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Complete Revision
and Practice

Me
 Contents

Pr ocesses

life Processes. and ‘Cells +. scech..- qatar tea tees Variation 2 seer Seer ae ether g aca ee ee 42
Five Specialised! Cells’ .:...:....:.coeimee: osnsneee
Zz Environmental and Inherited
PIARC-OPQANS. cone css ars -nnies cos eter: ee 4 VariagOn £0 ADIRIAlS «.4,.s05.0000%-vzavacsdecestee
eee 43
FIGARO GANS YStGI1S Bae ne Fe een oc. 7) Environmental and Inherited
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions ........... Jk VanaliGn I -RIAnTtS tite)ace ae ea ee 44
EXIT (QUCSU ODS. teemese eastern 52 aeekac Reena 8 WETICE os cco teaiaasesseieemias
tone eee ee 45
REVISION SUTWUIIAIY 7.sutadesk.ta.
0% eaten eee 9 SENSCHVE BI COCID Eases stad ction ame eae 46
Classification of Plants and Animals .............0+- 47
ISSR CV Ss c.xtau taken 0 8e cece ae eeeenea he Rae 48
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 49
BX aim Ques tlONMS eae encss ccs cc eenccecsss eens cane 50
NUEPIGIONT 2. 5 etter reeek te ee oe oa 10 REVISION SUBTITIQLY se secs 3n-30)en02is scene ac eae ee 51
DiQ@STION 5. feercceeie Rene te ae tee NG os poe 8 12
ADSORDUOTIN. TG GUL ieee vars epee: caveesk 13
Kidneys and Water Regulation .........c.ccccccee 14
Skeleton, Joints and MUSCIES .............cccccccececeee 15
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 16 VAC APCAN OWS. asd) cnet ie cae. ta cae ee ae eye
Exam Questions) ee ee 17 Sustainable Development .........:cccccescescereseseees 55
Growing Up: Sian ee tae recientes eras rae, 18 FOOU- CHAINS cc tate veaet nal ahh aie eee 56
ReproductiveuSy siento aecee rennet atte oe ee 19 FOOCIWEDSt a 4 atten es tucson 57
TheMenstrual GQ¥Glet ene hee eee 20 Pyramids OF INUOC tsa ce tad eee actrees 58
WghAVHOO GAD x.c30: tectren adeeb aah toate eh eh as 21 SURVIVAL 3 a, ot Papettcise are ee ee 59
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... BD Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 60
FEAF COUIOS HONS ca cstelecs cae meena earn, acs 23 EXAM QUESTIONS ncceterc oe re eee Se eee 61
Breathing. ....:.2i,Aepeecmemeas
Aare Pes) aa 24 REVISIOWSSUUTIAIV rate tehai eaten reset corte 62
RESP ATION: vaccatartnn
aneCaae Deceaemats cteee eee 26
SPOR: 4.02.wcyiasiltar ds asset ee tact MENG Re aoe 27 IX — am
FSR.) SRM Nr et saprh es Lene ee eater a 28 ssifying Mat
FIBMURE ISCAS hts eves oh cee Cee ne mney oo 29
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions ........... By SOlidS :LIQUIOS aNd GaSESe 1.5 ea wear 63
EX@NT! QUESTIONS tes ci insane teas: 32 PACU CIEST CORY ae eee ts oekceent hee 64
REVISION SURPGAGIY 3. ce. MPeaneevonianeecwee
deca ate 315) PRYSICQT CHAN GOS red. cles oe seater pone 66
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 68
Xam) QUESTIONS, x. .8is.c.. 0h ae ce 69
ALOTNSPANOMEICINGDIS asta. «1k - arent eee 70
COMPOUNGS: oc.2istadsk:.5.n ie ee 71
Plant Nutrition Naming COmpOUNnGS:..2.:1.5:..<:: aeeenerae ee iB
A Photosynthesis Experiment ......:c1ccccseeseeeeeee. 35 RAIRROTOSe sncc0h 22 pss ea ese a do 74
Plant: Growth .5.4::.. eee ee 36 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... Ve
Plant Reproduction aa8.<.29te...ce.e..
ee 37 ExXan? QUESTION Stine cae 3. ee. ee 78
Plant Fertilisation and Seed Formation ............ 38 PRODGIIES: OFNICRAIS Fics ag ta a ee 79
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions ........... 39 Properties of Non-Metals %.::.:s00ticttn ele 81
EXAM |
QUESTIONSd... ecoe ee a 40 Four Exceptions tO THe" RUTE (.oh.n ce testexescanneee 83
REVISION: SUMUTMOBY: ciiwwaint aco tecdotan de cantante 41 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions ........... 85
Exar Questions eigen cae eee 86
REVISIONP SUDIIARV 5cio. Sei 00203 onccenzcneas
cee 87
 Contents

Speed
By Sed CON COC cake eeagn eit an dcaioee dosed 88 Fore and Movenient...,.. cesium eee eden 129
OEINCAl REACT ONS 6h occcscdoes
ceesceadesleasEacscess 90 Air RESISEANCE anid FFICtiON ......ccdessescs0cs02s.scceess 130
Everyday Examples of Chemical Reactions...... i) FORGE: AO IOLAOME acct cunieonss code Meh COE: [32
eorogical Changes oF of 2mk 2. Mie eclac tes 92 OMGNG eeceo lenmts Ls Biyie -oe ekde B 333}
mK LVDCS... keen eis seer es ar ek 94 [GeO STET CRORE a UNE NL eS a 134
Warm-Up and Worked Exam Questions.......... 96 LRHES AN! FOMITONAG ae MS eels.
eee 135
Pd CU CSUON GP Hann a ee sero ieee Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 136
Revision Summary lesaVant ©WEAEOVTS me docoonabechcencene horton ee

Reactivity Series and Metal Extraction............. 99 Properties of Light

Reaction of Metals with Air .....:..:ccccccecceseseeee 100 TeSUiLS GSTS RUIN Ss SAC et ieee Re
Reaction of Metals with Water ..........:ccccc00e 101
Reaction of Metals with ACIS ........c.c00c0000000 102
PS MAGEMENL REACUONS wcieccsecicccseevesssstssersodeess 103
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 104 BATA a aaah ten san doce omen nde adaailhwsdauaerne
FEE OUCS TIONS i cdantsncsuse sesustaaaiesaechsososscacelous 105 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 146
EMME oa G8. ca eas sein all eae sac peatgers 106 EXIT QUEST
OM Sia ny ahere ec sd ta sescneee sont concent nee
GOSS SR ARID. a eR a 107 Revision Summary
2 ST SCT SR a a er Re ae 108
Useful Neutralisation REactiOns ..........0cccc000008- 109
Problems Caused By Acid Reactions ............... il
UAEPON SBINGS T ON: Geka OF SOE a ine:
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 114 Day and Night and the Four Seasons .............. 149
Pe OUCS OMG I... siasaswacna ideas dystaea maidesens US SCH ICSS ae ae Im Sid 2h oe A |
Bey ASIONQIES RUMP Y acca WO da nsssenaeneoaase!entenaes voces 116 SOLAT SVSTCITE: Sid Cem MM Ise hig cn sng tact 152
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 154
EXai Quest]
Oln Sanwa ener eee can es cacnscccees Abeer [55
REVISIONS UNITINGpVsrr ee cscs n enatcos anaes 156

mre Peete tet foc taions ond sein stldeustacoeatates pes Thirteen — 6
Bran CUNTENES, 11- CIRCUIES -...j.svs..0501
blhas denadeaete 118
LEDS COCLOTIS a Ree econ ORS ne a ae 120 BiBG FONTS OTM CR ON eran cere tae is atdeee ote er [57
AS CHES SS a ane a ee ee eed ae 121 Energy Transformation and Energy Transfer..... 158
eA ACLS eee ne phe cn adc aagatvogsangaves
deteaera 123 IG)OV MROS OMG rao tae a Ree cds. conch Pcennk en Loo
Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions........... 125 Generating ELCUACIEY aa eee dake tecyctatnen
sare<dienadeah 160
[Exe QUES
UOYA sects sles er ee 126 GCOSCRVAtOM OL EMR VI eA vicar eate tans senna 162
eee SUTUMIALY «cisvdenacaeon sesecedeerseatosense seems 127 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions ........... 163
FEXAne OUCST OSHC ae ROE ee atta. sc eee ee 164
REVISION SUMIMIAY Viemeraremcees,
ance eatneve eee ee 165

FRACUCE. ENGI Ine renee nen A a5 oes 166

ATS VV a a Rr ae ad 186
Published by Coordination Group Publications Ltd.

From original material by:

Paddy Gannon.

Editors:
Kate Houghton, Becky May, Jennifer Underwood.

Contributors:
Sandy Gardner, Josephine Horlock, Lucy Muncaster, Richard Parsons, Adrian Schmit.

With thanks to Ian Francis, Kate Redmond, and Paul Whiting for the proofreading.

ISBN-10: 1 84146 385 X

ISBN-13: 978 1 84146 385 8

Website: www.cgpbooks.co.uk
Printed by Elanders Hindson Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne.
Clipart source: CorelDRAW"

Text, design, layout and original illustrations © Coordination Group Publications, 2004
All rights reserved.
 SECTION ONE — Lifé PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY 1

El}=41adolor-¥-4-1-t-$r- |ale fOr)

|[=

There are seven things that all living organisms do — these are called “life processes”.
An organism is only alive if it does all seven life processes.

— Remember by the jollyism: “MRS NERG”

M — Movement Moving parts of the body.

R — Reproduction Producing offspring.
S — Sensitivity Responding and reacting.
N — Nutrition Getting food to stay alive.
E — Excretion Getting rid of waste.
R — Respiration Turning food into energy.
G — Growth Getting to adult size.

2) These can be seen through a microscope — but it helps if you stain them first.
3) There are two types of cell you need to know about: ANIMAL and PLANT CELLS.

BOTH HAVE: ONLY PLANTS HAVE:

1) A Nucleus: a 1) Cell wall:

This controls what ay fo A rigid coating
the cell does. made of cellulose
— it gives support
to the cell.
2) Cytoplasm:
This is a jelly-like stuff 2) Vacuole:
where all the chemical A large space
reactions happen. filled with cell sap
— a weak solution
3) A Cell Membrane: of sugar and salts.
This is a thin skin
around the cell — it
3) Chloroplasts:
holds the cell together SIZE: 40 times These contain
SIZE: about 1/100 mm. and also controls what as big as an
chlorophyll used for
goes in and out. animal cell.
photosynthesis.

| Welcome to the eighth life process — revision

| forgot to mention that one at the top, didn’t I. Live life to the full, prove to yourself
that you're alive... cover the page, scribble it all down and repeat until perfect.

SECTION ONE — Lif& PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY

 Five Specialised Cells
All cells are designed to do a particular job in an organism. This is called CELL SPECIALISM.

_1) The Sperm Cell— desi

rele i E

1) A sperm cell is very small and has a little tail

which provides movement so it can swim and
find an egg to fertilise.

2) Its head contains enzymes which allow it to

digest its way through an egg membrane so
the two nuclei can join. Nucleus
containing
chromosomes
3) It contains chromosomes in the nucleus —
these carry genetic information from the father,
which will be passed on to the offspring.

_2) The Ovum (egg) Ce

1) An ovum is large and bulky because no active
movement is needed — it just sits and waits
for sperm to find it.

2) It contains yolk which provides a large food

store needed for the developing young
Nucleus
Cu ;
organism, once it! F
it’s fertilised.
containing
chromosomes
3) It contains chromosomes which carry genetic
information from the mother — this will be
passed on to the offspring.

1) A palisade cell is tall with a large surface

area. It’s found on the top side of a leaf —
ideal for good absorption of light,
which is needed for photosynthesis. Nucleus

2) They’re packed with chloroplasts which

contain the green pigment chlorophyll, Chloroplasts
which is needed for photosynthesis.

SECTION ONE — Lift PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY

 Five Specialised Cells

1) Ciliated cells line all the

air passages in your lungs.

2) They have tiny hairs which filter

the air as it blows through.

3) The hairs sweep mucus with

trapped dust and bacteria up
to the back of the throat,
where it’s swallowed.

1) The long root hair cell

increases the surface area
| Soil particles | | of the root, which helps
Cell membrane absorption of water and
with thin cell wall ~
minerals.

2) It has a really thin cell wall,

which makes it easier for
minerals to Pass across into
the root itself.

Tissues,
1) A group of similar cells come together to make a tissue.
2) A group of different tissues work together to make an organ.
3) A group of organs work together to make an organ system, or maybe even a
whole organism. E.g. root hair cells make up root tissue, which makes up the
root “organ” system, which works with other systems to make up a plant.
SEs

There are five specialised cells to learn

You have to learn all the numbered points for each one — and the only way to do that is
first to sit and learn them, and then to cover up the page and write them all down again.

