship between repeated records.
Therefore, repeatability can be estimated as the correlation between repeated records
on the same animals. The strength of the relationship between single performance
records and producing ability (permanent effects). Therefore, repeatability can be
viewed as the regression of PA on the phenotype.
 It is useful in prediction of producing ability and therefore the animal’s next record
from the current and previous records:
- If r is high, we can predict the animal’s next record more accurately
- If r is low then the prediction of the next record has low accuracy.

 Selection Differential (SD)

 Selection differential (SD) is a measure of how good the parents chosen to produce
the next generation will be. It is the superiority of the selected parents over the mean
of the population from which they came.
 If we have high variation, the SD will be high.
 For example: Population mean of milk yield per day = 18 L/day
 Mean of the selected females = 20 L/day
 Therefore SD = Mean selected – Mean population
 Therefore: SD = 20-18 = 2 L/day = Good improvement
 However,
 If Mean of selected females = 17 L/day
 Therefore: SD = 17- 18 = -1 = No Improvement
 The selection differential SD is not particularly informative when trying to compare
the strength of selection on different traits and/or in different populations. A much
more useful measure is the selection intensity (i),

 Generation Interval (L)

 This is the time interval between generations and is defined as the average age of the
parents when their offspring's are born. It varies between species and breeds.
 The general average generation intervals for different livestock species are:

Horse = 9-13
Beef cow = 4.5-5
Dairy cow = 4-5
Sheep = 3-4
Pig = 2-2.5
Chicken = 1-1.5

 The generation interval severely restricts the genetic progress because it adds onto the
length of time the breeder has to wait until the sufficient data are available from an
animal on which to make a decision. An example of this is – Waiting for completion
of 1st lactation milk yields of daughters before a bull is widely used in a herd or for
AI.
 Heritability, selection differential and generation interval are all put together to give
an estimate of genetic gain as follows:
 Genetic gain or selection response (R) per generation = h2 X SD
 Genetic gain or selection response (R) per year = (h2 X SD) / L
 Note that i = (SD)/(σp), Therefore R = (h2 x σp x i)
 Where,
 R = Response
 h2 = Heritability
 SD = Selection Differential
 L = generation interval
 i = Selection intensity
 σp = Phenotypic Standard Deviation

 From the equation you can see that:

 The higher the heritability, the higher will be the genetic gain.
 The higher the Selection Differential, the higher will be the genetic gain.
 The higher the Generation Interval, the lower will be the genetic gain.
 Mating Methods
 Natural Mating – Commonly used in Beef
 Artificial Insemination – Commonly used in Dairy
 Multiple embryo transfer – Where artificial Insemination is used

 Advantages of artificial insemination:

 There is no need of maintenance of breeding bull for a herd; hence the cost of
maintenance of breeding bull is saved.
 It prevents the spread of certain diseases and sterility due to genital diseases. E.g.:
contagious abortion, vibriosis.
 By regular examination of semen after collection and frequent checking on fertility
make early detection of interior males and better breeding efficiency is ensured.
 The progeny testing can be done at an early age. The semen of a desired size can be
used even after the death of that particular sire. T
 he semen collected can be taken to the urban areas or rural areas for insemination. It
makes possible the mating of animals with great differences in size without injury to
either of the animal. I
 t is helpful to inseminate the animals that are refuse to stands or accept the male at the
time of oestrum.
 It helps in maintaining the accurate breeding and cawing records. It increases the rate
of conception.
 It helps in better record keeping. Old, heavy and injured sires can be used.

 UNIT 4: REPRODUCTION MANAGEMENT IN DAIRY CATTLE

 Dairy females must perform the following functions:
 Grow rapidly from birth until puberty
 Attain puberty at an early age
 Conceive readily to a fertile mating
 Produce a viable calf
 Produce adequate milk for the calf and extra for sale
 Return to oestrus early during the postpartum period and conceive again
 Continue producing calves and milk at regular intervals till the end of its productive
life.

 Four factors affecting reproductive performance of dairy cows:

 Puberty
 Sexual cycles and mating
 Pregnancy and parturition
 The postpartum period

 Puberty
 Defined as the first behavioural oestrus accompanied by ovulation and development
of a normal corpus luteum (CL) in the ovary.
 This is determined by several factors, which are endogenous, for example, genotype,
growth and body weight, as well as exogenous, for example, year or season of birth,
rainfall, nutrition, thermal environment, photoperiod, and rearing method and
diseases.

 Factors (8) influencing the age of attainment of puberty

1. Animal species - smaller species usually reach puberty before larger species
2. Breed - some breeds within a species reach puberty earlier than other breeds in cattle,
Hereford and Angus reach puberty before Brahma and Zebu. In swine, Landrace
reach puberty earlier than other breeds
3. Climate - animal generally have an earlier onset of puberty in warmer climates,
however excessive heat may actually delay the onset of puberty
4. Season - many breeds and species of animals are seasonal breeders
a. Long-day breeders begin to cycle and breed during increasing day length
Horses, chickens, swine are examples of long-day breeders. While this trait
has been bred out of many of our domesticated swine and chickens, a decrease
in fertility (fall infertility syndrome, or fall abortion syndrome in swine) is
thought to be due, at least in part, to the effect of decreasing day length.
b. Short-day breeders begin to cycle and breed and are most fertile during
decreasing day length. Sheep, goats, deer, and elk are examples of species who
are normally fertile and actively breeding in the fall of the year during
decreasing day length.
5. Nutrition - an adequate, well-balanced diet is necessary for animals to reach puberty
at an optimal time. Severely malnourished animals will have a delayed onset of
puberty.
6. Sex - the female of the species or breed usually reaches puberty earlier than male
animal.
7. Management system - the type of housing, pen arrangement, lighting, and the
presence or absence of mature animals will affect the onset of puberty. The sight,
smell and sound of the opposite sex enhances the onset of puberty in swine.
8. Stress - recent studies indicate that low levels of stress results in early onset of
puberty, excess stress, however, may delay the onset of puberty

 Sexual cycles and mating

 Adult non-pregnant heifers and cows normally undergo regular oestrous cycles, which
have a mean duration of 21 days.

 The oestrous cycle has four stages:

 Pro-oestrus,
 Oestrus,
 Met-oestrus and
 Di-oestrus.

 Oestrus Cycle in Days

1. Pro-oestrus
 Follicle enlarges
 Oestrogen increases
 Vascularity of the female reproductive tract increases
 Endometrial glands begin to grow
 Oestrogen levels peak

2. Oestrus
 allows male to mount
 oestrogen decreases
 LH surge occurs
 ovulation 24-48 hours after surge of LH
 uterine motility high with contractions moving toward oviduct
 sperm transport is optimal
 cervical mucus volume increases

3. Met oestrus
 oestrogen low
 corpus hemorrhagicum present
 ovulation in cow
 uterus contractions subside
 Endometrial glands continue to grow and become coiled in cattle bleeding occurs
 FSH increases, triggering growth of follicles

4. Di oestrus
 progesterone high
 FSH low but increases at some point to cause growth of pre-ovulatory follicle
 Uterus secrets fluid but the volume of fluid decreases over time
 contraction stop corpus luteum regresses at the end of this period if female is not
pregnant

 The main signs of oestrus are:

 Swelling and reddening of the vulva
 Secretion of clear, glassy, stringy mucus from the vulva
 Relaxation of pelvic ligaments
 Restlessness and/or bellowing
 Decreased appetite and milk yield
 Desire to interact with other animals
 Standing still when mounted by a bull or another cow.

