UNIT - 3

INTRODUCTION

The basic goals of language design are

o Precision o Compactness o Ease in writing and reading o Completeness o Speed in earning o

Simplicity to reduce errors o Ease of retention over time

Higher level goals include

o Close correspondence between reality and the notation o Convenience in carrying out
manipulations relevant to users’ tasks o Compatibility with existing notations o Flexibility to
accommodate novice and expert users o Expressiveness to encourage creativity o Visual
appeal

Constraints on a language include o Capacity for human beings to record the notation o The
match between the recording and the display media o The convenience in speaking

Computer programming languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, PL/I, and Pascal that
were developed in the 1960’s and early 1970’s were designed for use in a noninteractive
computer environment.

Command languages, which originated with operating systems commands, are distinguished
by their immediacy and by their impact on devices or information. 2 Users issues a command
and watch what happens. If the result is correct, the next command is issued; if not, some
other strategy is adopted x Command languages are distinguished from menu selection
systems in that their users must recall notation and initiate action.

COMMAND LANGUAGE FUNTIONLAITIES:

People use computers and command language systems to accomplish a wide range of work,
such as text editing, operating system control, bibliographic retrieval, database manipulation,
electronic mail, financial management, airline or hotel reservations, inventory, manufacturing
process control, and adventure games.

A common design error is to provide an excessive numbers of objects and actions, which can
overwhelm the user. Excessive objects and actions take more code to maintain, potentially
cause more bugs, possibly incur slower execution, and require more help screens, error
messages, and user manuals.

At an early stage, the destructive actions – such as deleting objects or changing formats –
should be evaluated carefully to ensure that they are reversible, or at least are protected
from accidental invocation. Designers should also identify error conditions and prepare error
messages.
STRATEGIES AND STRUCTURE:

STRATEGIES

Several strategies for command organization have emerged. A unifying interface concept or
metaphor aids learning, problem solving and retention.

In a simple command set, each command is chosen to carry out a single task, and the
number of commands matches the number of tasks.

The second option is to follow each command that indicate objects to be manipulated. The
commands may be separated from the arguments by a blank or other delimiter, and the
arguments may have blanks or delimiters between them. Commands may have options to
indicate special cases. The number of arguments, of options, and of permissible syntactic
forms can grow rapidly.

The Unix command language system is widely used, in spite of the complexity of its command
formats, which have been critized severely. Here again, users will master complexity to
benefit from he rich functionality in a system

In a hierarchical command structure, the full set of commands is organized into a tree
structure, like a menu .If a hierarchical structure can be found for a set of tasks, it offers a
meaningful structure to a large number of commands.

STRUCTURE

Meaningful structure is crucial for effective human learning, problem-solving, and memory.
Well-designed command languages should provide a clear and understandable structure that
users can easily encode in their semantic knowledge storage.

However, many systems fail to provide a meaningful structure, leading to confusion and
difficulties for users. For example, one operating system uses inconsistent commands for
displaying information (LIST, QUERY, HELP, TYPE) and moving objects (PRINT, TYPE, SPOOL,
SEND, COPY, MOVE).

To address this issue, designers and managers can benefit from explicit guidelines that
outline design conventions. Consistent argument order has been shown to improve
performance, and studies have demonstrated the superiority of congruent and hierarchical
command structures.

In summary, sources of structure that have proved advantageous include these:

o Positional consistency

o Grammatical consistency

o Congruent pairing
o Hierarchical form

Naming and Abbreviations :

Names play a crucial role in learning, problem-solving, and long-term retention. While smaller
command sets may be easier to master, meaningful and organized names become
increasingly important as the number of commands grows. This is evident in programming
tasks, where variable names have a greater impact on understanding and memory in larger
modules.

The debate over specific versus general terms highlights another important consideration.
Specific terms can be more descriptive but may be less familiar, while general terms may be
easier to accept but less distinctive.

While command names should be meaningful for human understanding, they must also be
compatible with the computer's input mechanisms. Commands that require complex key
combinations or special characters can lead to higher error rates.