P ROCESSES
Sposa same:

AND CELL ACTIVITY

 Plant Organs

‘Main Plant Organs

The shoot is everything above the ground

The flower contains the organs of

plant sexual reproduction.
2) It attracts insects needed to carry
the pollen between plants to
allow pollination.
1) The stem is the organ — 3) It’s therefore really important
which holds the leaves for reproduction.
upright in the air and
facing the light.
2) It carries water and minerals
to the leaves, and food 1) The leaves are the organs
around the plant. of photosynthesis.
3) The stem is therefore , They make all the food
really important 4 » that the plant needs.
for nutrition, excretion 2) Leaves contain chlorophyll which
and growth. uses light energy to change CO,
and water into glucose.

3) They have tiny little pores

which allow essential CO,
1) The root is the organ 2 ‘a in, and waste gases out —
which provides anchorage there are no lungs.
for the plant — so it doesn’t blow 4) So leaves are really
away or fall over by accident. important for nutrition
2) With its root hairs it provides a big surface area to and excretion.
help take in water and minerals from the soil —
these are both essential for photosynthesis.
The root is everything below the ground
3) The root is therefore really important for nutrition.

1) All parts will be sensitive to the surroundings. The flower may move
to close at night. The shoot will grow and move to find light.
2) Every cell in the plant will respire and change glucose into useful energy.

_ You have to learn all these details

| Questions about the functions of plant organs are likely to crop up in the exams, so you need to be
| prepared. If you learn all the details on the page you can grab yourself some easy marks. Start with
_ the diagram, then add the four labels — then try to learn all the details that go with each one.
SECTION ONE — Life PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY
 Human Organ Systems
Remember those seven life processes? Well, what we have here are the nine main human
“organ systems” which make all those life processes happen.
An “organ system” is just a team of organs working together to do a job. Learn these nine:

3 oa

own This is for taking

food into simpler in oxygen and
substances so it can be Gullet removing waste
used and absorbed into carbon dioxide.
the body. Stomach RX!
2) Air enters the
2) It takes place in the Large lungs by
alimentary canal, intestine
movement of the
(food tube), mainly in rib muscles and
Small %
the stomach and itewalne diaphragm.
small intestine. 3) Fagen
3) Digested food is absorbed absorbed into
into the blood. the blood.

1) This removes nasty waste 1) The heart pumps the blood

materials from the body, some of around the body.
which are poisonous.
2) It supplies cells with
2) Waste material is
oxygen and food,
filtered out of the
then carries away
blood by the kidneys the wastes like
and made into urine.
carbon dioxide.
3) This is stored in the
bladder and released
via the urethra.

1) This is for producing

j offspring. oe Bone (pubis)
2) Eggs are produced by Bane
the ovaries in a female. (pubis) sat
SET
3) Sperm are produced by *
Opening
the testes of a male. of vagina |
They then try to
fertilise the eggs.

SECTION ONE — LiFE PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY

 Human Organ Systems

The five sense organs 1) This system produces chemicals

are: eyes called hormones and secretes them
ears, Nose | a. ey Eve (sight) into the bloodstream.
nose, (smell) = 9 A number of glands around the
tongue, Tongue N body produce these hormones.
skin, __(taste)|
Hormones control things like
They all contain nerves growth or sexual characteristics
which send messages and also bodily functions like
to the brain about oe menstruation.
what's happening.
The brain
produces a WAIN
response which jul ZS NN | a ees
it sends via WN!) | \\ | x Pancreas |
other nerves to
the muscles.
Spinal awe

There are 206 bones in Muscles are attached to

the human body. Their bones.
main job is support.
Muscles cause
Some bones (e.g. the movement when
skull) provide a tough they contract
barrier to protect and relax.
delicate organs like
Muscles are
the brain.
found in pairs
Muscles are attached to round a joint.
bones. They contract
and relax allowing
movement.

Nine organ systems to learn

There’s a lot to learn on this page and the one before it — and it’s all pretty grisly too.
OK, nine sections — start by learning the headings and diagrams for all nine of them
— until you can scribble them all out from memory. Then start iiling
fi in
in the details.

etait ase — fie earn AND vent Seon

 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions
Take a deep breath then ease yourself in gently with these warm-up questions.
Then attack the exam questions. The first one has been done for you, so there are no excuses.

What are the seven life processes that all living organisms carry out?
2) Name three structures that are found in both plant and animal cells.
3) How is a sperm cell designed to do its particular job?
What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?

1 The diagram below shows some plant and animal cells.

Each cell is designed to do a particular job.

These are the classic specialised

cells that you need to learn.
They're pretty easy to identify.

(1 mark)

(6) The main functions of two of these cells are listed below.
Write the letter of the correct cell next to each function.

Absorption of water and minerals.

Filtration of inhaled air and movement of mucus.

(2 marks)

(c) (i) Name two structures that are found only in plant cells.
PECEIIIWANED OS Dose ig. You could also say chloroplasts’
here,
but be careful with that one, as they're
DEV ACHONCWNS So) EOE, ee amen c me cale
(2 marks)

(ii) What is the function of the cell wall?

The..cell. wall. gives. support..to.the plant. cell..........

(1 mark)

SECTION ONE — LIFE PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY

 Exam Questions

2 There are nine major organ systems in the human body.

The table below shows some of the key organs from three of these organ systems.
(a) Write the organ system for each group of organs in the appropriate box.

(3 marks)

(6) What is the role of the endocrine system?

(1 mark)

(c) (i) Name four of the major organs that make up the digestive system.
(4 marks)

(ii) What happens to the food once it has been digested?

(2 marks)

3 The diagram below shows a sunflower. Four of its organs are labelled A to D.
(a) Write down the letter of the organ that is responsible for
absorption of light
holding the plant upright
attracting insects for pollination
water uptake
providing anchorage
excretion
sexual reproduction
(7 marks)

Name the process that produces glucose in the leaves of the plant.
(1 mark)

(ii) What special substance do the leaves contain to carry out this process?
(1 mark)

SECTION OnE — LiFe PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY

 Revision Summary
Revision Summary. What do you think that means then? 1’Il tell you what it doesn’t mean first shall
| — what it doesn’t mean is a page you glance at, marvel at how few questions you can answer, and
then move merrily on your way, never to visit it again. Oh no, no way. These tough questions
certainly aren’t the easiest you'll come across — that’s because they’re written especially for finding
out what you actually know — and, more importantly, what you don’t. And let's face it, what else
is revision about? You have to practise these Revision Summary questions over and over again.
You have to keep going through the whole lot of them to find out which ones you can’t answer.
Then you look up the answer somewhere in Section One and try to really learn it. Then you try all
these questions again to see if you can answer more than you could before. And so on.

) What are the seven life processes which all living things must do?
) Give a brief description of what each life process actually is.
) What is an organism?
) What instrument would you use to look at a cell? What can you do to help see cells?
) Name three parts that both plant cells and animal cells have. Say what each one does.
) Name three parts of a cell that only plant cells have.
) What does “cell specialism” mean?
) Give five examples of specialised cells and say what each one is designed for.
) Why do sperms need a tail?
10) Why do ova have a food store?
-11) What do cilia cells protect?
yi) Explain the meaning of a) tissue b) organ c) organ system. Give examples of each.
13) Name the four main organs of a plant and say what each one does.
14) Which part of the plant is important for reproduction?
15) Why are leaves so important to plants?
16) What's the name of the green pigment that’s present in all leaves?
17) Which part of the plant is important for anchoring the plant into the ground?
18) What two things do the roots take in?
9) What's the name of the process which goes on in every cell, releasing energy?
20) Name the nine major organ systems of the human body.
21) Give the main job of each of the nine major organ systems.
22) Sketch a diagram for each of these nine organ systems and put in all the labels.
23) Which system is important for breaking down food so cells can absorb the nutrients?
24) How many kidneys do we have? What do they do to the blood?
25) Name three important parts of the circulatory system.
26) What job does sperm have?
27) How many senses do humans have? List all of them.
28) What is a hormone?
29) Which system supports and protects the body?
30) ) What are muscles attached to?

SECTION ONE — LIFE PROCESSES AND CELL ACTIVITY

10 SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

Nutrition is what you eat — and what you eat is really important for your health.
A balanced diet will have foods from all of the seven groups below — make sure yours does.

These are like fuel for

is EX Wain your body. Active or
‘ growing folk need
Bread / potatoes / cereals Energy lots of carbohy /drate.
Starch

Proteins are vital for

growth and to repair
damaged areas.
Meat / eggs / fish Building Cells

™ Fats act as a store of

energy — which you
didiCisne in ap : & (Bivor use if your body runs
Butter / cooking oil / cream Energy
out of carbohydrates.

Vitamins are only needed in

very small amounts — they
keep many vital processes
Vegetables / fruit/cereal happening.

E.¢. ¥ lron Calcium Sodium lodine

Found in - a ra
5 ee > Seafood
uj

Needed for — Blood Teeth / Bones Nerves Thyroid in the neck

|Wtion Roughage gives your digestive system

an internal work-out keeping it fit,
healthy and working.

About 75% of your body is water and all

chemical reactions (e.g. digestion), take
place in water — it’s really important.

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 11

Nutrition

There are four main food tests that you need to learn for the exam.

Pils iodine solution added

te
to test solution
Brown iodine solution mixed with the food
will turn blue-black if there’s STARCH in it.
Solution turns blue/black
if starch is present

Add sodium hydroxide

solution followed by
weak copper sulphate
Test solution
| and sodium solution. If the pale
blue colour goes purple
yPurple colour
indicates protein
there’s protein in it.

BE.
ES —— |
Se ff

Mix the food with ethanol and then filter it.

Add the clear solution to water.
A white emulsion means the food has fat in it.

Test solution Shake Addto Milky colour

and ethanol water indicates lipid

Heat Benedict's solution

with the food —
test solution
——= rand Benedict's orange precipitate indicates
lution
simple sugars are present.

This page is packed with stuff that will come up in the exam.
Examiners ask questions about food tests all the time, so you’d have
to be crazy not to learn the information on this page.
SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS
12

Digestion is all about making large insoluble molecules of food into

smaller soluble ones — which the body can then absorb and use.
* oy

There are two steps to this. The first is quick, the second isn’t:
1) Breaking down the food mechanically, e.g. chewing with teeth:
2) Breaking down the food chemically — using biological agents called enzymes.

Digestion starts here where

the teeth have a good old chew (Oesophagus)
and mix the food.with saliva — Links the mouth
which contains a carbohydrase to the stomach.
enzyme to digest carbohydrates.
Amylase is the specific name for the
carbohydrase enzyme in saliva. 1) Here the food mixes with
rotease enzymes which
digest the proteins.
2) Hydrochloric acid is
present to kill bacteria
The liver makes bile which
and give a low pH for
emulsifies (breaks up) fats.
the enzymes to work.
It's also alkaline to give the
right pH for the enzymes in
the small intestine.

The pancreas makes three enzymes:

1) Protease digests protein.
1) This produces more enzymes 2) Carbohydrase digests
to further digest proteins, carbohydrates.
carbohydrates and fats. 3) Lipase digests lipids — i.e. fats.
2) Food is also absorbed
through the gut wall into the
blood, which then takes it
Here water is absorbed —
around the body to wherever
it’s needed. so we don’t all shrivel up.

Food often contains cellulose (plant material which we

can’t digest), so it’s stored as faeces. Here the digestion
story ends when it exits the anus — egestion.

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 13

pNos-told olivelaliiamaatsmeles
Once the large insoluble food molecules have been broken down into small soluble
molecules, they are absorbed into the blood in the small intestine.

90d Molecules C
1) Enzymes are used
to break up the oo ly SS ie aaa aa aaa
; molecules :
big ig an he
into | 1 | Carbohydrase
a Glucose & ra hd
small ones. eget enzymes and other simple sugars, e.g. maltose

2) These small molecules

a
oe Amino acids 2%. 4
can pass through the | enzymes
gut wall into the blood. oes Civcerol
They then pass into —— = At ommetiods
cells and are used. aera Fatty acids

AS a molecules
Ge Rs > diffuse into
i |
N |Absorption the blood ...
“pe aI
cy: =P (Digestion Wf he >
‘SS, out again
a » cid somewhere
Small intestine

SPRUE OO Se ———— BS RADA ESSE

Villi are tiny finger-like projections which

line the small intestine.
Villi are perfect for absorbing food because:
1) They have a thin outer layer of cells.
2) They have a good blood supply.
3) They provide a large surface area for absorption.

You need to absorb all these facts

As usual, the headings carry quite a lot of information, so as a first step you need to memorise
the headings. Then there’s just the small matter of learning all the details that go with them.
Get an image in your head of the whole page and gradually learn the details as you scribble.

SECTION TWO — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

14

Kidneys and Water Regulation :

The kidneys form part of the excretory system, one of the major human organ systems.
They’re really important because they remove waste substances from the body.

CCST a on IELTS OO TO

After the cells have used all the The Kidney System
nutrients supplied by the blood,
they put all their waste material
ne Pol
back into the blood. | “Gi

It’s then the job of the kidneys | Renal ‘i ||

to filter it all out — so we don’t
get poisoned. \|
ie
“8

There are three different things ff

|
—\1,—-
ss
SV
that kidneys do:

Proteins can’t be stored, so

the liver turns them into fats
and carbohydrates.
2) Urea is a poisonous waste
product of this process.
3) It's removed by the kidneys
and comes out in the urine.
(It’s released in sweat too.)

lons like sodium need removing if there are too many

of them knocking about after eating salty food.