 Pregnancy and parturition

 Fertilisation of the ovum occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube) and the resulting
embryo enters the uterus after four days.
 The embryo undergoes rapid cell division and growth. Implantation or attachment to
the lining of the uterus occurs progressively during the period 25 to 35 days after
fertilisation.
 The embryo is called a foetus from 45 days after fertilisation. The mean duration of
gestation is 280 days in taurine dairy breeds (range 270-290).

 The postpartum period

 After calving, the reproductive tract of the cow goes through a period of recovery
called involution, during which the uterus returns to its non-pregnant size and state.
This is usually completed in 25 to 35 days.
 However, this process can be delayed if the uterus becomes infected after calving.
This can happen if the cow calves under dirty unhygienic conditions, or if it has an
abnormal delivery, such as dystocia, retained placenta or prolapse of the uterus.
 The cow should normally show signs of heat within 30 to 60 days after calving.
However, a number of factors influence the functions of these organs
 Factors affecting reproductive efficiency
1. Genotype effects
 The genotype of the animal determines its reproductive potential, but the end result is
influenced by all the factors mentioned earlier, which we can broadly call
environment.
 Thus a Holstein-Friesian (HF) cow which has been bred for high milk production and
excellent reproductive performance under temperate conditions will, if moved to the
tropics, perform well below its potential capability.

2. Nutrition and environmental effects

 Nutrition has a major influence on the age of attainment of puberty. For a given
genotype of cow, heifers that are well fed will grow faster and attain puberty at an
earlier age than those poorly fed.
 This results in an earlier age of first calving, with economic benefits to the farmer
through more milk and more calves during the lifetime of the animal. In dairy cattle,
the period of early lactation is particularly stressful, in that the cow is unable to meet
its nutrient requirements for high milk production through the daily feed intake.
 Therefore, it draws on stored nutrient reserves (fat deposits) until it attains a metabolic
balance around the second or third month of lactation.
 Thus cows calving in poor body condition lose more weight and take longer to regain
the lost weight than those calving in good condition. As a result, such cows also take
longer to commence cyclic ovarian activity than well-fed cows.
 It has been well established that a balanced diet providing sufficient protein and
energy is essential for normal fertility to be maintained.
 Deficiencies in sodium, phosphorus and selenium have been shown to cause
infertility, while deficiencies in iodine, manganese and zinc can also cause
reproductive disorders.
 Beta-carotene is one of the most important vitamins. Deficiency of b-carotene can
occur if animals are maintained solely on cereal straws or stovers, and can lead to
silent or delayed ovulation, a low conception rate and high embryo mortality.

3. Management Practices
 Management practices such as suckling of calves can influence the resumption of
sexual cycles after calving.
 Research shown that free suckling resulted in the lowest pregnancy rate at 150 days.
Weaning at 45 days resulted in the highest pregnancy rate, but calf mortality was very
high.

4. Breeding management
 Management decisions of farmers as well as their knowledge and skills have
important effects on the reproductive performance of cows. The farmer must decide
on the age and or weight at which heifers are mated, and the interval after calving
when cows are mated. In the case of heifers, mating too early will result in a longer
postpartum anoestrus period after the first calving, while mating late will result in loss
of production time.
 Cows which have normal calving and uncomplicated uterine involution can normally
be mated if they show heat any time after 45 days, but full fertility may not be
obtained until about 60 days after calving.
 Delaying mating beyond 60 to 90 days will result in economic losses in many
production systems. Two major deficiencies in many smallholder systems are poor
detection of heat and mating of the cow at the incorrect time.
 Therefore, accuracy of oestrus detection needs improvement through education and
training.
 Timing of mating is critical for conception, but this may sometimes be outside the
control of the farmers themselves. For example, the AI services may not be readily
available, or accessibility to stud bulls may be limited.
 A further contributor to poor fertility is the tendency of farmers to assume that a cow
will be pregnant once it has been serviced.
 They therefore neglect to look for returns to service and find out many months later
that the cow is not pregnant, by which time valuable production time has been lost.
 On the other hand, many farmers believe that met-oestrus bleeding is a sign that the
animal has not conceived to the preceding mating.

5. Infertility and Sterility

 Infertility means a reduced ability or temporary inability to reproduce, while sterility
is a complete and permanent inability to reproduce.
 When infertility or sterility occurs in an individual animal or a herd, it is essential that
the underlying causes are accurately identified. It is only then that a rational decision
can be made to overcome the problem and prevent any future occurrence.

6. Anoestrus
 Defined as the absence of signs of oestrus. It can occur in normal physiological
situations, such as during pregnancy and the early postpartum period. It is considered
to be a cause of infertility when it occurs at times when breeding is required, which is
mainly at the expected time of breeding after puberty in heifers and, depending on the
genotype and production system, after 45 to 90 days from calving.
 The underlying causes of anoestrus are;
o An abnormally extended period of postpartum ovarian inactivity (termed `true'
anoestrus),
o Cystic ovaries and uterine infections,
 o Pregnancy disorders leading to persistence of the CL, or non-expression by the
animal (silent ovulation), and
o Failure on the part of the farmer to detect heat.
 To solve this two approaches are available:
 The first involves either stimulation of FSH and LH secretion by treatment with
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (Gn-RH), or simulation of FSH with Pregnant
Mare Serum Gonadotropin (PMSG).
 The second approach is to use the so-called `re-bound' effect, by providing exogenous
progesterone for a period of 10 to 12 days, followed by abrupt withdrawal. This can
be achieved with orally active compounds (which are cheap but impractical in many
situations) or slapstick devices impregnated with progesterone which can be placed in
the vagina or implanted under the skin of the ear.
 Failure of fertilisation: Here the ovum and sperm either do not meet, or meet but fail
to fuse. The main reasons relating to the female are: congenital abnormalities
(segmental aplasia of oviducts, uterus or cervix); Acquired abnormalities (ovaro-
bursal adhesions or occlusion of oviducts due to injuries during calving or scar tissue
formation after infections) and Ovulatory disorders (delayed ovulation and non-
ovulatory heat).

7. Infectious causes
 Infertility can be caused by specific diseases or non-specific infections. Specific
infections can be bacterial, viral or protozoal.
 Brucellosis is a bacterial disease which can infect animals at any age, but manifests
itself only during pregnancy, causing abortion during the last three months of
pregnancy.
 Leptospirosis is another bacterial disease which causes abortions in late pregnancy
and is also communicable to man. Campylobacteriosis (vibriosis) is a bacterial disease
which is usually transmitted during mating.
 Another very similar condition, also acquired venereally, is Trichomoniasis, caused
by a protozoal organism. Both diseases result in death of the embryo during the first
three to four months of pregnancy. The main viral infections which causes specific
reproductive problems in bovines are bovine herpes viruses 1 and 4, bovine virus
diarrhea virus and parainfluenza 3 virus. These can cause infertility through
fertilisation failure, embryo mortality and abortion.

8. Accidents and miscellaneous causes

 Once conception has occurred, death of the embryo can occur due to a variety of
causes. Genetic abnormalities in the embryo, climatic or other stresses and specific or
non-specific infections are important causes.
 Even under optimum conditions embryonic death occurs in 20 per cent of
conceptions.
 After 45 days, when the embryo becomes a foetus, the main causes of death are
genetic abnormalities, toxins, severe stress, accidents and specific infections.
 Fetal death will be followed by either retention of the foetus in the uterus (resorption,
mummification or maceration) or its expulsion (abortion).