Studies have shown that teaching abbreviations after users have mastered full command
names can actually improve accuracy and reduce errors, suggesting that a gradual approach
to learning abbreviations can be beneficial.

Several studies support the notion that abbreviation should be accomplished by a consistent
strategy. Here are 6 potential strategies.

o Simple truncation

o Vowel drop with simple truncation

o First and final letter

o First letter of each word in a phrase

o Standard abbreviations fro other contexts

o Phonics

COMMAND MENU

To relieve the burden of memorization of commands, some designers offer users brief
prompts of available commands, in a format called a command menu.

In command menus, users can use the mouse or arrow keys to highlight their choices, or can
type single letter choices, but frequently users do not even look at the menus as they type
sequences of 2, 3 4 or more single letters that come to be thought of as a command.

NATURAL LANGUAGE IN COMPUTING INTERACTION DEVICES:

INTRODUCTION:

Natural Language Interaction (NLI) is a field of computer science that focuses on enabling
computers to understand and respond to human language in a natural and intuitive way. This
technology has become increasingly prevalent in computing interaction devices,
revolutionizing how we interact with machines.

Natural Language Processing (NLP): This subfield of artificial intelligence involves analyzing
and understanding human language, including tasks like tokenization, part-of-speech tagging,
parsing, and semantic analysis.

Speech Recognition: This technology allows computers to convert spoken language into text,
enabling users to interact with devices using their voice.

Speech Synthesis: This technology enables computers to generate human-like speech,

providing auditory feedback to users.

1.KEYBOARDS AND KEYPADS

A keyboard is a peripheral input device designed to facilitate the entry of textual data and
commands into a computer system. It typically consists of a grid of keys, each representing a
specific character or function.

Traditional keyboards are limited in speed and require sequential key presses.
Chord keyboards offer a faster alternative by allowing multiple keys to be pressed
simultaneously.
Keyboard design and user experience also play a significant role in overall satisfaction.

The QWERTY layout has dominated keyboards since the 1870s, but alternatives like Dvorak
face adoption challenges due to the learning curve.

Ergonomic designs, such as split and adjustable keyboards, aim to reduce strain, though more
research is needed on their effectiveness.

Keyless keyboards and eye-trackers provide accessible options for users with disabilities,
enhancing comfort and computer interaction.

Modern keyboards have square keys with a matte finish for comfort and tactile feedback,
while membrane keyboards prioritize durability over feedback.

Key size and placement enhance usability, featuring larger keys for easy access and clear
labels for better accessibility.

Function keys and cursor movement keys are designed for efficient navigation, with features
like auto-repeat improving typing efficiency.
Keyboards now feature full-size, wireless, foldable, and virtual options, with cloth keyboards
lacking tactile feedback. Mobile devices improve typing with static and dynamic keys, using
methods like MultiTap and predictive text. Handheld devices often rely on touchscreens and
stylus input, with handwriting recognition and techniques like EdgeWrite enhancing
accessibility.

2.POINTING DEVICES

1. Pointing devices enhance usability in complex displays by enabling direct manipulation,

reducing the need for commands and minimizing errors, leading to faster performance
and greater user satisfaction.
2. The variety of tasks and devices creates a rich design space, with attributes like
movement and positioning offering useful categorizations while focusing on tasks and
directness as key organizing dimensions.

Pointing tasks

Select: Choosing items from menus or directories.

Position: Identifying points in various dimensions for tasks like drawing or moving windows.

Orient: Selecting a direction for rotation or motion control.

Path: Performing a series of positioning and orientation actions, such as drawing curves or
programming instructions.

Quantify: Specifying numeric values for parameters like page numbers or speeds.

Text: Entering and editing text, including tasks like centering and formatting.

They can be categorized into direct control devices (like touchscreens and styluses) and
indirect control devices (like mice and trackpads), with various innovative designs emerging in
each category.

Direct-control pointing devices

Direct control pointing devices are input devices that allow users to interact with a display by
directly manipulating elements on the screen.

The lightpen allowed screen selection but was prone to user fatigue and fragility;
touchscreens improved this with direct finger interaction.