The amount of water going to the bladder is controlled by the kidneys.

The kidney has three main roles

You just need to learn the three roles — removing urea from the body, removing ions from
the blood and regulating water. Make sure that you learn all the labels on the diagram too.

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 15

Skeleton, Joints and Muscles

The Human Skeleton

Sas
Mandible Cranium
1) Bone tissue is both hard and flexible.
+e ; Clavicle Backbone
2) It’s/ very rigid and tough so it can protect (collarbone)| $e Sete
delicate organs — in particular the brain. a (breast bone)
a+ I Humerus
“3 pie fl Ulna
eS ee |
1) The skeleton provides a rigid frame for the im raeals vl Be
rest of the body to kind of hang off — a bit Phalanges vue nN
. . [Metacar}
acarpals| y i ys Occyx

like a custom-made coat-hanger. Fou

Patella==
2) All the soft tissues are supported by the Kec
skeleton — this allows us to stand up. Fibula
nae i Tarsals
A ise Metatarsals
iy ws Phalanges
1) Bones ae rigid and solid.
This means muscles can be attached via tendons.

There are three types to know about:

Donna SSS ESSE

Immovable Slightly Movable Freely Movable

You can’t move them. You can move You can move them — loads.
e.g. the skull. them — a bit. e.g. the knee.

e.g. the spine.

— can be damaged if
you play too much sport.

Antagonistic Muscles
in the Upper Arm
1) eeisti meine nee irsafof“ ae...
muscles that work against each other. ae oe Ml
2) One muscle contracts (shortens) while the Rous,
| “Triceps
other one relaxes (lengthens) and vice versa. relaxes
Ulnal
3) They are attached to bones with tendons.
This allows them to pull on the bone,
which then acts like a lever (see p. 132.)
4) One muscle pulls the bone in one direction and the other pulls
it in the opposite direction — causing movement at the joint.

SECTION TWO — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions
Make life easier on yourself by trying these warm-up questions before you plunge into the dark _
world of practice exam questions. We've answered the first exam question for you to try and
make things a bit clearer.

Warm-up Que
1) Name the seven food groups that are needed for a healthy and balanced diet.
) Why do we need to digest our food?
3) Name the two types of digestion that occur.
) Which organ cleans the blood?
) What are the three functions of the skeleton?

Nico and Daisy were testing some food samples for starch.
They took some samples of each food and dropped a special solution on them.
They then recorded their observations in the table below.

Result Contains
(colour) starch, Y/N

Coreals and grains

sources of starch.

(a) Fill in the third column in the table to show which foods contain starch.
(3 marks)

(b) Name the solution that Nico and Daisy used to test the foods for starch.
lodine solution
tee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee

(7 mark)

(1 mark)

(d) Nico and Daisy then tested the same foods for protein.
Name three of the foods that you would expect to contain protein.

Oe ee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee cere eee eee ee ee ee

Food that comes from animals is usually high in protein and so are some beans and nuts. (3 marks)

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 17

=p
€ Ta @lUlst-jale)
ats

_—small intestine
large intestine \
~ rectum NOT TO SCALE

(a) Draw a line pointing to the oesophagus and label it O.

(1 mark)

(6) Give two functions of organ F.

(2 marks)

(c) The small intestine is responsible for the absorption of digested food.
It has millions of villi to help with this process. State three ways in which
villi are adapted to help with the absorption of digested food.
(3 marks)

(d) What is the name of the organ that produces bile

to break down fats in the digestive system?
(1 mark)

3 The diagram to the right shows the human skeleton.

(a) Draw a line from each of the labels to
an example of that type of joint.
The first one has been done for you.
|| Slightly movable joint (2 Marks)

(6) Joints have muscles attached to them.

fi\Freely movable joint
What is the function of the muscles?
Underline the two correct answers.
to clean the blood to cause movement
to store energy to make blood
(2 marks)

(c) Joints are usually lined with cartilage. In a disease called osteoarthritis, the
cartilage can be worn away. This causes severe pain when the person
moves around. Use your knowledge to suggest why you think this is.
(2 marks)

SECTION TWO — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

18

Who’d be a teenager — spots, hormone surges, shape changes,

mood swings, shaving... it’s a hard life.

1) Puberty happens when you’re between about 10 and 18.

2) It’s the phase of your life when all these lovely things start happening:

1) Qvaries start to release eggs.

1) Sex organs get a bit bigger.
2) Qvaries start to produce
2) Testes start to produce sperm and hormones. Shanes:

3) Pubic hair grows. 3) Pubic hair grows.

4) Hair grows on the face, chest and armpits. 4) ‘Menstruation starts.

5) Voice deepens. 5) Breasts get larger.

6) Behaviour changes. 6) Behaviour changes.

Touch receptor |
ee SS |

ds& " gland

|Hair erector muscle Capillary~

network

1) Spots are caused by sebum blocking pores.

2) In adolescence oil glands tend to produce a lot of sebum — an oily substance that
lubricates the skin and hair. This tends to block surface pores, causing spots.
3) Regular washing helps remove dried sebum, which reduces the number of spots.

_ This page gets you easy marks in the exam

| have my suspicions you won't have too much difficulty remembering most of this stuff.
Nevertheless, don’t miss those easy marks. You might get asked to list five changes
that sweep over boys and girls at puberty. If you don’t make sure you learn all
those listed above, you could be throwing away easy marks.
Semanal vias — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS
 Reproductive System
The main function of the reproductive system is to produce offspring.

1) Sperm are made in the testes, all the time after puberty.
2) The penis becomes erect as blood rushes into the erectile tissue. (See the diagram below.)
3) Sperm mix with another liquid (released by the glands) to make semen
which is ejaculated from the penis during sexual intercourse.

Head of penis
: Foreskin
)\ |(may be removed)

k<=| Scrotal sac (scrotum)

‘Ee male Repr

eof
1) One ofthe two ovaries aaa an egg every 28Bcate
2) It passes into the oviduct (or fallopian tube) where it may meet sperm, which has entered
the vagina during sexual intercourse (sometimes known as copulation).
3) If it isn’t fertilised by sperm, the egg will die after about a day and pass out of the vagina.

Fallopian tube
(or oviduct)

When you’ve stopped sniggering you'll notice that this isn’t very complicated stuff.
It’s really just a matter ofaplcamines!the giaeramsialandidicpowing which bit does what.

cones vex: — Sey ASaiicaanuatl

20

The Menstrual Cycle

MenstrualC
From Suna anne nace underees a manthle sequence of events which are
collectively known as the menstrual cycle.
2) This involves the body preparing the uterus (womb) in case it receives a fertilised egg.
3) If this doesn’t happen, then the egg and uterus lining break down. They’re then lost
from the body through the vagina, usually over a period of three to four days.

Jere are Four Stages of

The main events are summarised in the diagram below. Make sure you know
what happens and when it happens throughout the 28 day cycle.

STAGE ONE } STAGE TWO ee

THREE STAGE FOUR
FOUR
Lining of uteru Li f ,
_breaks down | aA |eon
ieleaee pie tate

Bleeding starts as the lining of the uterus (the womb) breaks down and passes
out of the vagina — this is what’s known as menstruation or “having a period”.

The lining of the uterus starts to build up again. It thickens into a spongy
layer full of blood vessels ready for implantation. (See p. 21.)

An egg is released from the ovaries of the female, so this is the

most likely time in which a female may become pregnant.
(This day may vary from one woman to the next.)

The wall remains thick awaiting the arrival of a fertilised egg.

If this doesn’t happen then this lining breaks down, passing out
of the vagina. Then the whole cycle starts again.

_ Female or otherwise, you’ve still gotta learn it

As for menstruation, there are quite a few details to learn here. Don’t be content with some
half-hearted attempt at it. You really must make sure that when you've ‘finished’ you know
exactly what all four stages are — and exactly when they occur. Also make sure you can
write down the whole diagram with all itsdetails entirely from memory.
Semesees —— — elas AS Gianna
 atc alale pr:le=t-]
0)

The egg is fertilised when the

Fallopian tube
released from (egg tube) nuclei of the egg and sperm join.
an ovary Fallopian tube | [Fallopian tube|
(around day 14).

Millions of sperm
— from the man’s penis into The fertilised egg is
About one week the woman’s vagina called a zygote.
after fertilisation, during intercourse.
the embryo starts to
embed itself into
the wall of the uterus.
When it’s completely 24 HOURS after fertilisation
embedded, it’s called the fertilised egg divides into
IMPLANTATION. two. After about 4 DAYS the
egg has divided into 32 cells.
It’s now called an embryo.

The body is about

The Placenta 25 mm long and is
This lets the blood of the completely formed
foetus and mother get very The embryo is 6 mm long — it’s now called a
close to allow exchange of FOETUS.
food, oxygen and wastes. and has a brain, heart, eyes,
The amniotic fluid gives ears and legs.
protection against knocks

Umbilical cord

The foetus c 54 mm
long and looks much
more like a baby.

It’s now about 160 mm long. It kicks

and its finger nails can be felt.

The foetus is 370 mm long and is ‘viable’.

This means it would have a fair chance of
The baby is about 520
surviving if it were born at this stage.
mm long. It’s fully
developed and ready
to be born.

SECTION TWO — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

22

VEVanatselomr-latemm aiCola <-Xoim=>¢[email protected])a(e)

al
OK, so the reproduction section isn’t as interesting as you thought it might be but you still need
to learn this stuff. The menstrual cycle is especially complex so make sure you spend some time
learning it. When you think you’ve got it do these questions to test yourself.

p Que a
-u
Warm

What does the term ‘adolescence’ mean?

List the changes that happen to boys and girls as they go through adolescence.
On which day, approximately, will an egg be released from the ovary, during a ‘normal’ 28
day menstrual cycle.
State one function of the placenta, as the embryo develops inside the mothers uterus.

Worked Exam Q
1 (a) From adolescence females undergo a monthly sequence of events which is
known as the menstrual cycle. Choose words from the list to complete the
sentences below: Make sure you learn all these terms
— they are important for the exam.
copulation ovulation fertilisation implantation
menstruation egg cell ovary oviduct
vagina uterus middle end

The menstrual cycle begins as the lining of the.....UZ@LUS..... breaks down and
passes out of the ....... VAGINA......... . This is called ..mengtruatian. .
Immediately after this has happened another ......... PGGGAU e028 starts to.
mature: it will be released at about the......... WAGERS. tu. of each cycle.
This is called .....QVvUlatian............
(6 marks)

(OF
aie —
Describe three other ways in which a girl’s body will
change as she goes through adolescence. Questions like these are fairly easy
— allyou need
1 Behaviour chan ges to do is learn the lists of changes on page 18.

2 PVCASTS : GROWe iia. ih ee ee eee

(3 marks)

(c) Boys’ bodies also change during adolescence.

List two changes that happen to boys and not to girls during this time.
1..lestes start. to produce. sperm and hormones.........
2 VOICE: AGRPeENG..... ne... ne ae
(2 marks)

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 = €:1a0 mn@1U(=t-y
40) a=

2 The diagram below shows the female reproductive system.

Fallopian tube
(oviduct)

Womb
(uterus)

(a) (i) In what part of the female reproductive system

does fertilisation usually take place?
(1 mark)

(ii) Underline the correct definition of fertilisation in the list below:

When an egg cell is released from the ovary
When the egg and sperm meet
When the nuclei of the egg and sperm join
When the egg and sperm attach to the uterus wall
(1 mark)

(b) After how many weeks of pregnancy are human babies usually born?
(1 mark)

(a) The different reproductive organs are named in the table below.
Using the diagram, write the letter for each organ next to its name.

Fem |
Cm
a
(b) A hormone is produced in the male reproductive system during and
after adolescence. Name the organ in which this hormone is produced.
(1 mark)

SECTION TWO — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

24

Breathing

The lungs are just perfect for absorbing gases: 1) They have a big surface area.
2) They’re moist.
3) They have a good blood supply.

Soft palate.

e } |rachea
(wind pipe)

1) Some of the oxygen in the inhaled air passes into the bloodstream to be used in respiration.
2) Carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration.
In the lungs it passes out of the blood and is then breathed out.

Air in
|| and out

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 siccreuialiale

The bell jar demonstration shows us what's going on when you breathe:

es) a
rusnes in : *Y
— — = lenernt
[ ‘bushesout
Balloons fill up
lik
ike lungs loons deflate

relax back up

) First you pull the rubber sheet down — this represents your diaphragm.
) This increases the volume inside the bell jar.
3) Air rushes in to
fill the extra volume — this is like breathing in.
) Let go of the plastic sheet — this is like relaxing your diaphragm.
) The volume in the jar gets smaller, so air rushes out.

The chest cavity is a bit like a bell jar.