 Reproductive technologies
 A variety of modern reproductive technologies are now available to livestock breeders
and these have revolutionised livestock production in industrialised countries.
 Among others are:
 Artificial Insemination and Oestrus synchronisation
 Embryo transfer
 Hormone Assay
 Ultrasonic imaging

 Oestrus synchronisation
 Synchronisation of oestrus is the act of making a number of cows come into heat at
the same time. This allows better planning of breeding activities and wider use of AI.
 Cows to be used in such programs must not be pregnant and be undergoing normal
sexual cycles.
 The strategy is based on controlling the luteal phase of the oestrus cycle and can be
achieved through two main approaches: (1) extending the luteal phase by treatment
with exogenous progesterone or progestagens (GnRH), or (2) terminating the luteal
phase by treatment with Prostaglandin PG or its analogues.

 Embryo transfer
 This involves the use of superior females as donors of embryos which are then
implanted in recipients (surrogate mothers).
 It allows these superior animals to produce many more calves during their lifetime
than would be possible by natural means.
 There are now several variations of embryo transfer, including multiple ovulation
embryo transfer (MOET), oocyte recovery at slaughter and in vivo ovum pick-up
technique.
 In MOET the donors are induced to shed several ova instead of one, through a regime
of hormone treatment called super-ovulation.
 The ova are then fertilised by inseminating the donor with semen from a superior bull
and the embryos are collected from the uterus of the donor after five to six days.
 The embryos are examined under a microscope, any abnormal or undeveloped
embryos are discarded, and each healthy embryo is either transferred directly to a
recipient or stored in liquid nitrogen for future use. In the techniques of oocyte
recovery at slaughter and in vivo ovum pick-up:
 The immature ova present in the ovarian follicles of cows are harvested, in the former
case by direct visualization of the ovaries in slaughtered animals, and in the latter case
with the help of ultrasound scanning in live animals. The ova are then cultured in the
laboratory until mature, fertilized in vitro and transferred to recipients.

 Hormone Assay
 The concentration of progesterone, which is present in minute amounts in the blood
and milk of females can be measured using techniques such as radioimmunoassay
(RIA) and enzyme immunoassay (EIA).
 In cattle, a relatively high concentration at a given time indicates the presence of an
active CL in the ovaries, while basal concentrations indicate its absence.
 It is therefore a useful technique for monitoring ovarian activity, but requires repeated
samples to detect, for example, onset of puberty or initiation of postpartum ovarian
activity.
 One practical application is in identifying animals which have not conceived to AI, by
analysing a sample collected between 20 to 23 days after AI. Since the CL will
regress about 16 to 17 days after the previous heat if the animal does not become
pregnant, a basal progesterone level at 20 to 23 days after AI is an almost infallible
indicator of non-pregnancy.
 In contrast, a high progesterone level only indicates that the animal may have
conceived, since other conditions, for example, AI during luteal phase, persistent CL,
luteal cysts, and late embryonic death, will also result in elevated progesterone at this
time.

 Ultrasonic Imaging
 The use of ultrasound as a diagnostic technique has made an important contribution to
the understanding of reproductive problems in farm animals.
 The most practical type of instrument for use in cattle and buffalo is one based on
real-time B-mode ultrasound and equipped with a linear-array 5 or 7.5 MHz intra-
rectal probe.
 The method is non-invasive and interactive, it can be used for imaging the uterus,
ovaries and related structures.
 With experience, pregnancy can be diagnosed as early as 10 to 15 days after mating.
However, some of those conceived will not survive, due to the natural occurrence of
embryonic deaths in about 20 per cent of conceptions. In practice it is more common
to perform diagnoses at 20 to 30 days after mating, when the embryo and its heartbeat
can be discerned.
 At later stages, the age can also be deduced from the heart rate and length of the
embryo. The value of the technique, as with progesterone assay, is in detecting non-
 pregnant cows by 18 to 20 days, so that they can be observed more closely for a return
to heat and mated at the correct time. The method is now being used increasingly by
veterinarians in industrialized countries.
 The main limitations to its application in developing countries at present, are the
capital cost of equipment and the dearth of veterinarians experienced in the method.
 However, there are indications that simpler, more portable and possibly cheaper
instruments will be developed in the future. If so, this technique could become a
valuable tool for veterinarians servicing smallholder farmers.

 UNIT 5: DAIRY CATTLE NUTRITION AND FEEDING

 Animal nutrition – is the art of balancing feed intake and digestibility relative to the
animal’s requirements.

 Ruminants characteristics
Mouth
 no upper incisor or wolf teeth
 use lips and tongue to grab food
 Four compartments to the ruminant
 Consist of microorganisms
 Produce Volatile Fatty Acids/ acetic, propionic, butyric

Digestive system
 Stomach in ruminants comprises 25 % of body
 Rumen comprises 75 % of stomach
 Fermentation: digest cellulose, plant tissue, urea, NPN, B & K vitamins
 Consist of bacteria and protozoa (200 billion/teaspoon) - breakdown the
organic matter in the feed (fermentation) to form ammonia or relatively simple
compound called volatile fatty acids

 Functions of feed
 Maintenance- a ration which is adequate to prevent any loss or gain of tissue in the
body when there is no production
 Growth- increase in size of muscles, bones, internal and external parts of the body
(the foundation of animal production)
 Finishing- the laying on or deposition of fat
 Production – lactation, conception, etc.
 NB. The difference in energy needs are related to the amount of activity

 Feeds
1. Definition: any ingredients or material fed to animals for purposes of sustaining them

2. Classes of Feeds
 Roughages
 Definition: >18% fibre and lower in energy & low digestibility compared to
concentrates.
 Generally; TDN = 40-60% and is high in Ca & K
 One nutrient source unique to ruminants is fibre.
 Fibre is general term given to a variety of different carbohydrate-type materials, e.g.
cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. In general, the higher the fibre content of the
overall diet, the lower is its digestibility.
 Forage/Pasture, hay, crop-residue (corn, milo), silage (fermented, high-moisture
forage), haylage (low-moisture type silage), green chop

 Concentrates
 High in energy, low in fibre and < 20% protein – Corn, milo, oats, etc.
 Excessive levels of readily fermentable carbohydrates (such as starch) in the diet have
been shown to cause large changes in rumen pH.
 High-starch rations, which exceed the fermentative capacity of the micro-organisms
in the rumen can result in glucose accumulating in the rumen.
 This leads to the rapid growth of lactic acid-producing bacteria which can produce
high levels of lactic acid.
 More lactic acid is produced than can be used by the ruminal micro-organisms,
 The ruminal acidity increases and many of the normal ruminal protozoa and bacteria
are inhibited or killed (lactic acidosis) leading to reduced levels of acetic acid which is
needed for normal milk and butterfat production.