Early touchscreens struggled with precision but have advanced to high-precision models for
better accuracy.

Stylus interfaces enhance user experience in tablets and mobile devices, supporting natural
handwriting and gestures.
Indirect-control pointing devices

Indirect-control pointing devices are input devices that allow users to interact with a display
by manipulating a separate control mechanism, which then moves a cursor or pointer on the
screen. This method does not require direct contact with the display, and examples include
mice, trackballs, and touchpads.

Mouse

Advantages: Low cost, comfortable hand position, precise control with finger
movements.
Disadvantages: Requires desk space, can cause arm fatigue, and needs some practice to
master.

Trackball

Description: An upside-down mouse with a rotating ball to control the cursor.

Uses: Common in control panels and video game controllers; can be mounted securely
for vigorous use.

Joystick

Function: Originally for aircraft, now popular in gaming; allows for easy direction changes
and combines with buttons for enhanced control.

Trackpoint

Feature: A small joystick embedded in keyboards for cursor control, allowing users to
keep their fingers on the home row while typing.

Touchpad

Convenience: Built below the keyboard, allows finger movement for both long traversals
and precise positioning without lifting hands from typing.

Graphics Tablet

Use: A separate touch-sensitive surface for drawing, allowing for comfortable hand
positioning and large workspace without blocking the screen.

Novel devices

Novel devices are innovative tools that offer new functions or improve existing technologies,
enhancing user experience and solving specific problems in unique ways.

Foot Controls: Allow hands-free operation but may be slower than traditional mice.

Eye-Tracking Technology: Detects eye movement for cursor control; accurate but can lead to
accidental activations.

Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Devices: Track spatial position for applications like VR, though
often less precise.

Data Gloves: Recognize hand gestures for 3D input; require training but useful for complex
interactions.

Immersive Interfaces: Enable 3D navigation without goggles, enhancing user experience with
gestures.

Haptic Feedback Devices: Provide tactile sensations to improve interaction, mainly in

specialized uses.

Bimanual Input: Utilizes both hands for multitasking, with the nondominant hand aiding
precision.

Tangible User Interfaces: Use embedded sensors to trigger digital actions through physical
objects.

Digital Pens: Capture handwritten notes for easy digital transfer, aiding collaboration.

Mobile Devices as Input Tools: Enhance interaction with computers and appliances through
gestures.

Custom Sensors for Accessibility: Enable users with motor disabilities to control systems
using simple movements.

3.Speech and Auditory Interfaces

Opportunities • When users have vision impairments • When the speaker's hands are busy •
When mobility is required • When the speaker's eyes are occupied • When harsh or cramped
conditions preclude use of a keyboard

Technologies • Speech store and forward • Discrete-word recognition • Continuous-speech

recognition • Voice information systems • Speech generation

Obstacles to speech recognition • Increased cognitive load compared to pointing •

Interference from noisy environments • Unstable recognition across changing users,
environments, and time

Obstacles to speech output • Slow pace of speech output when compared to visual displays •
Ephemeral nature of speech • Difficulty in scanning/searching

Discrete-word recognition-Recognizes spoken words with high accuracy (90-98%) after

speaker-dependent training, improving usability for individuals with disabilities.
Applications and Challenges: Useful in various fields (e.g., military, healthcare) but struggles
with background noise and similar-sounding words; full-sentence commands are still
developing.

Voice vs. Traditional Input: Speech input can enhance some tasks (like command selection)
but is generally slower and less precise than mouse or keyboard use, leading to higher error
rates.

Continuous-speech recognition- refers to technology that can understand and transcribe

spoken language in a natural, flowing manner without requiring pauses between words.

Continuous-speech systems struggle with unclear words, accents, and background noise,
causing errors.

Best Uses: They work well for tasks like dictating reports but aren't ideal for creative writing.

Successful Applications: Useful in media transcription and security voice identification, but
still face performance challenges.

Voice information systems-are interactive systems that use speech recognition to provide
information or perform tasks based on spoken commands.

Interactive Voice Response (IVR) provides automated phone services for quick info but can
frustrate users with complex menus.