2) The diaphragm moves down and Breathinin|
g Breathing out
the ribs move up. This increases (inhaling) ee
its volume so air rushes in. Ribs pulled
Z: = \
up and out
3) When the diaphragm moves up by muscles
< and the ribs move down, Diaphragm pulled Vom |
air rushes out. down by muscles Diaphragm relaxes rw |
making the chest — chest volume =~
volume bigger gets smaller

Air entering Air leaving There’s less oxygen and more

% % carbon dioxide in exhaled air,
Oxygen 21 £7 because oxygen is used up and
Carbon dioxide 0.04 4 carbon dioxide is produced in the
Nitrogen AS AS body (see p. 26).
Water vapour _ Varies High
Other About 1% About 1%

SB geleciana eR ENR
Learn how breathing works and make sure you understand how that bell jar demo relates to
your actual lungs. Practise in the usualoe Be Us: it all down from memory

ae rox:— iciVhis AS eT a
26

| Re2spiration is |
ensues is the!way that cell makenenergy ie focal
| ) Respiration is a chemical reaction which happens in every cell of every plant and animal.
) Aerobic respiration is when glucose (or other sugars) react with oxygen to release energy.
) The reaction produces carbon dioxide and water as by-products.
BR
Nd
W ) The bloodstream transports glucose and oxygen to the cells and takes the by-products away.
5)) Respiration is not breathing — breathing is simply taking air into the lungs.

You need to learn this

equation really well

+ Energy

6CO. 2 + 6H,O + Energy

Liquid caught
in tube is
condenses boiled
from } at 100°C
to show that
it's water
indicator Heaw

1) If you exhale into. 2) The exhaled air 3) You prove that the 4) The carbon
the tube, the water then goes into the liquid is water by: dioxide in the
vapour in your tube with the breath turns the
a) collecting enough to
breath cools and bicarbonate check Eee loose bicarbonate
condenses in the indicators in it. Nee seer ears aaa yellow — quicker
‘U’ tube. A lot of This tests for Or than if just air was
this water is carbon dioxide. —_) adding it to blue cobalt bubbled through.
produced by the chloride paper — if it (Limewater could
san Rea of your goes pink it’s water. also be used.)
ody cells.

The energy that is created in respiration is used for nearly all the biological processes
that take place in the body’s cells. Examples are movement, repairing damage, growth,
keeping warm and cell division.
SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS
 Taito) diare]

Some of the disgusting grot that comes out of To vacuum

cigarettes can be observed by drawing the cigarette pump
=
smoke through clean glass wool. =
2) The results show the wool quickly gets stained with Glass'U'tube Nice white |
lass wool |
horrible black tar. The thermometer shows a rapid AVA
4
increase in temperature as well.
3) One of the great unsolved mysteries of our time is why there are we eee en ~as
still so many people who take up smoking and destroy their Disgusting grot
lungs with disgusting black grot.

Causes of Death in UK
(most are linked with smoking)
Is an addictive drug that makes the heart beat faster, narrows the
arteries and so causes high blood pressure. This leads to heart disease.

This coats the lining of the lungs making them less able to take in
oxygen. It also contains carcinogens which cause cancer.

3) q Can

This is a poisonous gas which joins up with red blood cells,

making them incapable of transporting oxygen around the body.

2) Stained teeth and a, , Ke el 6) Heart disease.

horrible smelly breath. (te ‘
7) Emphysema
3) Mouth and
(shortness of breath).
throat cancer.

4) Lung cancer.

5) Stomach cancer. than everyone else.

Learn this page — it's like a breath of fresh air

Well there are quite a few picky details on this page which all need learning.
They may well ask you some details about the nasties in cigarette smoke
and what kind of health problems they can cause.
 th is more tha
Con health isa situation mere youl‘Te2 fine both physically and mentally.
That means having both of these:
1) A healthy body that’s all working properly with no diseases.
2) A healthy mental state where you're able to cope with the ups and downs of life.
You should look after your body by eating a balanced diet,
doing enough exercise, and not abusing drugs.

1) dhl
A isean inet ee a way thé foul ilies
E.g. they may increase the heart rate or cause blurred vision.
There are legal drugs and illegal drugs.
Aspirin, caffeine and antibiotics are examples of legal drugs.
Cannabis, speed and ecstasy are examples of illegal drugs.
Most medicines contain drugs — but not all drugs are medicines.
E.g. Hot lemon cold remedies may contain the drug paracetamol, to reduce the cold
symptoms — but vodka contains the drug alcohol, which is not a medicine.
Tobacco contains nicotine which again is a drug, but not a medicine. (See p. 27.)

Solvents Alcohol
Solvents are found in most homes — 1) Alcohol is found in beers, wines and
in things like paints, aerosols and glues. spirits. It’s illegal to buy it under -—
They’re drugs because they cause the age of 18.
hallucinations, which are It’s a depressant drug, despite the fact
illusions of the mind. that it may give an uninhibited feeling.
Solvents usually
; have a severe effect It’s a poison which affects the brain and
on behaviour and character. liver, leading to various health problems.
They also eure
cause serious damage to the It impairs judgement, which can lead to
lungs, brain, liver and kidneys accidents. It can also be addictive.

Ecstasy and LSD are hallucinogens. Ecstasy can give the feeling of boundless energy
which can lead to overheating, dehydration and sometimes death.
Heroin and morphine were developed as painkillers. However they turned out to be
highly addictive. They can both cause severe degeneration of a person’s life.
Amphetamine (speed) and methedrine are stimulants. They give a feeling of
boundless energy. However, users quickly become psychologically dependent
on the drug, (i.e. they think they need them), so behaviour and character deteriorate.
Barbiturates are depressants. They slow down the nervous system and therefore
slow down reaction time. They can help sleeping but they’re seriously habit-forming.

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 uke]
alafave mB) f-y-¥- by-1

ion where the workings of the human body change for the worse.
When microbes get inside the body they can cause disease, making you feel ill.
Not all diseases are infectious (caught) — the body can just malfunction, e.g. diabetes.

Protein 'head' with

genetic information
Viruses are the smallest
microbes, (1/1000 000 mm).
They are a strand of genetic information
with a protein coat.
Protein tail
They invade living tissue and take over cells,
making them manufacture millions of copies
of the virus.
They can release poisons, making you feel ill.
Antibiotics don’t affect them.
Examples of viruses: colds, flu, chicken pox,
german measles, polio.

Bacteria are larger, (1/1000 mm).

) They’re living cells and are found in most places.
They grow and reproduce very rapidly.
Some are harmless but others cause disease.
They attack body tissue or release poisons, making you ill.
Antibiotics do affect them.
Examples of bacteria: food poisoning, tetanus,
whooping cough, sore throats.

| You need to learn what bacteria and viruses do and how they differ. You might find it easiest
to draw a table to compare them directly. Don’t forget that not all bacteria are bad news.
Quite the opposite — they’re really useful in the right place.
SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS
30

Fighting Disease

‘Microbe.
White cells, quite literally, gobble up at i
microbes — which sorts them out, good
and proper. rene
on
surface

Antibodies neutralise the microbes.

They also cause microbes to clump
together, so they get gobbled up.

White blood cells neutralise the poisons.

Passive:
Antibodies are passed on from the mother to the offspring via placenta or breast milk.
2). Active:
Antibodies are made by a person when microbes infect their body.

1) Active: 2) Passive:
A vaccine containing harmless, dead A serum with antibodies already in it
or modified microbes is injected into is injected directly into a person to
a person, causing antibodies to be help them fight an infection.
made by the body, ready for when a
real infection happens.

There are some important points on this page

Just learn the three main ways that white blood cells protect us, and the different kinds of
_ immunity, and you should be able to tackle the questions without too much trouble.

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions
___ Right, you've read the pages which is a good start —
o now you need to practise for the exam by doing these questions.

Why is it important to have a good blood supply going to the lungs?

What is the name of the process in which our bodies use glucose to release energy?
Name three harmful ingredients in cigarette smoke.
Give six diseases caused by smoking.
If bacteria get inside our bodies they can make us ill.
Which part of your blood will try to destroy the bacteria?

1 Smallpox is a disease that is caused by a virus. It can make you very ill and
even kill you. A person who catches smallpox, however, will not be given
antibiotics to help them get better.

(a) Why won't a doctor give somebody who is suffering

with smallpox antibiotics to help them get better?

Because smallpox is a virus and antibiotics have...

a la es SO er eer ee ere eee

(1 mark)

(b) People are offered vaccinations (injections) to protect them from serious
illnesses such as smallpox. The vaccine might contain a modified microbe,
but not actual live viruses. Vaccines are an example of artificial immunity.
(i) Why is the actual virus not used in a vaccine?
Because it will give the person. the iGo...
(1 mark)

(fi) How will the vaccination make the person immune to a virus?
I rr eee eer eee ete

I ee ee eee Cee ee eee eee

(2 marks)

(iii) A newborn baby can have immunity to viruses for a

short time without being vaccinated. Explain why this is.

Antibodies
are passed from. the.mother's.Plood.......00..00...
to the baby’s blood through the. PIAGEntAe cece
This is an example of natural immunity. (1 mark)

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 Exam Questions

2 The diagram below shows the chest cavity.

One of the lungs is drawn in section to show the air sacs.

(a) Which gas enters the blood from the alveoli (air sacs)?
(1 mark)

(b) Which gas leaves the blood to enter the lungs at the alveoli (air sacs)?
(1 mark)

(c) The lungs are adapted to absorb gases.

Give two ways in which they are adapted to this function.
(2 marks)

(d) Evidence suggests that smoking is bad for the health, particularly
the respiratory system. This includes the heart, lungs, blood
and the vessels that carry the blood.
The list below shows three substances present in cigarette smoke:

nicotine carbon monoxide gas tar

Write the name of the substance next to its effect on the human body
in the table below.

Causes addiction to smoking and can lead to

heart disease through narrowing of the
arteries.

(3 marks)

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

 Revision Summary
Well, there’s a lot to learn in Section Two — all you ever wanted to know about human beings,
and a good deal more besides | should think. Now what you've got to do is make sure you
learn it all. And here again for your enjoyment | have prepared some more of those splendid
questions. | didn’t say exciting questions — just splendid. Remember, you have to keep
coming back to these questions time and time again, to see how many of them you can do.
Remember, all they do is test the basic simple facts.

) Name all seven of the main food types in a balanced diet.

) Say what each food type is important for in the body.
3)) For each of the seven food types, give three examples of foods which contain them.
) Name the four important food tests.
) What does digestion do and why is it important?
) Name eight main bits of the alimentary canal.
) Say what goes on in each of the eight bits.
) Why can’t big molecules pass through cell walls? What has to happen to them first?
9) Name three different digestive enzymes.
10) Describe how a villus is designed for its job of absorbing food into the bloodstream.
11) Give three jobs that the kidneys do.
12) What would happen if we didn’t have kidneys?
13) Give three functions (jobs) of the skeleton.
14) Give the scientific name for a) jaw, b) collarbone, c) fingers, d) skull, e) kneecap.
15) ) Name the three types of joint. What are the differences between them?
16) ) What are antagonistic muscles?
17) ) Explain in terms of “muscle contraction” how you can move your arm up and down.
18)) List six changes that boys and girls undergo during the nightmare of adolescence.
2 19)
I What causes spots?
| 20)
20) Where are sperm made? Where are eggs made?
21) ) Outline the four main stages of the menstrual cycle and say when they happen.
22) ) What exactly is fertilisation? Why is it so important to life?
23) ) List five things which must happen before a human embryo can start to develop.
24) ) Describe what an embryo looks like at:
1 month, 9 weeks, 3 months, 5 months, 7 months, 39 weeks.
25) Explain how the bell jar demo compares to how we inhale and exhale air.
| _ 26) What is respiration? Write out the word and symbol equation for respiration.
27) How could you show that water and carbon dioxide are made in respiration?
28) What is also released in respiration? Why is this important and what's it used for?
29) List three nasties found in cigarettes and detail what health problems they cause.
30) What does being healthy mean? Give three ways you could ensure a healthy life.
31) ) Explain the difference between natural and artificial immunity.

SECTION Two — HUMANS AS ORGANISMS

34 SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

Plant Nutrition :
Think about this: plants make their own food — it’s a nice trick if you can do it.

— capes rn 8 ESO

1) ProSenseisacmeat processGuintas ales cucann in every green ste

2) Photosynthesis basically produces food — in the form of glucose, (C,H,,O,).
3) The plant can then use the glucose to increase its biomass — i.e. to grow.
4) Photosynthesis happens in all the green bits of a plant but mainly in the leaves.
) Plants then use aerobic respiration (see p.26) to get energy from the food they’ve made.

earn the Equat

Cee Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
Gal felceyolanval
BCO, - + GHD 2 CHO = 60,

2)Chloro phy
green stuff which
changes water and G| ucose
carbon dioxide into ste ch o
glucose and oxygen.

4)Carbon dioxide
diffuses in through the holes
(stomatal pores).

— The moreanesthere is, the

faster the rate of photosynthesis.

— Too little water makes

photosynthesis slow down.

— The optimum temperature is around 30 °C.

Photosynthesis still works fine up to about 40 °C.
But once you get much above 40 °C it slows down a lot.
— If paraffin is burnt in a greenhouse the CO, levels increase and
so does the rate of photosynthesis — which increases growth.

SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

 35

A Photosynthesis Experiment
Whenever a plant’s in strong light it’ll photosynthesise and produce glucose.
It immediately converts the glucose into starch, which is easier to store.
You can test whether part of a plant has been photosynthesising — by simply
testing to see if there's starch in it. This is the almost legendary starch test...