 Other classes
 By-product feeds (from plant and animal processing): carrots, turnip tops, fodder
beets
 Oilseed Plant by-products (SBM, CSM
 Protein supplements- high in nitrogen
o NPN= non-protein nitrogen
o Urea, ammoniated molasses or chloride, biuret, etc.
o Urea = 45% N X 6.25 = 281% = Crude protein equivalent.
o Protein is made of 20 naturally occurring amino-acids
o The ruminant cannot synthesize these amino-acids in its body, but the micro-
organisms in the rumen can - microbial protein.
o Amino-acids are the essential building blocks of all living tissues.
o To produce milk protein, the correct casein precursor amino-acids must be
supplied to the udder.
o This is called undegraded (UDP) or bypass protein and the constituent amino-
acids can then be absorbed through the gut wall into the bloodstream.
 Minerals - NaCl, limestone, diCal, etc.
o major -Ca, P, Mg, S
o Trace - Cu, Fe, I, MN, Zn, Se, etc.
 Vitamins
o Natural versus synthetics
o water vs fat soluble classification
o A, D, & E are most common in ruminants

 Special Feeds
o Fats and oils (increase calories without bulk)
o molasses (increase energy and palatability)
 Feed additives and implants
o increase efficiency of gain (growth promotants and hormones)
o prevent diseases (antibiotics)
o Preserve the feed (repartitioning agents).
 Practical feeding of dairy cows
 Milk yield of a dairy cow depends on four main factors:
o Genetic ability
o Feeding program
o Herd management
o And Herd health
 An optimal feeding program must consider:
o The quantity and quality fed
o The suitability of the feed and how and when the feeds are offered
o The general approach to feeding dairy cows to meet their requirements is based on the
following:

1. Stage of lactation
 Phase 1: Early lactation (Peak milk occurs)
o The time period from parturition to 100 days postpartum
o Concentrate intake should increase 0.45 – 0.90 kg per day starting 3 – 5 days
postpartum
o Top quality forage must be fed to maximize nutrient intake and digestibility
o Feeding supplemental fat or oil will increase energy
o Adding low rumen degraded protein supplement can increase protein absorption
o Buffers can improve rumen pH and digestion

 Phase 2: Mid–lactation (101 – 200)

o Applies to all pregnant cows more than 14 weeks in milk.
o Maximum dry matter intake is reached based on feed intake and nutrient
concentration in the feed.
o Concentrate intake should not exceed 2.3. to 3.2 kg per meal
o Body loss should stop and cows returned to a positive energy balance

 Late lactation (201 – 305)

o 225 days pregnant and dry applies to all dry cows.
o A good stockman will give no concentrates to promote drying off.
o Give 1 to 2 kg per day for a fortnight before calving to assist rumen microbial
adaptation.
o Body condition loss in early lactation should be replaced

 Dry cow group (Phase 4)

o Time period is 45 – 60 days
o 1% of the cow's body weight should be on long hay
o Concentrate intake 3 kg
o Nutrient intake of the cow should be controlled
o Avoid excess salt and minerals (Adema)

 Close up dry cow (Phase 5)

o 2 weeks before calving
o Move cows to early lactation ration

 UNIT 6: CALF REARING

 Management can simply be described as efficient use of resources including planning

and organization. It is the prerequisite to the success of any agricultural industry
including the dairy industry. In general management encapsulates: proper setting of
goals, planning organization, direct and control.
 Management in dairy may include herd health, feeding program and breeding, rearing
and management of calves and heifers.

 Calf rearing
1. Pre-calving:
 Critical time of nutrition: 30 days before calving
 The cow is restless
 Move away from the rest of the herd
 Parturition must not last more 2 – 3 hours and timely assistance is essential
 Parturition – is the birth process. It begins with softening and initial dilation of the
cervix along with the start of uterine contractions.

2. Calving environment and conditions:

 Calving area must be clean and dry
 Protect from extremes of temperature
 All the mucus must be removed from the calf’s nose and mouth
 Navel cord should be dressed with iodine solution or aerosol antibiotic spray

 Colostrum
 Colostrum – is the thick, creamy, yellow secretion collected from the cow’s udder
after calving.
 Colostrum has a little economic value on a dairy farm. The priority with new born
calves is ensuring that they suckle and drink at least 2 litres of colostrum within the
first six hours of life, with up to 8 litres within the first 24 hours.
 Colostrum is the first and most important feed in the life of a calf, it contains
immunoglobulins for passive immunity, which is indispensable for the survival of the
calf.
 Immunoglobulins – are proteins normally found in bloodstream and are vital
components of the immune systems. Low level of passive immunity due to
insufficient colostrum intake is probably the most important reason for calf mortality.
 Immunoglobulins content of colostrum is very high just after calving & declines by
more than 50%. The ability of calves to absorb immunoglobulins declines rapidly.
 Absorption efficiency is very high immediately after birth, if the first feeding is
delayed for 8 hours, absorption is reduced by more than 50%. No immunoglobulins
are absorbed from the intestine into the bloodstream from about 24 – 36 hours after
birth.
 It is important for the colostrum to enter the digestive tract before anything else
(Escherichia coli). If the calf does not suckle the dam’s udder within an hour after
birth then a teat bottle should be used to feed colostrum. Colostrum of the cows
calving at the same time can be mixed to provide better immunity. Calves are
removed from their dams 2 days of age and put separately in clean pens after tattooed
and tagged.

3. Quality of colostrum is determined by three factors:-

 Length of the dry period: A shorter dry period (less than 4 weeks) premature calving,
milking before calving and milk leakage before calving will lower the concentration
of antibodies in the colostrum.
 Age of the cow: Generally, the concentration of antibodies is higher in older cows
than in first-calf heifers
 Breed of dairy cow: Holsteins have a lower concentration in their colostrum than
breeds such as Ayrshire, Guernsey and Jersey. Anatomically new born calves are
 ruminants but physiologically they are non-ruminants. Calf’s rumen accounts 25% vs
80% in mature ruminants, while the abomasum comprises of 60% of the total capacity
in the calf and 8% in the mature animal.

 Calf rearing stages

 Calf rearing entails 2 distinct stages: Pre-weaning and Post- weaning

 Pre-weaning
 During the pre-weaning stage calves are transformed from monogastrics animals to
ruminant animals.

1. Birth to 3 months
 House individually in crates/pens/ that are warm, dry and free of draft.
 Goals of feeding before weaning: Optimum health and strong immunity, encourage
the intake of a starter as soon as possible, promote good skeletal development,
develop the rumen and prepare the calf for weaning.
 Liquid feeding: Milk is the best diet
 Types of milk offered
o Whole milk
o Extra/ unsalable milk
o Mastitic milk
o Milk containing antibiotic
o Skim milk

(1) Whole milk feeding

 can be fed until weaning

 Limited amounts of whole milk feeding , supplemented with a good quality calf
starter
 Avoid overfeeding especially in the first three weeks
 Feed according to 8 – 10 % of birth mass
 Feed two equal proportions per day
 Feed milk at a body temperature

(2) Extra/unsaleable milk – transition milk

(3) Mastitic milk – can also be fed to calves

 Prevent contact for at least 30 minutes

(4) Milk replacers

  may be used from 7 days of age
 are designed to save on fresh milk (do not do well)
 Calves fed milk replacers may gain at a slower rate than those fed whole milk
 too high drying temperature during manufacturing of milk replacers
 Replacers contain less fat thus less energy than whole milk

(5) Fresh Skim milk

 It is derived from on – farm processing of milk

 High in protein but less energy and fat soluble vitamins (A and B).

 Method of feeding
1. Nipple feeding - forces the calf to drink more slowly and reduces the risk of digestive
disturbances and diarrhoea. Strict equipment hygiene is imperative.

2. Bucket feeding - a calf can be taught how to drink from a bucket within a few days
after birth. This technique is easy, rapid and requires less cleaning work.