Voicemail: Voicemail lets users manage messages easily, though using phone keypads can be
tricky. Digital recorders help store audio efficiently.

Learning Tools: Audio tours and voice notes improve learning by engaging senses, but editing
can be challenging, limiting use.

Speech generation-Speech generation appears in navigation systems and alerts but can be
annoying, leading to removal.

Assistive Tech: Text-to-speech tools help visually impaired users access information
effectively.

Best Contexts: Speech synthesis is effective for simple, urgent messages, especially when
users can't rely on visual cues.

Non-speech auditory interfacesare systems that use sound to convey information or

provide feedback without relying on spoken language.

Auditory outputs confirm actions and assist visually impaired users. Familiar sounds
(auditory icons) support visual cues, while abstract sounds (earcons) need learning. Sounds
indicate data changes and provide feedback, enhancing app interactions and gaming
experiences. Traditional music sets moods in interfaces, while touch-sensitive instruments
offer unique musical experiences, aided by advances in digital tools.

4.Displays: Small and Large

Displays are crucial for user feedback from computers (Luczak, Cakir, and Cakir, 2002;
Helander, 1987). Key characteristics include:

Physical Dimensions: Size and depth

Resolution: Number of pixels
Color: Range and accuracy
Luminance and Contrast: Brightness and visibility
Power Consumption: Efficiency
Refresh Rates: For smooth video and animation
Cost: Affordability
Reliability: Durability

Usage characteristics differentiate display devices:

Portability: Mobile use

Privacy: Individual interactions
Saliency: Attracting attention
Ubiquity: Availability for use
Simultaneity: Number of users at once

Display Technologies

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Bulky, older technology; good for static images.
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Thin, energy-efficient; common in laptops and monitors.
3. Plasma Displays: Bright, wide viewing angles; used for large screens.
4. LED (Light Emitting Diodes): Versatile, bright, used in large displays like billboards.
5. E-Ink: Paper-like displays; good for reading but limited in animation.
6. Braille Displays: Assistive technology for the visually impaired, featuring refreshable
cells.

Large Displays

Large displays, including TVs and projectors, improve productivity and come in three types:

1. Informational Wall Displays: Great for teams in control rooms to share and monitor
information together.
2. Interactive Wall Displays: Users can engage directly, using touch or special pens for
collaboration, like on digital whiteboards.
3. Multiple Desktop Displays: Connecting several monitors allows for more workspace,
making it easier to handle multiple documents and tasks.

Key Points
 Seamless Tiling: Creates large images without gaps.
Resolution Needs: Different resolutions are needed based on viewing distance.
Collaboration: Supports teamwork, both in-person and remote.
Display Management: Organizing displays can help reduce clutter.

Benefits

Large displays enhance sharing and collaboration, and their use is expected to grow as
technology advances.

Heads-Up and Helmet-Mounted Displays

Heads-Up Displays (HUDs) project information onto a transparent screen, allowing pilots or
drivers to receive data without looking away from their surroundings.

Helmet-Mounted Displays (HMDs) are used in virtual and augmented reality, providing
information that changes based on the user's head movements. Different models vary in
visual obstruction, audio features, and resolution.

Mobile Device Displays

Mobile devices, like smartphones and wearables, are increasingly used in personal and
professional settings. They support tasks like medical monitoring, collaborative learning, and
emergency response. Key points include:

Task Optimization: Designs should focus on common tasks, reducing complexity and data
entry.
User Interaction: Applications should be tailored for small screens, utilizing techniques
like zoom and visual overviews.
Accessibility: Mobile devices can assist users with disabilities through features like text-
to-speech and language translation.

Animation, Image, and Video

Advancements in graphics technology have enhanced digital displays with 3D animations and
high-resolution images. Key developments include:

Accelerated Graphics: Improved hardware enables better animations and video quality.
Digital Media Storage: Formats like CD-ROMs and DVDs allow extensive multimedia
storage, facilitating access to images and videos.
Streaming Technology: Techniques like MPEG allow efficient compression for real-time
video streaming.