The idea here is to deprive part of a plant of either light or carbon dioxide for about a day and
then test for starch. We test using iodine which goes black if it comes in contact with starch.
Study this experiment carefully and learn all the details.

*) Sodium hydroxide
X | solution removes
carbon dioxide

Put the plant in darkness for Leave the plant in light for 24 hours with:
Boil the leaves in water
24 hours to get rid of all the Part of leaf 'A' covered with black tape.
for a few minutes,
starch from all the leaves. Leaf 'B' in a flask where there's no carbon dioxide.
to break down the cell walls.

Soak the leaves in warm alcohol Dip the leaves in water

to make them go colourless. to soften them.

If the iodine stays brown then there’s no starch present — which means that part of
the plant was not photosynthesising — due to a) no light, or b) no carbon dioxide.
3) The bit of the leaf that was covered in black tape didn’t get any light, and the leaf
in the flask had no carbon dioxide. So those bits didn’t photosynthesise,
which is why they didn’t have starch present.
4) In fact if you remove either light, or carbon dioxide, or water, or chlorophyll you will
effectively stop photosynthesis.

This ts a classic experiment — just learn it

OK. Get it straight in your head. Photosynthesis makes glucose which turns quickly into
starch. You can test if there’s starch in a leaf using iodine. If you deprive bits of a plant of any
one of the four essentials then it won’t photosynthesise and the iodine will stay brown. Easy.

SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

36

Plant Growth |
Plants grow using food they make themselves by photosynthesis. But to keep healthy they need
three important minerals which they get from the soil through their root hairs.

-R xotHairs take in V
Root hairs sive a ies
surface area to give good
absorption. | Cell membrane g SHS setae acuole_
with thin cell wall Pree a
:
2) They have a thin cell membrane ae
which also helps a lot with oot hair cells
absorption.
3) They take in water and three hi Om |

"0" wholeofpl
Water go
es to
essential minerals: ant
a) nitrates nerals and water absorbed
b) phosphates
Cc) potassium

Nitrates,, phosphates <ana potassium aareRS three rer minerals

needed by plants. If a plant doesn’t get these from the soil,
it shows a DEFICIENCY SYMPTOM:

Deficiency
Symptom
Nitrates provide nitrogen which is A small plant
needed for making proteins. with yellow
older leaves.

L eee Deficiency
Phosphates provide phosphorus Symptom
needed for photosynthesis — Poor root growth
and respiration. mS and purple
younger leaves.

Es as Deficiency
Potassium helps biological agents Symptom
called enzymes to work properly.
These enzymes are needed for Yellow leaves
photosynthesis and respiration. with dead bits.

There are a few fiddly details on this page

Plants manufacture their own food in their leaves — they hardly need soil at all. They don’t
get ‘food’ from the soil — just a lot of water and tiny traces of these important minerals —
in prineiple, even a whole tree pan be grown fo a 0 ylei water.
aon Takce — sedSake PLANTS AS Crensne
 SY

leatclalom acs)e]golel
(eid oyal
You need to know about how reproduction in plants happens for the exam.

The sta- men- Ss arecane The female parts of the flower.

male parts of the flower. They consist of the
They consist of the anther —< i.
(which contain pollen grains Jy style and
— the male sex cells) a ovary.
and the filament oe
The ovary contains
the female sex cells.

These are Baas brightly coloured. . JRE abe

They attract the insects needed for These are greenPatna leaf-like.
pollination. They protect the flower in the bud.
They’re found below the main petals.

To make a seed, a pollen grain and an ovule must “meet up”.

To do this pollen must get from a stamen to a carpel. This can happen in two ways:
1) Self Pollination — pollen is transferred from stamen to stigma on the same plant.
2) Cross Pollination — pollen is transferred from the stamen of one
plant to the stigma of another plant.

Insect Pollination Wind Pollination

Features of plants with insect pollination: Features of plants with wind pollination:
1) Bright coloured petals. 1) Usually small dull petals on the flower.
2) Scented flowers with nectaries. 2) No scent or nectaries.
>) Sticky stigma to take the pollen off the 3) Long filaments hang the anthers outside the
insect as it goes from plant to plant to flower so a lot of pollen is blown away.
pasa aespectaries: 4) Stigmas are feathery to catch pollen
Pollen is ae and has alee Bias as it’s carried past in the wind.

Learn this page by copying ‘the diagrams and the lists.

Copy the diagrams then shut the book and add as many labels as you can. Keep repeating it ‘til
sc canIn getthem all. Then learn the lists about ‘pollination and you Mlbe ready forthe exam.

SECTION Thee — Ghee BDons AS Ceonneer

 Plant Fertilisation and Seed Formation
The fun isn’t over yet — you also need to know about fertilisation and how seeds are dispersed.

Pollen grain

Pollen grains land on a ripe stigma with anefrom insects ene 7

or the wind. A pollen tube then grows down | Male sex cell
through h thethe style style to
to thethe ovary
ovary. | | i | ae
The nucleus from the male sex cell then moves down
the tube to join with a female sex cell (an ovule) in the Malone
ovary. Fertilisation is when the two nuclei join. travelling to ovary
The ovary develops into a fruit and
Female nucleus |
each fertilised ovule forms a seed.

After the ovule has been fertilised, it grows into a seed.

Each seed contains a dormant embryo plant.
The embryo has a food store which it uses when
conditions are right — i.e. it starts to grow or “germinate”.
The ovary grows into a fruit which can tempt animals to Nias 5)
eat them and so scatter the seeds in their waste. ——

‘eed Dispersa
Bee are digg or spread out soet benecan grow without too much competition from
each other. There are three ways in which the seed can be dispersed:

Barelion fruit: Sycamore fruit. Tomato fruit. Burdock fruit.

| “&@
Parachutes Wings help it fly Fruit gets eaten. Hooks catch The pods dry
catch the wind. away from the Seeds come out —_ animal coats. out and flick
parent tree. in the droppings. the seeds out.

The oon cual Gian ‘ie dormant inti the hogiions pound
it are right for germination. There are three things that need 'r
to be just right for the seed to start germinating:
1) Temperature Seer
TR ates WHEN THESE ARE ALL SUITABLE, — ir-and ctsre-Rect deveorsl Saat
AIT
CONEMONS
3) Enough water
SOXYBEN GERMINATION STARTS
ee
togrow using | and takes | to
store of energy in water

SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions
Photosynthesis is one of those really important topics that’s just bound to come up in the exam.
Make sure you’re prepared to answer questions about it.

What four things are needed for photosynthesis?

What three minerals does a plant need to remain healthy?
What part of the flower develops into the seed after fertilisation?
Name the three methods that plants use to disperse their seeds.
HRS SSE ERE on So OSE EESSE En eS eee eee Ss

The leaves of plants absorb light for photosynthesis.

(a) Write the word equation for photosynthesis using the words below.
oxygen carbon dioxide water glucose :
It doesn't matter which way round |
you get the words, as long as they're

(2 marks)

(6) Rob planted some marigold plants in his garden. He planted some under the
tree and some in full sunlight. The plants in full sunlight grew much better than
those under the tree. Explain why the plants grew better in full sunlight.

The.marigalds. under. the.tree.would.have.less.water...........

.and.sunlight..sa. their. rate.of photosynthesis.would.............

(2 marks)

(c) Rob planted some new marigolds in his greenhouse. He noticed

that they grew much faster than the plants outside, even though
they received the same amount of sunlight and water.
(i) Suggest a reason for this.

(1 mark)

(ii) Rob said that the marigolds in the greenhouse had more biomass than
the marigolds outside in the garden. What does biomass mean?

Lhe. total. mase.of living.organisims.in an.area.

(1 mark)
Remember that the minerals
potassium, nitrate and phosphate
are also essential for plant growth.

SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

40

Exam Questions

(a) Chris and Jim were talking about fertilisation in plants.

Chris said that “fertilisation in plants happens when
the pollen grain lands on the stigma’.
Jim said that “fertilisation is when the nuclei from
the ovule (egg) and pollen grain actually join together’.
Who is correct, Jim or Chris?
(1 mark)

(b) The sentences below can be rearranged to describe the stages that must occur
if a plant is to reproduce successfully. Number the steps 1 to 6 to show the
correct order of these events. The first one has been done for you.

The nucleus of the pollen grain joins with

the nucleus of the egg cell (ovule).

Pollen grain lands on the stigma.

The ovary develops into a fruit with the seeds inside

The nucleus from the pollen grain

moves down through the tube.

A pollen tube grows down through

the style to the ovary.

(4 marks)

3 Jen found a packet of seeds in her garage. The packet wasn’t labelled, so Jen
decided to plant the seeds to see what kind of plants grew from them.

(a) What three things are needed for seeds to germinate?

(3 marks)

(b) After two months some small plants that had flowers
with bright yellow petals grew from the seeds.
Suggest a reason why the plants had bright yellow petals.

(1 mark)

(c) After the plants had flowered, Jen noticed some seed-heads
covered in little tiny hooks on the plants.
Describe how the hooks would help the plant to disperse its seeds.

(1 mark)

SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

 Revision Summary
Green plants are ace — what | really like about them is that they’re all so clean and fresh.
Human and animal biology always seems to end up so gory with all sorts of gruesome
diagrams and horrid diseases. But plants have such simple lives — they just seem to “go with
the flow”, with no apparent discomfort and no worries — and let’s face it, it’s a nice trick if
you can do it. Alas, nature conspired to give humans a more “challenging” experience on
this little planet of ours — and somehow that’s ended up with you needing to know the
answers to all these questions. Anyway, here they are. Off you go then...

1)) What is made during photosynthesis?

) What do plants do with glucose?
) Write out the word and symbol equations for photosynthesis.
) How do oxygen and carbon dioxide move in and out of the leaves?
) How do plants take in water?
) What is the by-product made in photosynthesis which is needed by animals?
) Describe how water supply affects the rate of photosynthesis.
) Describe how light levels affect the rate of photosynthesis.
) What is the optimum temperature for photosynthesis?
10) How does burning paraffin in a greenhouse help plants photosynthesise?
11) What do plants convert glucose into, so that they can store it?
12) How would you get rid of all the starch from a plant's leaves?
13) What do you use to test for starch in plant leaves?
14) What two features of root hairs make them well designed for absorbing nutrients?
15) What are the three essential minerals needed by plants to keep them healthy?
16) What are each of these three minerals needed for?
_ 17) Describe the symptoms of plants growing in soil without each of these essential minerals.
| 18) What parts are in a plant’s stamen?
19) What parts are in a plant’s carpels?
20) Why do some plants have brightly coloured petals?
21) ) What is the difference between self pollination and cross pollination?
| . 22) ) Describe the features of plants which use insect pollination.
23) ) What is fertilisation?
24 ) How does the pollen get from the stigma to the ovary?
25) What does the ovary eventually develop into?
~ 26) ) What does a fertilised ovule develop into?
27) ) Name two plants that use wind dispersal to scatter their seeds.
28) ) How do pea plants disperse their seeds?
29) ) What three things are needed for a seed to germinate?

SECTION THREE — GREEN PLANTS AS ORGANISMS

 SECTION FOUR — VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND. INHERITANCE

VEVatshiteyal

iriation just means Li

Se aT eS

All living things in the oi are diftrent — we sayYakon ne variation.

Teeny-weeny bugs and huge elephants show obvious differences.
But other variation is less obvious and hard to spot, e.g. a person’s blood group.

A human, a cow, a dandelion and a tree all look different

because they're different species. These differences between
species occur because their genes are different.
But you also see variation within a species — plants or animals which
have basically the same genes will also show differences between them,
for example in skin colour, height, or flower size. Any difference between
individuals of the same species is known as a characteristic feature.
Characteristic features can be inherited (come from your parents via genes)
or they can be environmental (caused by your conditions and
surroundings) — see p. 43. Most are a combination of the two.

Explain the difference between your brother and a slug. |

It seems a bit daft when someone asks you to explain the difference between two organisms,
but you do actually need to be able to ue it in terms of seu

SECON Four — VARIATION, PT AND TIHEREINICE

 =a\ige)alaat-vaitlecclavela lalatciaic-ve ma
Cclaetive) mle Valli eles

We inherit genes from our parents, and with them

come a combination of both our parents’ characteristics.
This is inherited variation.
Environmental variation is all to do with the effect of
“upbringing”. People often say ‘we're all a product of our
environment’ — which just means that our abilities and the way
we look and behave depend, at least partly, on our upbringing.
Identical twins each inherit exactly the same genes, and
obviously these control most of their characteristics.
However, one twin could, say, become much heavier if they
exercised a lot less. This would be environmental variation.

w Animal Characteri

=]
ee
1) Normal hair colour

2) Eye colour

The four characteristics shown above are pretty much

the only ones which are not affected at all by environment
(i.e. upbringing). Every other characteristic of animals
(and humans) is affected by a MIXTURE of
GENETIC and ENVIRONMENTAL factors.

E.g. weight, skin colour, academic ability, athletic prowess, etc.