Keys to good animal health are:

 Prevention where possible

 early detection of a problem
 timely, appropriate treatment
 When in doubt, consult your veterinarian!

 Common calf health problems:

 Scours / diarrhea
 Navel infections
 Calf pneumonia
 Parasites
 Vaccinations and inoculations
 Bloat
 Scours/ Diarrhoea
 Is probably the most common and important calf disease. Scours is the calf’s response
to a metabolic upset or imbalance in the digestive tract. Disease-causing organisms
that infect the intestine often destroy cells which are then released into the intestine as
cellular debris along with proteins, acids and minerals. When there is intestinal
damage, the mineral balance of the intestine is upset and the calf responds by passing
water into the intestine to re-establish equilibrium. The resulting combination of
manure, mucous and sometimes blood is then called “scours”.
 Navel infection
o Caused by overcrowding and bruising of the navel cord early in life. Infection spreads
from the cord to the liver, then the joints of the legs. The navel cord is hot, the leg
joints swollen and painful. Treatment – antibiotic recommended by your vet for at
least 5 days. Prevention – give calves enough space, soft bedding and use Iodine dip
on the navel at birth.

 Calf pneumonia
o Caused by poor ventilation and a build-up of ammonia gas. Prevention is the best
approach. Treatment – antibiotics.

 Parasites
o Check with your vet for a sound dosing-programme to combat worm infestations. Fly
control is also a very important factor as they can be disease carriers.

 Vaccinations and inoculations:

o Check with your vet for the most prevalent infectious organisms found in your area
and work out a sound programme.

 Bloat
o Type of bloat encountered depends on the age of the calf, i.e. whether it is weaned or
not. Overfeeding causes a mild gastritis and is generally not serious. Usually, a small
amount of sodium bicarbonate will control this type of bloat.
o Chronic respiratory infection: look for enlarged lymph nodes along the oesophagus
that might interfere with the eructation of gas. This condition is common in calves
over 1 month of age. Palpation of the lymph nodes in the pharynx region will indicate
whether there is enlargement along the oesophagus and trachea.
o Possible causes of infection are from Actinomyces (gram positive) or Pasteurella
(gram negative) species and will require antibiotic therapy.
o Indiscriminate use of antibiotics can destroy the normal rumen microflora and thereby
cause bloating. Inoculating the calf with a cud or bacterial culture from another calf
can help cure the problem.
o Milk that has remained in the rumen and deteriorated may be removed by dosing with
a cup of mineral oil. Fibre from bedding, hay or twine can accumulate in the rumen or
abomasum as a fibre ball and cause bloat.
o This can be prevented by not feeding hay to calves while on milk or milk replacer.
Anatomical / physiological defects around the cardia, the opening to the oesophagus
into the stomach, may prohibit eructation and thereby cause bloat. Torsion of the
abomasum is not common, but if not treated immediately, can be fatal. A vet should
be consulted. Peritonitis due to a ruptured abomasal ulcer. Ulcers can be caused by
various Clostridia species. Again, consult a vet.
 Rearing replacement heifers
 Goal of a replacement heifers program is to rear heifers:

 To reach body weight early

 Initiate puberty
 Establish pregnancy and
 Calve easily at minimal cost

 Weaning
 Weaning should take place when a calf is growing well and consuming the starter, as
detailed above.
 Do not wean small or weak calves. When any changes are to be made, make them
gradually.
 Weaning later than 8 weeks of age is costly because the cost of milk or replacer is
more expensive than forage and concentrates.
 Growth rates remain limited as long as calves are fed a liquid diet.
 Weight gain increases considerably after weaning, provided the calf is well adapted to
a diet of solid food (starter and forages).

 Feeding and management from weaning onwards

1. Age at First Calving
 Once a calf is weaned, the objectives from 3 months until breeding should be: to
establish a desirable rate of growth, to feed the most economical sources of protein,
energy, vitamins and minerals, to ensure that the heifer does not get fat, thereby
having a deleterious effect on subsequent milk production.
 Sexual maturity and initiation of oestrus cycles are more dependent on: size and
weight of the heifer as opposed to the age.
 Rapid growth - will lower the age at which a heifer can be bred. It is now generally
accepted that the ideal age for replacement heifers to calve for the first time is 24
months.
 Body weight at first calving has a more significant effect on first lactation
performance than age. A useful guideline is that directly after calving, (not including
the weight of the calf and placenta) heifers should weigh 80 to 90% of the breed’s
mature weight.

2. Growth Rates and Target Weights

 In order for a heifer to reach 80 to 90% of its mature body weight by 24 months of
age a minimum daily growth rate is required.
 The first important target weight-for-age after weaning is when the heifer reaches
puberty.
 The onset of puberty is largely a function of body weight, usually reached when the
heifer reaches 40 to 50% of mature weight.
 Research has shown that a very high rate of gain pre-puberty leads to a reduction in
the heifer’s subsequent lifetime milk production potential. The reason for this has to
do with the development of the udder. The udder consists of three areas of milk
secretion and storage:
o The teat and udder cistern
o Large and small ducts
o The alveoli

 Poor pre-puberty growth also has a negative effect on heifers. Apart from the delay in
getting heifers into calf and therefore into lactation, underfeeding heifers for
prolonged periods pre-puberty leads to poor udder development and weak
reproductive cycles.

 Feeding from weaning to 6 months

 Once the calf is weaned, continue to house individually until 3 months old (space
permitting).
 At 3 months, heifers may be moved to group pens (either in the calf barn or in small
camps with shelters).
 Groups of 5 to 8 are a convenient, manageable size.
 If dehorning was not done at an early age, do not move and dehorn on the same day.
 Allow at least a week for the calf to adjust to the new environment. Minimise stresses.
 The heifer ration at this age should contain:
 Between 40 and 80% forage
 A calf growth meal or pellet with at least 16% crude protein and 10.88 MJ ME /kg
energy level.
 Calves housed indoors in group-pens: Ad lib good quality hay and some Lucerne
hay, if possible.
 Growth meal: 2 to 3 kg per calf per day.

1. Calves on pastures:
 Still provide good quality hay and some Lucerne if possible.
 Supplement concentrates at 2 kg per calf per day.
 Poor pasture should preferably be avoided at this stage. A complete calf ration should
be considered and fed ad lib.
 Remember to rotate camps often to prevent worm and parasite build up.

2. 6 to 9 months
 Calves kept “indoors” can be moved on to pastures in groups of 10 to 16 even-sized
heifers. Those already on pasture can be moved to bigger camps.
 Continue feeding as per the previous age group, but the amount of forage in the diet
may vary from 50 to 90%.
 As the heifers grow older, the concentration of protein in the diet can be decreased
and the concentration of fibre can be increased.
 Maize silage and grass silage can be introduced from 8 months of age, allowing from
5 kg per heifer per day on an as is basis.
 Poor quality forages fed to this age group must be adequately complemented with
concentrates and minerals.
 The crude protein in the concentrate will depend on the crude protein of the forage in
the diet.
 In KwaZulu-Natal, heifers are traditionally raised on roughages that have a protein
content ranging from 8 to 12% and energy values ranging from 7 to 10 MJ ME/kg dry
matter. Therefore, heifers older than 6 months (fed primarily on these forages) will
have a greater need for supplemental protein, than for energy. As a guideline the
heifer meal should have a crude protein of 16% with 10.33 MJ ME/kg, supplemented
at 2 kg per day. The concentrate must also provide adequate vitamins and minerals.