There are some things that we just can’t change. Learn the difference between
environmental and inherited variation, and be ready to give examples of both.

SECTION FOUR — VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND INHERITANCE

44

=tabvdicelalantcvaltclarslarem lalatsiaic-em s-larchilele miei aat-lans

1) Plants inherit characteristics through their genes just like animals do.
2) But plants are usually affected much more by their environment than animals are.
In particular, plants are affected by these four important factors:

| ) Temperature
2) Sunlight
3 ) INAeyisiae las
4 ) Yell acere)aveliare)ars

Just a little more light or warmth or water may double the size of a plant
— whereas any animal would be barely affected by the same changes in environment.

Plants are more affected by environmental variation —

Plants are generally more influenced by the environment than animals are, but inherited
characteristics play a big part too. Learn these four environmental factors really well.
SECTION FOUR — VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND INHERITANCE
 Falatclabeclaters
You can blame your parents for most of your weird characteristics...

Inherited characteristics are controlled by genes.

A gene is a set of complex chemical instructions.
Each gene controls some detail of ‘how to build a human’.
Genes are found in chromosomes which in turn are found
in the nucleus of all of our cells as shown below.
Human cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
Genes work in pairs, one being inherited from each parent.
One is often dominant over the other.
There are different genes for every characteristic,
e.g. hair and eye colour, hairiness, etc.

1) Sperm and egg cells carry only 23 chromosomes.

_ 2) A fertilised egg contains 23 matched pairs and so develops
into an embryo with a mixture of the parents’ characteristics.

| | Some important details

to learn on this page Obetund dst |
There’s quite a lot to learn here. The numbers 46 and 23 could turn out
to be “sensforpou ifeon learn what mney salou before the exam.

mee ear — VARIATION, Se ANDpal tuenmieas

46

Selective Breeding
Selective breeding is where humans try to develop particular
varieties of plants or animals with favourable characteristics.

lective Breeding prod }

1) All it nee is selecting the best santaorPeninate from the
existing stock and breeding from them. The idea is that the \\ Ee |
offspring will also display the favourable characteristics. Ve
2) The process is repeated using the offspring with the best characteristics. Fie
3) This eventually gives rise to new varieties with exaggerated characteristics.
Selective breeding is usually done to benefit humans in some way.

here are Three In

Disease or frost resistant crops can .

be developed, e.g. winter wheat. dal eide
Marquis wheat, a pee aionas ce
developed to cope with Canadian frosts

2) Pedigree dogs are bred for fashion, or to exaggerate

certain behaviour, or to improve intelligence.

Domestic livestock are

selectively bred to
produce more milk or
better, tastier beef.

Watch Crufts to see what selective breeding did to wolves

There are three examples for you to learn for the exam.
Write them down, check your answers and then test yourself again.

Coatan eisai— VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND INHERITANCE

 47

0] FEESJi ifer- Lie) aloyme=dFla ccue-lale My

Naliia¥el
Living things can be classified into a number of groups (taxonomic groups), as shown below.
The basic idea is sensible enough, and most living things fall into quite obvious groups.
The trouble is, you end up with an awful lot of different groups and subgroups, and far too
many of them have weird-looking names, which doesn’t really help.

Living Things

Plants Animals Maer Protoctista

Protozoa |
Basen Filamentous
Blue-green eo
algae
Invertebrates (no backbone)

ciel eee atelaeey a Nici

worms
Molluscs Roundworms _Coele terates

gg Arthropods

eo ee Graces
Chordates ee li
Vertebrates
(have a backbone)

nee

aS 2
Vascular plants
Bowens plants Non-flowering plants

- Monocotyledons Dicotyledons Club mosses _ | Gymnosperms

Mosses Liverworts y Py 2 sori fi)

You wouldn't be expected to know the whole thing of course, but it’s important to be
basically familiar with the diagram as a whole. The kind of question you might be asked
is which group you would expect a particular plant or animal to go in.
However, the more of those fancy words you can get familiar with, the better.
Two that you definitely should be clear about are vertebrates (animals that have a backbone)
and invertebrates (animals that don’t).

Make sure you’re familiar with this diagram

Spend a bit of time trying to learn the overall diagram, just enough to give you a good
feel for how the whole thing hangs together. Then test yourself and do it over again.

SECTION FOUR — VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND INHERITANCE

 Using Keys
Keys are used to identify living things according to their characteristics,
like how many legs they’ve got, what size they are and what they eat.

Ree

1) A kay EER a series“ty pif leeeH all Pet two possible answers.
2) The two answers divide a group into two parts.
3) Further questions continue to divide the group up until you are just left with one creature.

Take one creature at_a time and go through the questions for that creature only.
Follow the instructions on each question for whichever answer is true,
e.g. if the answer to Question 1 is “No”, then follow the instruction and go to Question 2.
Carry on answering the questions until you name _a creature.
The best way to understand how to use keys is to practise — there’s one for you to try below.

porpoise plant porcupine panther

1) Does it have spines? YES, then it’s a ..porcupine...

NO — go to 2.

2) Does it have green leaves? YES, then it’s a

NO — go to 3.

3) Does it have fluffy fur YES, then it’s a

and eat bamboo? ssasserseaees NO — go to’ 4.

4) Does it live in water? si" , ..YES, then it’s

Metis MaIN@ -— 20 tO 5,

5) Is it a carnivore (does it eat meat)? 6... ..ssssese.

YES, then it’s a
agen —then ierilst-bera: Sm

Answers: ‘sid= 9 ‘ayjued= g‘asiodiod=

‘epurd= ¢ evel=¢ ‘auidnoiod= |

Keys are simple to use

Keys are a good opportunity to get some easy marks in the exam. All you need to do is
_ learn the meniga on this page and make sure ual remember it if it comes lin Sitnpley

SECTION Fite = VARIATION, Ginisniearan AND INGE

 49

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

If you don’t take time to warm up you're risking some serious brain-strain. So take a look at
these quick questions and get your mind nice and supple on some of the basic facts.
Then launch yourself slowly into the exam questions and enjoy.

Give four environmental factors which affect how plants grow.

How are the genes organised in the nucleus of a human cell?
Why do humans selectively breed plants and animals?
Is a fish a vertebrate or an invertebrate?

Caitlin’s dog has a litter of puppies. Mass (kg) | Eye colour

The table shows their mass 22.6 brown
at three months old and their eye colours. 19.4
20.8 blue
21.2 brown
(a) (i) What kinds of factors affect eye colour? 16.9 blue
Underline the correct answer.

environmental factors genetic factors

both environmental and genetic factors
(1 mark)

(ii) What term is used to describe this type of variation? Tick the correct box.

| characteristic inherited Pa generational

(1 mark)
Only a few characteristics are the result of inherited variation alone.
All the rest are affected by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

(b) One of the puppies is quite a lot lighter than any of the others.
(i) What is the difference in mass between the lightest and heaviest puppies?

i! k,
1) read the question carefully, 2) read the table carefully, iar)
3) do the right calculation and check it, 4) include the units.
(ii) Suggest two possible reasons why this puppy is lighter than the others.

Even within the same family, variation in weight could be due to genetic differences, (2 Marks)
So for this one you could put down genetic factors, or environmental factors, or both.
A IEIE TES TS

SECTION FOUR — VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND INHERITANCE

50

=>
€-100 fm@10(=%-j
de) at

2 Roses are Red Ltd. is interested in selectively breeding a new

variety of rose to sell. The company has a number of roses
with different characteristics available to breed from.

Fall
number of
flowers

Disease

Resistance oor ood average ood

to insects P g g g

(a) The new rose must have lots of flowers and

be resistant to disease and insect attack.
(i) Which two roses should the company choose to breed from?
(2 marks)

(ii) The cross produces a number of promising roses, but none of them exactly
meet the company’s requirements. What should the company do next?
(1 mark)

(b) Cuttings are taken from the new rose to produce genetically identical offspring.
The young plants are grown at various sites.
The company notices that the roses grow more quickly at some sites.
Suggest two reasons why the roses are growing at different rates.
(2 marks)

3 Each of these animals belongs to a different group.

sparrow frog starfish mouse lizard

Choose an animal from the list above that

(a) is an invertebrate
(b) is amammal
(c) is a reptile
(d) is an amphibian
(e) is a bird
(5 marks)

SECTION FOUR —VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND. INHERITANCE

 Revision Summary
Section Four’s fairly basic really, but there are some words which could cause you grief until you've
learnt exactly what they mean. ‘Variation’ just means ‘differences’; ‘genes’ are just a ‘blueprint’ for
how a living creature is put together; ‘chromosomes’ are those X-shaped things inside cell nuclei
which contain genes; etc. etc. These questions aren’t the easiest, but they test exactly what you
know and what you don’t. You need to be able to answer them all, because all they do is test the
basic facts. There’s no understanding needed for these little jokers — it’s just a matter of learning.
You must practise these questions over and over again until you can sail through them all.

What does variation mean?

What is a characteristic feature?
Think of two different species of dog and list three characteristic features for each.
Name a characteristic feature which is impossible to spot from looking at the outside of the body.
What does inherited mean?
What is an environmental characteristic feature?
Give three ways that environmental factors could affect
identical twins and make them look different.
Give four characteristics of animals which are totally unaffected by the environment.
Give four characteristics which are influenced by genes and by the environment.
10) Which are usually affected more by their surroundings — plants or animals?
11) List four things which could affect how well a plant grows.
12) What controls inherited characteristics?
13) What is a gene?
14) Where do you find chromosomes?
15) How many chromosomes do humans have in each cell?
16) Why are a person’s characteristics a mixture of the characteristics of their parents?
| 17) How many chromosomes do sperm and ova have each?
\ “4 1

8)) What happens to a sperm and an egg in fertilisation?

1 9)) What happens to genetic information in the sperm and the egg in fertilisation?
20) Explain how selective breeding can lead to new varieties of plant or animal.
21) ) Give three examples of the results of selective breeding.
22) Why are domestic livestock selectively bred?
23) What do we call selectively bred dogs?
24) What is the difference between a vertebrate animal and an invertebrate animal?
25) Are fungi plants, or animals, or neither?
26) ) Give an example of a mollusc.
27) What do keys help you to do?
28) ) What are the rules for using keys?

SECTION FOUR — VARIATION, CLASSIFICATION AND. INHERITANCE

2 / SECTION FivE — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Adaptation |

Se <a a

The place where something lives is called its habitat, e.g. a woodland or a meadow.
2) The conditions in a habitat make up the organism’s environment, e.g. how hot it is.
3) Plants and animals develop features and become adapted to their environments over millions
of years, e.g. tigers developed ‘camouflage stripes’ to adapt to their forest environment.

ee:

(e)lar Bear —
5 fb.
a:
Ada
” COL 9 SITLL ee poe

Arctic conditions: very cold all year — and summers are short.
The polar bear has the following special features which
make it ideally suited for living in chilly places:

1) A round shape which gives the minimum possible

surface area to reduce heat loss from the skin.

) A thick layer of fat for insulation and as a food store.

) A thick hairy coat to keep body heat in.
4) Greasy fur to shed water after swimming.
) A white coat to blend into the surroundings.
) Big feet to spread the weight on the snow or ice.

Desert conditions: 1) Very hot in daytime — very cold at night-time.

2) Very dry — rainfall less than 25 mm / year.
The camel has the following special features which
make it ideally suited for living in hot and dry places:

It can store a lot of water and can

drink up to 20 gallons at once.
2) It loses very little water in urine or sweat.
3) It can cope with big changes in temperature
and doesn’t sweat below 46 °C.
4) Its big feet spread its weight on the soft sand.
5) All fat is stored in the hump, which
helps with heat loss.
6) Its sandy colour gives good camouflage.

SECTION Five — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 5B

Adaptation
You also need to know an example of how a plant is adapted to its environment.
One straightforward example is the cactus.

Very hot in daytime — very cold at night-time.

Very dry — rainfall less than 25 mm / year.

A cactus has the following special features which

make it ideally suited for living in hot and dry places.

1) Its leaves are spines — to reduce water loss.

2) Its tube-like shape and lack of branches and leaves mean
that it has a small surface area compared to its size. This
also reduces water loss. (1000 x less than normal plants.)
It stores water in its thick stem.
Spines stop herbivores eating it.
Shallow but very extensive roots ensure
water is absorbed quickly over a large area.

Lea
These are the three main examples of animal and plant adaptation that you need to learn.
They could ask you some slightly different ones in the exam,

SECTION FivE — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

54

PNoF-Vole-haleyal :

Daily changes in conditions like light, temperature or moisture levels in the air affect the
behaviour of plants and animals. They adapt to deal with these daily changes, for example:

1) Most flowers open their petals during the day to allow

pollination and close them at night for protection.

Some animals avoid predators by being active at night (i.e. nocturnal)

— but then some predators work at night to catch them.
3) Estuaries change every time the tide goes in or out, which affects the
type and distribution of organisms.

Adapting to
Most organisms have to adapt to yearly changes in temperature, sunlight, availability of water
and availability of food. They do this in many different ways — learn these:

tao a
“72g [Winter]
Fey
7. Migration —
| move to warmer | a
;

place for winter |

avira
| 1. Hibernation due
6. Deciduous trees lose
| tofood shortage |
- Pai
light and water about
= “+
Testers ae
2. Mammals grow
thick coats }>
(so no photosynthesis) a
v 4. Animals
store food

Hibernation is a very useful trick

There’s a lot of information in the diagram on this page.
So look at it carefully, then learn it really well until you can reproduce it without looking.
_ The examiners like asking questions about adaptation, so it'll be worth it.

SECTION Five — LivinG THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 3p)

IVES) fare] o)(-WeBY-Y

fe)
i<)
olnatcvays

inable Developm:
BSS OD LOO TOE PA NE TC ES!

Development simply means a change we make to our environ ment to improve things.
This could be anything from building a power station to planting a forest.
Sustainable development must be good for the people and the
environment now and in the future. It’s too important to ignore.

Sustainable development is development which enables us to meet

the needs of today without impairing our ability to meet
the needs of tomorrow.

1) Logging in Brazil provides money for the government

to spend on things like schools and hospitals.
2) If large areas of forest are cleared this will produce
lots of money very quickly which is good in the
short term for the people of Brazil.
3) But it won't last because this type of logging is not
“sustainable”. New trees don’t have time to grow, or
can’t grow in the nutrient-starved soils that clearance
leaves behind. In the long term this type of logging is
bad for the environment and for the people of Brazil.

4) Sustainable development of the forest involves

planting a new tree for every tree cut down and
keeping the logged area small by cutting down
only the oldest trees. This selective method of
logging still makes money, but at a slower rate.
It does mean that there will always be trees.
5) This is good for us, all the forest organisms and
the logging industry now and in the future.

| Deforestation will affect us all if we don’t act now |

| | You know the score by now... this has got to be learnt. There’s just a definition and a lovely |
case study with some beautiful pictures, so it shouldn’t take too long to learn it. :
You might as well get on and do it right now, unless there’s something really good on the telly. |
SECTION Five — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT
56

Food Chains |

|Food Chains Show What is

1) The organisms in a food chain are usually in the same ecosystem (of course).
(All the living things in one habitat are called a community
— and a community and its environment are known as an ecosystem.)

ig.
» 9 Food for Food for

Plankton
Squid Whale

2) The arrows show what is eaten by what — i.e. “food for”. (Plankton is food for squid, etc.)
3) The arrows also show the direction of energy flow.

Some poisons can concentrate through the food chains, with devastating effects, usually for
the top carnivore. For example, in the past birds of prey suffered as poisons in pesticides
weakened their egg shells which meant that young were crushed in the nest.

“fs
Small birds Bird of prey

- level of poison

ai ns ar e pr et ty st ra ig ht fo rw ard
Food
You
ch
shouldn’t have too much trouble understanding food chains.
_ Learn the stuff about poisons pailding a though, as that’sgipretigeuseful.

SEGHON Fie — MORE eae IN THEIR BROOME

 Food Webs
Food webs contain many interlinked food chains as shown here.
Learn these nine bits of terminology:

Tertiary
consumer
Secondary

Primary
Minnow consumer
Waterweed Producer

Producer — all plants are producers. They use the Sun’s energy to produce food energy.
Herbivore — animals which only eat plants, e.g. water snail, rabbits, caterpillars, aphids.
Consumer — all animals are consumers.
(All plants are not, because they’re producers.)
Primary consumer
— an animal which eats producers: (plants).
Secondary consumer
— an animal which eats primary consumers.
Tertiary consumer
— animal which eats secondary consumers.
Carnivore — eats only animals, never plants.
Top Carnivore — is not eaten by anything else.
Omnivore — eats both plants and animals. (Humans are omnivores.)

: /pe question —_ Wh

i.) Who won’t now get eaten? — The water = asSH areys
are no minnows to eatcient
2) Who will get eaten more? —
a) Water beetles (by perch and pike, who'll get hungry without minnows).
b) Waterweed (since the numbers of water snails will increase).
c) Perch (by pike, who’ll get hungry without minnows —
also now competing more with perch for beetles).

Food webs are a bit more tricky

Learn all this stuff, as usual, and make sure you know the terminology.
Cover the labels on the diagram and test yourself.
Give the exam type question a try, to make sure you've got the hang of it.
aa ie _ inte ane IN THEIRs Boreptuhaee
58

Pyramids of Number |

FO0Orcny leaves... feed...

1) Food energy is passed along food chains — like in the one above.
2) The number of organisms decreases as you go from one level (one trophic level) to the next.
3) This is because most of the energy is lost as you go from one level to the next in a food chain.

1) ni
a oe
alive uses upmost of the a eneisyBy thats vacated? by a consumer,
It’s needed for moving and growing and keeping warm (which uses a lot of food energy).
2) Also, not all of the material from each level is eaten. Remember, the food energy
only passes along the food chain when it’s eaten by a consumer from the next level up.
A lot of the material never gets eaten — and plenty comes straight back out as waste.

This happens because the oak tree

A is very large compared to the caterpillar.
robins 2) There’s only one oak tree, but it has thousands of leaves
for the caterpillars to feed on.
800
caterpilas 3) The pyramid of numbers looks wrong because it
doesn’t take any account of how big the oak tree is.
If the pyramid was changed to represent the total mass
1 oak tree
of the organisms at each level it would look fine.
(It would then be a pyramid of biomass, by the way).

SECTION Five — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 59

Survival
A ‘population’ is how many of one particular type of plant or animal there is in an ecosystem.
The size of the population of each particular species depends on three factors:

If the organism has adapted well to its environment, then it usually survives and passes
on its genes to the next generation. Organisms which are poorly adapted are usually
the first to die, probably before they've had a chance to reproduce. This means their
genes and poorly adapted characteristics are not passed on to any offspring.
Successful adaptation means more, better babies.

The strongest will survive. Which means that if a plant or animal is

fit, healthy and competes well for food and nutrients — it will survive.
Successful competition means more, better babies.

If the animal or plant avoids being dinner for some other organism, then it will survive to pass
on its genes to the next generation. The offspring will tend to have the same good survival
characteristics and so the ‘survival’ genes are again passed on. Once again, the organisms
with the best characteristics will have more chance of reproducing.

Successtully avoiding predation means more, better babies.

| Once upon a time there was a group of animals munching leaves from a tree.
They were well camouflaged, so kept away from predators.
Unfortunately the population was large and food was running short.
Soon all the leaves on the lower parts of the trees were gone and the
animals started to get hungry — some even died.
| Except that is, a couple of animals which, by some freak of nature, had
| slightly longer necks than normal. This meant that they could reach just
| that bit higher, to the juicy and yummy leaves higher up the trees.
They survived that year, unlike a lot of animals, and had lots of babies.
_ The babies also had longer necks, and could reach up the tree for the leaves.
It soon got to a situation where mostof the animals in the population had
| long necks......

Only the few who are born with the very best features for dealing with the world they
live in will survive and produce offspring — the sick and the inept all die off very quickly.

SECTION FIVE — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

60

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

It’s easy to think you've learnt everything in the section until you try to answer the warm-up
questions. If that happens to you, don’t worry, just go back over the pages and write out the bits
you got wrong until you can answer them standing on your head.
Then stand on your head and try to answer the exam questions.

Warm-up Q
What is the difference between an organism’s habitat and its environment?
List five ways in which animals adapt to winter conditions.
What is sustainable development?
What do the arrows in a food chain or web represent?
In a population, what kind of individual is most likely to successfully reproduce?

Worked Exam | t
There are many different species of fox. Each species is adapted to its environment.
The Arctic fox has white fur in winter and brown fur in summer.
The Desert fox has sa ndy-colou red fur. You don’t need to know anything

Arctic Fox Desert Fox

about foxes to answer this question.
Just use what you know about
adaptation in polar bears and camels.

(a) (i) Suggest one way in which the colour of its fur helps a fox survive.

(1 mark)

(ii) Suggest why the Arctic fox has to change colour with the seasons.

ttt ee eee eee eee eee ee ee er rrr rr rrr rrr rrr rrr

(2 marks)

(b) The Desert fox has to cope with very high temperatures during the day.
(i) Suggest one way in which its body is adapted to cope with desert heat.

i eee eee eee rere rrr errr errr rt errr rr rr rr rrr i rr

You get one mark for naming the body feature (2 marks )
and one mark for explaining how it helps.
(ii) Suggest at what time a Desert fox might be most active.

Fewer seme Maree eee ee eee eases seen nets esses eee ee eeeeeeeeessseseses

It's much cooler in the desert at night, (1 mark)

s0 many desert animals are nocturnal.

SECTION Five — LivinG THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 Exam Questions

2 Arctic foxes are part of the food chain shown below:

Plants -+ Lemmings = Arctic foxes

(a) Only about 10% of the energy in the lemming

population is transferred to the fox population.
(i) Suggest one reason why energy is “lost” from the food chain.

(ii) Draw a typical pyramid of numbers to represent this food chain.

Include labels.
(2 marks)

(b) Lemming populations go up and down a lot. Scientists used to think that when
the populations got too big, some lemmings committed suicide to control the
population levels. This theory has now been proven to be incorrect.
(i) Suggest an alternative reason why the
lemming population may suddenly decrease.
(1 mark)

(ii) Describe what happens to the fox population

as the lemming population changes.
(2 marks)

|3 The heron is a top predator in a river ecosystem. It mostly eats fish such as perch.
It usually builds large nests in tall trees.
(a) Look at the features of the heron labelled A - C on the diagram below.
Suggest a purpose of each of the features A - C.

(3 marks)

(b) A factory accidentally discharges a chemical containing mercury into a river.

After a few years, fishermen notice that the local heron population is decreasing.
However, the fish population seems to be unaffected. Explain why the herons
are being poisoned by the mercury, but the fish are unaffected.
(2 marks)

SECTION FIVE — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 Revision Summary
Section Five is all about how living things manage to survive in their natural environment.
They all need to find enough food to live on, and yet also avoid the multitude of other hazards
that conspire to wipe them out. Adaptation, food chains, food webs, and survival are the four
topics which deal with all that. The questions below are designed to see how well you’ve
learned all the information in Section Five. Remember, you need to keep on practising these
questions. If there’s one you don’t know the answer to, look back through Section Five,
find out what it is, and then learn it for next time.
1)) What exactly is an organism’s habitat?
) What is an organism's environment?
) What does adapted mean?
) What are arctic conditions like?
) List six features of a polar bear which make it well adapted to its environment.
) List six features of a camel which make it well adapted to desert conditions.
) List five special features which make a cactus well adapted to desert conditions.
) Name three daily changes which might affect plants and animals.
9)) What do you call organisms which are active at night?
1 0)) Why do flowers open during the day?
1 1 ) What might a tortoise do to deal with harsh winter conditions? _
1 2 ) What do some birds do in winter to avoid the cold?
1 3 ) Why do some trees drop their leaves in winter?
1 4 ) What is the definition of sustainable development?
1 5 ) Give an example of sustainable development.
1 6 ) Explain why sustainable development is important in the example you have given.
] 7,) What is a community?
18)8 ) What is an ecosystem?
1 9 ) Give an example of a food chain.
20) ) What happens to poisons as they are passed along a food chain?
21) ) Give good definitions for all of the following terms:
a) producer b) herbivore c) consumer
d) primary consumer e) secondary consumer _f) tertiary consumer
g) carnivore h) top carnivore i) omnivore
22) Give three ways that energy is lost in a food chain.
23) What is a trophic level? Explain with examples.
24) Sketch number pyramids to show the following:
a) 500 lettuces, 50 rabbits and 2 foxes.
b) 1 lettuce, 25 slugs and 1 thrush.
25) What three factors affect population size?
26) Explain how giraffes have evolved in order to survive.

SECTION Five — LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

 SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS 63

Solids, Liquids and Gases

Materials ccome inrare ALETEOL (anne— eaiicl ligive art gas.

These are called the three states of matter.
All materials are made up of tiny particles.
Which state you get (solid, liquid or gas) depends on how strongly the particles stick together.
How well they stick together depends on the material, the temperature and the pressure.

Solids
Gases have no
havea
J definite volume —
definite
definite 3 they always fill the
volume
volume a * container they're in

Solids have Liquids match 4) Gases become the

See the shape of \ same shape as the
shape the container eam | container

Solids have a Liquids See Naases

high density = have ‘ ie h.. <el have a
(heavy for ie medium menenmeienaen wee | VCTY low
their size) | density | ia ae density

Solids are 15) Gases are easily

not easily ce squashed

Gases flow easily

(and diffuse)

| It all depends on what the particles are doing

Solids, liquids and gases — you must learn all those numbered points and the properties of all
three. When you think you know it, cover the page and scribble it all down from memory.
That soon shows what you really know — and what you don’t. Keep trying until you can do it.
SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
64

Particle Theory 3
Particle theory — sounds pretty fancy. | think it’s kind of obvious really. Try this:

1) The particles in a substance stay the same

whether it’s a solid, a liquid or a gas.
2) What changes is the arrangement of the
particles and their energy.

CEAECECEE
> > + + oe & >

The particles in a solid

have the least energy.

The particles in a liquid

have more energy.

The particles in a gas

have the most energy.