3. 9 to 15 months - premating group

 Feed 50 to 90% forage with 2 kg of a concentrate to balance the shortfalls of the
roughages used. It is very important that the heifer does not get fat during this stage of
growth.

4. 15 to 18 months - mating group

 This group should be kept as close to the dairy as possible, so that heat spotting and
bringing the heifer to the handling facility to be inseminated is made as simple and
stress-free as possible. The concentrate fed should have a crude protein level of 17%
and energy of 9.9 MJ ME/kg.

5. 18 months to calving
 These heifers, once confirmed in-calf, can join the dry-cow herd, provided there is no
competition for forages.
 Preferably keep separate from cows and feed as per the dry cows, but not limiting the
growth potential. For 8 weeks prior to calving, accustom the heifer to parlour routine
and treat and feed her as a dry cow or “steam-up”.

 Management of dry and lactating dairy cows

 Nutrient requirements vary with the stage of lactation and gestation. The early
lactation phase is the period from 0 to 70 days after calving.
 Milk production increases rapidly during this period, peaking at 6 to 8 weeks after
calving. Increasing concentrates by about 0.5 kg per day after calving will increase
nutrient intake while minimizing off-feed problems, e.g. lack of appetite and acidosis
(rumen acids increase which stops normal function and digestion).
 Feed intake can be increased and rumination stimulated by chopping the forage to
small pieces.
 Chopped forages are better consumed so that cows increase milk production, and also
reduces forage wastage. Peak period is between 70 to 140 days after calving, cows
should be maintained at peak production as long as possible.
 Forage quality should be high with intakes of at least 1.5 percent of the cow's body
weight on a dry matter basis per day to maintain rumen function and normal fat test.
Mid- and late lactation is 140 to 305 days after calving.
 This phase will be the easiest to manage in a dairy animal’s cycle because milk
production is declining, the cow is in-calf (pregnant), and nutrient intake will easily
meet or exceed requirements. Concentrate feeding should be at a level to meet milk
production requirements and begin to replace body weight lost during early lactation.

 Dry period
 Commences 60 days and ends 14 days before calving. A most important requirement
in this period is to meet calcium and phosphorus needs, but avoiding excesses.
Calcium intakes of 60 to 80 grams and phosphorus intakes of 30 to 40 grams are
sufficient for most cows.
 Dry cow feeding should not have above 0.6 % calcium and 0.4 % phosphorus (dry
matter basis), as this can substantially increase milk fever problems. Adequate
amounts of vitamin A, D, and E should be provided in rations to improve calf
survival, reduce placenta retention and milk fever problems (see cow diseases and
disorders).
 Trace minerals, including selenium should be adequately supplemented in dry cow
diets from livestock salts and feed additives. The transition or close-up period is 14
days before calving.
  UNIT 7: MILK SECRETION, MILKING AND MILK RECORDS

 Milk secretion (lactation)

 Lactogenesis is a stage where the body secretes and produces milk for the baby. In
humans, lactogenesis (referred to as the time when milk ‘comes in’)
 starts about 40 hours before the infant’s birth and is largely complete within five
days.
 During this stage, a profound and rapid series of changes in the activity of
differentiated mamary epithelial cells from a quiescent state to a fully active
secretory state occurs.
 Lactogenesis has 2 stages: the first stage, lactogenesis 1 occurs by mid pregnancy,
when the mammary gland becomes competent to secrete milk.
 The secretion of milk, however, is held in check by high circulating levels of
progesterone and estrogen.
 The second stage, lactogenesis 2 occurs around the time of delivery and is defined
as the onset of copious milk secretion.
 The hormonal changes during parturition and the subsequent removal of the
placenta act as a lactogenic trigger which is necessary for initiation of milk
secretion.
 For the ongoing synthesis and secretion of milk, continuous hormonal signals
received by the mammary gland (due to stimulation of teat and areola), relayed to
the central nervous system are essential to induce milk secretion
 Milk is secreted more or less continuously into alveolar lumens and stored until
the let-down reflex induces milk ejection where it exits through ducts into small
sinuses near the areola and then opens directly on the teat.
 Hence, a calf’s mouth placement during suckling is important so that these sinuses
are not blocked and ensure free milk secretion
 Milk let down
 There are two hormones that directly affect milk let down: prolactin and oxytocin.
 A number of other hormones, such as oestrogen, are involved indirectly in
lactation.
 When a calf suckles at the udder, sensory impulses pass from the teat to the brain.
 In response, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes prolactin and the
posterior lobe secretes oxytocin

 Prolactin
 Prolactin is necessary for the secretion of milk by the cells of the alveoli.
 The level of prolactin in the blood increases markedly during pregnancy, and
stimulates the growth and development of the mammary tissue, in preparation for
the production of milk.
 However, milk is not secreted then, because progesterone and oestrogen, the
hormones of pregnancy, block this action of prolactin.
 After delivery, levels of progesterone and oestrogen fall rapidly, prolactin is no
longer blocked, and milk secretion begins.
 When a calf suckles, the level of prolactin in the blood increases, and stimulates
production of milk by the alveoli
 The prolactin level is highest about 30 minutes after the beginning of the milking,
so its most important effect is to make milk for the next milking.

 Oxytocin
 Oxytocin makes the myoepithelial cells around the alveoli contract.
  This makes the milk, which has collected in the alveoli, flow along and fill the
ducts area I released through the milk let down reflex
 The oxytocin reflex is also sometimes called the “letdown reflex” or the “milk
ejection reflex”.
 Oxytocin is produced more quickly than prolactin. It makes the milk that is
already in the breast flow for the current milking
 Oxytocin starts working when a cow expects a milking or when the calf is
suckling.
 The reflex becomes conditioned to the cow's sensations and feelings, such as
touching, smelling or sounds associated with milking.
 It is important to understand the oxytocin reflex, because it helps in making milk
efficient.

 Milk let down reflex

 Milking systems
 Hand milking
 It is suitable for small herd size. It is of three types.
 Stripping: Holding the teats between thumb and forefinger and drawing it’s down the
length.
 This Process to be repeated in quick succession. Both the hands are used for holding
different teats and stripping down alternately.
  Full hand milking: Whole teat is held first with the thumb and the index finger encircling
the base of the teat.
 Teat is squeezed between the hollow of the palm and with the middle, ring and index
finger.
 This process is repeated in quick succession. Full hand method is better than the stripping
because it is quicker, produce natural suckling stimulation by the calf and causes less
irritation to teat by repeated sliding of fingers on teat.
 Knuckling: Many milkers tend to bend their thumb against the teat canal and drag the
milk out. This practice should be avoided as it is injurious to the teat

 Machine milking
 In large dairy farms machine milking is more suitable than hand milking because milking
consumes maximum labour hours.
 Machine milking ensures comparatively clean milk production. Animals are milked
smoothly and quickly and in uniform way thus increases milk production thereby
income.
 It requires less time for milking a large number of milk animals. Milking machines work
on the principle of vacuum.
 Basic components of milking machines:
 Vacuum system: vacuum pump and reserve tank, vacuum regulator, pipelines and long
pulse tube(s) forming an enclosed space.
 Pulsators: that alter the vacuum level around the teat so that milking occurs without fluid
congestion and edema of the teat tissues;
 Milking units or cluster: The assembly of four teat cups connected to a claw and mounted
with a valve that admits and cuts off the vacuum to the unit.
 Milk removal system that transport the milk away from the milking unit toward a storage
unit: the milk tube and receiver (bucket, recorder jar, milk pipelines, milk pump, etc.)
 Milking palours
 Milking Parlors on large farms operate for more than 20 h day−1 and cows are milked
three times a day.
 While no one design is perfect, the following factors will impact milking parlor
design and style:
o number of cows, group size, production level, and frequency of milking
o cow traffic pattern and number of groups
o initial investment, annual costs, and existing debt load
o labor cost, labor availability, and level of mechanization
o personal preference
 Rapid-exit parallel parlors (both parabone and side-by-side styles) and rotary parlors
are popular in larger dairy herds.
 Improved technology: including automated cow identification, automatic takeoffs,
predipping and postdipping, electronic detection of mastitis by milk conductivity, and
electronic tracking of treated or sick cows.
 Robotic milking is appearing in the United States, Canada, and western Europe, but
may be more economic for smaller herd sizes, areas with high labor costs, and/or
areas with family labor limitations.
  Parallel

o As the name suggests, cows stand parallel to each other in this design. So, if the cows
are standing side to side, that only leaves one access point for the milker to reach the
udder: the rear end! In parallel parlors, milking doesn’t begin until all cows are in
their stalls, and they are all released from the parlor at one time. Milking only takes
about 10 minutes.

o Tandem
 o Tandem parlor designs are not all that different from tandem bikes, in that the cows stand
nose-to-tail inside individual stalls.

o This gives the milker a side-on vantage point of the udder. Cows can be released one at a
time, too, so if one cow is moving a little slowly, all her friends don’t have to wait for her to
finish.

 Herringbone
 Herringbone parlors are the most common design used on dairy farms with smaller herds.
The cattle stand at a 45-degree angle.
 This design offers the milker a different access point to the udder than the parallel or
tandem designs, and also allows access for different types of equipment to be used.


o Rotary palour
o Rotary parlors are like carousel rides for dairy cows. The milking stalls are arranged
in a large circle on a platform that rotates slowly.
o Cows can walk in, and depending on the size of the platform, finish milking by the
time they’ve completed a lap or two.
o Rather than the milker having to walk around the parlor to attach the milking
equipment to each udder, they can stay in one place and let the cows come to them!
 Milk Records
 Proper management is the key to success in any enterprise, and the dairy business is
no exception. Each successful producer must have records which are accurate and
reliable to make sound management decisions.
 Records of identification and pedigree, production, feed, reproduction, health and
costs help producers:
 Cull the least profitable cows, feed for most efficient production, make precise
management decisions for greatest returns and select animals with the greatest genetic
producing ability for herd replacements and for breeding a better herd for the future.

 Purpose:
 The information that records provide serve many purposes. A few are as follows:
 Day to day management decisions and troubleshoot problems
 Financial accounting and taxes
 Measure progress
 Genetic evaluation
 Enterprise evaluation
 Aid recovery of stolen property
 Planning future actions
 Research

 Types of management records

o Production records: including kilograms of milk, fat percentage, protein percentage
and somatic cell count, are integral parts of any dairy management record system for
groups of cows and are best for individual cows. Also, feed records should be for each
group or cow and include feed inventory records.
o Reproductive records: should include calving, breeding and fertility data as well as
date of birth, date of all estruses or heats, breeding dates (including the sire used) and
results of veterinary checks (including pregnancy checks).
o Health records: should include all vaccinations, all diseases the animal has had and
the somatic cell count data from the analysis of the monthly milk records. Should also
include reasons for culling animals and problems on a specific day should also be
included in the records.
o Financial records: should include the price of the milk per hundredweight and allow
manipulation of the data to calculate costs per hundredweight of milk as well as
various other financial analyses. Financial records are now beginning to be used
extensively in production testing programs as well as in programs for consultants and
veterinarians. These summaries of financial records can provide a comparison which
indicates where herds may best make improvements as compared to similar herds
across the state.

UNIT 8: MILK COMPOSITION, PROCESSING AND QUALITY

CONTROL

 Milk composition
 Milk is a colloidal suspension of solids in liquid.
 It consists of:
o Water
o Carbohydrates
o Butterfat
o Proteins
o Minerals
o Vitamins
 Milk – contains high nutrient density. Nutrient density refers to the concentration of
major nutrients in relation to the caloric value of food
 Water = range: 85.5 – 89.5, mean = 87%
 Total solids = range: 10.5 – 14.5; Mean = 13%
 Fat = range: 2.5 – 6.0; mean = 4%
 Proteins = range: 2.9 – 5.0; mean =3.4%
 Lactose = range: 3.6 – 5.5; mean = 4.8%
 Minerals = range: 0.6 – 0.9; mean = 0.8%

 Carbohydrates:
o Lactose – major carbohydrate in milk, it is synthesised in the mammary gland
o 4.8% of cow’s milk is lactose
o 54% of the Solid Not Fat (SNF) content of milk
o Contributes 30% of the total calories in milk

 Proteins:
o Milk contains approx. 3.3% protein
o 38% of total SNF
o 22% of the calories of whole milk
o The proteins of milk are of high quality
o Contains various amino acids required by humans
o Lysine offset the low lysine levels in vegetables
o Casein – a major protein found only in milk
o It is approx. 82% of the total milk protein
o Whey protein, esp. lactalbumin and lactoglobulin form the remain 18%
o Immunoglobulins – antibody proteins

 Vitamins:
o All vitamins essential in human nutrition are found in milk.
o Fat–soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) are in the milk fat portion of milk
o Water soluble are in the non – fat portion of milk (C and B)
o Epithelial tissue in most animals
o Rumen micro–organisms
o Milk fat from Jersey and Guernsey cows has a rich, yellow colour due to carotene
o Carotene is a precursor of vitamin A
o Beta-carotene is an organic compound, as a carotene with β-rings at both ends, it is
the most common form of carotene

 Minerals:
o Milk is a rich source of calcium for the human diet
o Reasonable source of phosphorus and Zinc
o Ca and Vit D are needed in combination to contribute to bone growth in young
humans
o It prevent osteoporosis in adults (Women)
o Milk is not good source of Iron
o Iodine content of milk varies with the iodine content of the animal’s feed

 Factors influencing the composition of milk

 Lactation:
o Milk increase to the peak the first 3 months the milk fat is low
o The fat remain constant for the next 3 months after early lactation
o The fat content then increases gradually until the end of the lactation
 Age:
o As cow grow older an increasing decrease of fat content of milk occurs, as shown in
the following table.
 Oestrus and gestation:
o Results show that gestation suppresses high milk production after five months, and
therefore promotes a high butterfat content percentage.
o The effect of oestrus on the butterfat content shows no definite pattern. In some
animals the fat content increases while in the case of others its shows a decrease.
 Disease:
o Normally has a disadvantageous effect on both milk production and composition.
o In cases of mastitis, the fat content decreases while an increase in whey protein and
chloride content is noticed
 Inefficient milking:
o An inefficient milkier who cannot win the trust of the cow often makes the cow to be
nervous and is not able to milk out a cow completely resulting in retarded milk flow
and butterfat test to be detrimentally affected.
o Incomplete milking also occurs when the cow is upset during milking process, if the
milking machine hurts her, or if the last milk is left for the calf to drink
 Number of milking per day:
o Where cows are milked twice a day at regular intervals, there will be a little difference
between the fat % and milk yield of different milking times, even if the milk yield of
the morning is a little greater with slightly lower fat %.
o Where the milking intervals are uneven, the cows give less milk after the short
interval but the milk will have a higher fat content.
 Exercise:
o Over-exercise causes a considerable decrease in milk production. The higher butterfat
% which is obtained as a result of exercise does not justify the loss of total butterfat.

 Climate:
o Fat content may show a slight increase in warm weather (T above 30) or when
temperate drops below freezing.
o 10 – 20 % protein content decrease may be expected at (T above 27) while increase
may occur at (T below 0)
o Climate, rainfall and temperature exert an influence on the growth and composition of
plants and consequently also influence the quality of the roughages.

 Breed as a factor?

 Milk quality control

 Milk quality control is the use of approved tests to ensure the application of approved
practices, standards and regulations concerning the milk and milk products.
 The tests are designed to ensure that milk products meet accepted standards for
chemical composition and purity as well as levels of different micro-organisms.

 Why have milk quality controlled?

 Testing milk and milk products for quality and monitoring that milk products,
processors and marketing agencies adhere to accepted codes of practices costs money.
There must be good reasons why we have to have a quality control system for the
dairy industries.
 The reasons are:
o To the Milk Producers:
 -The milk producers expect a fair price in accordance with the quality of milk they
produce.
o The Milk Processors
 -The milk processors who pay the producer must assure themselves about the milk
received for processing is of normal composition and is suitable for processing into
various dairy products.
 (c)The Consumers
 -The consumers expect to pay a fair price for milk and milk products of acceptable to
excellent quality.
o The Public and Government sectors.
 -These have to ensure that the health and nutritional status of the people is protected
from consumption of contaminated and sub-standard foodstuffs and that prices paid
are fair to the milk producers, the milk processor and the final consumer.
 NB. All the above-is only possible if institution of a workable quality testing and
assurance system conforms to national or internationally acceptable standards.

 Quality control in the milk marketing chain

 At the farm
 Quality control and assurance must begin at the farm. This is achieved through
farmers using approved practices of milk production and handling; and observation of
laid down regulations regarding, use of veterinary drugs on lactating animals,
regulations against adulterations of milk etc.

 At Milk collection Centres

 All milk from different farmers or bulked milk from various collecting centres must
be checked for wholesomeness, bacteriological and chemical quality.

 At the Dairy Factories

 Milk from individual farmers or bulked milk from various collecting centres

 Within the Dairy Factory

 Once the dairy factor has accepted the farmer milk it has the responsibility of ensuring
that the milk is handled hygienically during processing. It must carry out quality
assurance test to ensure that the products produced conform to specified standards as
to the adequacy of effect of processes applied and the keeping quality of
manufactured products. A good example is the phosphatase test used on pasteurised
milk and the acidity development test done on U.H.T milk.

 e) During marketing of processed products

 -Public Health authorities are employed by law to check the quality of food stuffs sold
for public consumption and may impound substandard or contaminated foodstuffs
including possible prosecution of culprits.
 NB. All this is done in order to protect the interest of the milk consuming public.
 Milk processing:
 Whole milk, once approved for use, is pumped into storage silos where it undergoes
pasteurization, homogenization and further processing.

 Pasteurization:
 Involves heating every particle of milk to a specific temperature for a specified period
of time and cooling it again without allowing recontamination.

 Pasteurization is performed for two reasons:

 Ensure all milk products are safe for human consumption by destroying all bacteria
that may be harmful to health (pathogens).
 Improve the keeping quality of milk by killing or inactivating some undesirable
enzymes and spoilage bacteria.

 Types of Pasteurization
1. High temperature short time pasteurization
 Milk is heated to 72-76 degrees Celsius with a holding time of 15-20 seconds before it
is cooled. Along with correct cooling, and chilled distribution, pasteurized milk has a
shelf life of 5 to 21 days. Pathogens can be spread through faeces, water, soil that may
be on the cow’s udder, sores on the teats, or from the hands of the dairy worker.
 Microorganisms such as: Salmonella, Listeria, Yersinia, Campylobacter,
Staphylococcus, Mycobacterium bovis, Coxiella burnetii, Brucella, and E. coli are
killed or greatly reduced by pasteurization

2. Ultra high temperature (UHT)

 Milk is exposed to brief, intense heating to temperatures in the range of 135-140
degrees Celsius for only three seconds. UHT treatment is a continuous process which
takes place in a closed system that prevents the product from being contaminated by
airborne micro-organisms. The UHT milk passes through heating and cooling stages
in quick succession, then is immediately put into a sterile Tetra Pak shelf-safe carton.
This process avoids any re-infection. The end result is a product that lasts up to six
months without refrigeration or preservatives. This is known in the industry as aseptic
milk packaging.

 Homogenisation:
o Involves pushing the raw milk through an atomizer to form tiny particles so that the
fat is dispersed evenly throughout the milk, stopping the fat from floating to the top of
the container.
  UNIT 9: DAIRY CATTLE HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT
 Common diseases that may affect dairy cattle: Mastitis, Milk fever and Ketosis

 Mastitis
o Mastitis – this is infection of the mammary gland caused by any one of several
bacterial organisms.
o Symptoms vary with degree of inflammation. Acute cases show a swollen and painful
udder and frequently cause the cow to lose appetite.
o Chronic cases of mastitis have slightly swollen udder quarters and small flakes in
milk.
o No feed is known to cause or cure mastitis.
o However, a sudden addition of nutrients to the feeds provided might result in a
marked increase in production and cause more stress, and in turn, might cause
subclinical (below level of detection) cases of mastitis.
o For prevention of mastitis, consult a veterinarian. Feeding recommended levels of
selenium and vitamin E may be helpful.

 Milk Fever
o This condition occurs at calving and is caused by a sudden shortage of blood calcium.
o First sign is staggering, followed by difficulty in rising, and finally falling down and
being unable to rise.
o Cows are usually down with head turned back towards the flank.
o Delayed treatment results in death of cow or slow response to treatment.

o This problem can be minimized by feeding low calcium (less than 100 g) and
phosphorus (30 to 40 g) ration during the dry period.
o Cows that are prone to milk fever should be fed on a specific calcium deficient ration
10 to 14 days before calving, or add anionic salts to the ration.

 Ketosis
o Ketosis is a metabolic condition that occurs when intake of nutrients, especially
energy, is inadequate to meet production demands.
o It usually occurs a few days to six weeks after calving and in high-producing cows,
with the highest incidence occurring at about three weeks after calving.
o Most high-producing cows go through a subclinical type of ketosis in early lactation
when they are unable to consume enough energy to meet the energy output in milk.
o Cows with this disorder are known to have primary ketosis. The animals’ temperature
is not normally elevated in this case.
o An elevated temperature accompanying primary ketosis suggests additional
complications. Ketosis can also result from other problems that have occurred.
o Such problems as retained placenta, displaced abomasum, hardware, or any disease
which reduces appetite, may result in secondary ketosis.
o The cow’s appetite, especially for grain, is reduced prior to and during either type of
ketosis.
o When feed intake is low, animals will experience weight loss, rumen inactivity, and
constipation.
o The animals usually have a gaunt appearance and milk production is decreased.
o Cows may appear depressed, restricted in their movements, their hair coat may appear
rough, and their eyes may be glazed.
o Their breath may have a characteristic odour of ketones.
o Death from ketosis rarely occurs.