This particle theory explains all the different properties of solids, liquids and gases...

It all seems to make sense

| think it’s pretty clever the way you can explain all the differences between solids,
liquids and gases with just a page full of blue snooker balls.
, Anyway, that’s the easy bit. The not-so-easy bit is making sure you've learnt it all.
SECTION Six — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
 Particle Theory

There are strong forces of attraction between particles.

The particles are held closely in fixed positions in a very regular '
arrangement. But they do vibrate to and fro. >
The particles don’t move from their positions, so all solids
keep a definite shape and volume, and can’t flow like liquids.
Solids can’t easily be compressed because the particles are
already packed very closely together.

There are some forces of attraction between the particles.

The particles are close but free to move past each other. However, they “i
do still stick together. The particles are constantly moving in all directions.
Liquids don’t keep a definite shape and can form puddles.
They flow and fill the bottom of a container. But they do keep the same volume.
Liquids won't compress easily because the particles are packed closely together.
Liquids are quite dense, as there are quite a lot of particles in a small volume.

= Particles

There are hardly any forces of attacton between the particles.

The particles are far apart and free to move quickly in all directions.
The particles move fast, so collide with each other and the container.
Gases don’t keep a definite shape or volume and will always expand
to fill any container. Gases can be compressed easily because there’s
a lot of free space between the particles.
Gases all have very low densities, because there are not many
particles in a large volume.

Particle Theory isn’t rocket science

That's why it’s called particle theory. Learn what's on this page, then cover the page and
write down all the main properties of solids, liquids and gases, and why they behave the
way they do. Check youranswers, , then coverc rand test
te styourself again until you ‘re sure.
SECTION Sie — Cure Treen
66

adahYA-)
(or-|MmOdaT:late (=t— |
Physical changes don’t change the particles — just their arrangement or their energy.

/ depends on h W.
A change of state just means a substance is changing from one state of matter to another.

2) Ata certain temperature, 3) When a liquid is heated,

the particles have enough again the particles get even
energy to break free from more energy.
their positions. This is
called melting and the 4) This energy makes the
solid turns into a liquid. particles move faster which
weakens and breaks the bonds
holding the liquid together.

we
rrr

1) When a solid is heated, its 5) At a certain temperature, the

particles gain more energy. particles have enough energy
This makes the particles vibrate to break their bonds. This is
more, which weakens the forces called boiling and the liquid
that hold the solid together. turns into a gas.
This makes the solid expand.

ee ee, Pee OR

A red arrow means heat Is supplied A blue arrow means heat is given out

From the sublime to the ridiculous

So matter can move from solid to liquid to gas and back again. Learn this, and learn what
/ happens when it changes state. Write it all down bit by bit. Start with the diagram,
| then add the five labels — then try to learn all the details that go with each one.
SECTION SIX — Giusarine MATERIALS
 lng NVA} (or-] a 9 at-Lale [2

When you increase the

temperature, it makes the
particles move faster.
2) This has two effects:
a) They hit the walls harder.
b) They hit the walls more often.
3) Both these things increase
the pressure.

1) If you reduce the volume it

makes the pressure increase.
2) This is because when the
particles are squashed up into a
smaller space they'll hit the
walls more often. But then
that’s pretty obvious, isn’t it?

ir particles ©. oO ©
eet o ©
fo) ©
© Smell diffused 's
© © o)
% ©. a &
Seueincne aire.
Oo
oo ae

The smell particles move away from where there are lots of them, to everywhere else
where there are only a few of them — but remember, diffusion is always slow.

This is because the smell particles keep bumping into air particles, which stops them
making forward progress and often sends them off in a completely different direction.

Aerosols hold gases under pressure, and when you spray an aerosol, you get to smell diffusion
in action. Marvellous. Now cover the page and see how much you can write down.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions
There’s a bit too much gas in this section in my opinion. Just tackle the warm-up questions first, —
then examine the nice worked example.

Name the only state of matter that can be easily compressed.

In which state of matter are the particles fixed in a regular pattern?
What happens to the speed at which particles move when they are heated?
What is sublimation?
Why does gas pressure increase when the volume is decreased?

1 An aerosol can of deodorant contains liquefied gas under pressure.

(a) The aerosol can is a solid. What are the properties of a solid?
Tick two correct boxes.
Has a definite volume % Flows easily as

Is easily compressed La Has a high density

Takes the shape of a

its container

(2 marks)

(b) When the deodorant is sprayed, it changes from a liquid into a gas.
Each deodorant particle can be represented by a circle.
Carefully complete the diagrams below to show the arrangement
of particles in the deodorant, as a liquid and as a gas.
Don’t forget that there should
gas liquid always be more liquid particles than
3@ Y p gas ones in diagrams like this.

ashes
a oa

Soe eee (4 marks)

(c) A student uses the deodorant in the corner of a changing room.

After a couple of minutes everyone in the room can smell the deodorant.
Name the process involved and explain how it works.
(i) Name of the process: diffusion

(2 marks)

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 Exam Questions

Drivers are advised to check their car’s tyre pressures before

setting out on a long journey, particularly if the car is heavily loaded.
(a) Explain how air molecules inside a car tyre
exert pressure on the walls of the tyre.
(1 mark)

(b) In terms of the gas particles, explain why tyre pressure

is increased when a car is heavily loaded.
(2 marks)

(c) After several hours driving, the tyres feel hot to the touch.
(i) What effect will this have on the speed
of the air molecules inside the tyre?
(1 mark)

(ii) In terms of the motion of the air molecules, give one

reason why this will lead to an increase in tyre pressure.
(17 mark)

(d) Tyres at very high pressure can be dangerous.

Suggest what might happen to a tyre if the pressure is too high.
(1 mark)

Jenny boils 2 litres of water in a large pan in her kitchen. After half an hour
Jenny cools the water and measures it in a jug. There is 1 litre left.

(a) Explain what has happened to the water that is not in the jug.
(1 mark)

(b) Jenny notices that there are droplets of water on her kitchen window.
Name the process that has taken place to form the droplets.
(1 mark)

(c) Jenny freezes the water in the jug to make some ice cubes. She thinks
that the particles will change when they change from a liquid to a solid.
Is Jenny correct? Explain your answer.
(2 marks)

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 Atoms and Elements |

ents consist 0
Elements can’t be split up into anything simpler by
chemical methods. They only contain one type of atom.
There are about 100 different elements (shown below).
Each one has a name and a shorthand symbol, e.g. Carbon, C.
4) Everything on Earth is made up of elements.

Group O
aa
mass SG rs |e
number H aS
Group! Group I! Z Hyd Group Ill Group |1V Group V Group VI Group VI ee
Erdeie sly —
number ™

reactive transition other non separates metals

metals metals metals metals gases from non-metals

: Group Names
The elements are specially arranged so that every
column contains elements with very similar properties. Group 1: The alkali metals
These columns of elements are called groups. Group 2: The alkaline earth metals
Group 7: The halogens
The horizontal rows are called periods. Group 0: The noble gases
There’s always a gradual change or “trend”
in properties across a period. The block of elements between groups
Elements are listed in order of atomic number — this is [iecaeaeemabthem use inall see ateinelelamail ase
just the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.

The atoms in an element are all identical. All atoms are really tiny.
Atoms are the basic building blocks of all materials. Nucleus made up of
protons and neutrons |
Atoms have a nucleus in the middle which contains protons and
neutrons. Protons are positively charged. Neutrons are neutral.
Electrons whizz around the nucleus. Electrons are negatively charged.
They’re even smaller than protons and neutrons, and they go really fast.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 Ofe) aa}ered Ulare

1) The particles in a compound are called molecules — formed when atoms join.
2) To make a compound, the atoms must be from different "join" or "bond"
elements and the “join” is known as a chemical bond. Een CO: in molecule

You need to know the difference between an element, a compound and a mixture.

An element ee §6he particles are all the

which is made u p , } same and not joined up
— it must be an element.
of atoms:

An element The atoms may be joined,

which is made but there’s still only one
type, so it’s still an element.
up of molecules:

Molecules in a Se sanener Here we have different

compound: atoms joined together
— that’s a compound.

A mixture of ee eee! = [his is not a compound

different elements: ae | because the elements aren’t
joined up — it’s a mixture.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

72

1) A chemical reaction involves two or more chemicals (called the reactants)

combining together to form one or more new substances (called the products).
2) The new compounds produced by any chemical reaction are always totally
different from the original elements (or reactants).
(We sometimes say a new compound is synthesised.)
The classic example of this is iron reacting with sulphur as shown below:

It reacts with sulphur to make iron sulphide, a totally new substance which is not magnetic:

Strong magnetism Not magnetic aus!

£

Se SE, I ee ons Se

Word equation: Iron + Sulphur a Iron Sulphide

In symbols: (Fe + ¢ ‘Fer

When elements undergo a chemical reaction like the one above, the products will
always have a chemical formula — e.g. H,O for water or FeS for iron sulphide.

Compounds can be split up back into their original elements, but it won't just happen by
itself — you have to supply a lot of energy to make the reaction go in reverse.

Chemical reactions form brand new products

| There’s an equation to learn on this page, and a bit of important general information.
_ It goes into a lot more detail later on, so make sure you're happy with the basics,
and that you understand how compounds are formed.
SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
 \FTaatiale pxOxe)aa)ekeyelavets
When elements combine their names often change slightly. Learn the three simple rules.

Formula

Sodium and chlorine <@=@a Elements present mmm)> Magnesium and oxygen
SODIUM CHLORide — <Geum Name of compound mam MAGNESIUM OxXide

And in just
the same way: Chlorine changes to chloride Bromine changes to bromide
Oxygen changes to oxide Fluorine changes to fluoride
Sulphur changes to sulphide lodine changes to iodide

When three or more different elements combine — and one of

them is oxygen — then the ending will be ‘something -ate’.

<a Formula =>

1 copper, 1 sulphur, <jas Elements present mm=)> 1 calcium, 1 carbon,

4 oxygens 3 oxygens
COPPER SULPHate <Gasi Name of compound mam)» CALCIUM CARBONate

A eet Sodium + carbon + 3 oxygens makes: Sodium carbonate

SL Potassium + sulphur + 4 oxygens makes: Potassium sulphate

FLFR) F, = fluorine

N, = nitrogen N LN clich Cl, = chlorine

O, = oxygen Br, = bromine

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 es are Substar
Sea water and air are good examples of mixtures —
they have constituents which are not combined.
The mixture has properties of all its parts. If you’re
clever enough, you can separate them very easily
using physical methods (i.e. not chemical).

There are four separation techniques you need to be familiar with.

1) Filtration 2) Evaporation 3) Chromatography 4) Distillation
All four make use of the different properties of the constituent parts to separate them out.

Rock salt is simply a mixture of salt and sand (they spread it on the roads in winter).
Salt and sand are both compounds — but salt dissolves in water and sand doesn’t.
This vital difference in their physical properties gives us a great way to separate them.
You need to learn the four steps of the method:

1) Grinding 2) Dissolving ~ 3) Filtering 4) Evaporating

Grind up the Dissolve Filter through filter Evaporate in an
rock salt with a in beaker oem A a funnel. evaporating dish.
pestle and mortar. and stir.

BORGaaye.
= You get really big
crystals by boiling off
half the water and
then leaving the dish
in awarm place to
evaporate slowly.

1) The sand doesn’t dissolve (it’s insoluble) so it stays as big grains. Obviously these
won't fit through the tiny holes in the filter paper — so it collects on the filter paper.
2) The salt is dissolved in solution so it does go through — and when the water's
evaporated, the salt forms as crystals in the evaporating dish.
This is called crystallisation.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 BS

Mixtures

1) Different dyes in ink will wash through paper at different rates.

2) Some will stick to the paper and others will dissolve and travel through it quickly.

= Filter paper C<«—

1) Dots of ink are put onto filter paper. Ink spot oe Wick
2) Awick is cut from part of the paper Cuts : Bl Water
(as shown). oy | J (solvent)
3) The solvent washes the dyes
through the paper.
Different dyes
in the ink

1) Put spots of inks onto a pencil

baseline on filter paper.
2) Roll the sheet up and put it in a beaker.
3) The solvent seeps up the paper,
carrying the ink dyes with it.
4) Each different dye will form a
spot in a different place.
ES
qa 5) You can compare a forged ink to a
——— known ink to see which it is.

Two other exciting uses of chromatography are:

1) Identifying blood samples.
2) Investigating chlorophyll.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

76

1) Distillation is a technique used to separate a pure liquid from a

mixture of liquids or solutions. The mixture is heated until one liquid
begins to turn into a gas. This can then be cooled (to condense it,
i.e, turn it back into a liquid) and collected. The diagram below
shows the equipment that is used for distillation in laboratories.
2) Distillation is great for separating a liquid from a solid in solution.
It can be used for things like getting drinking water from
salty sea_ water.
3) It can also be used for separating several different liquids that
have different boiling points. The liquids boil off at different
temperatures so they can be collected separately. This type
of distillation is called fractional distillation.

Equipment Used for Distillation

|S=n10-100 °C
thermometer

Water
ypout
Condenser

What Happens During Distillation

distilled
water

Liquid ink mixture in the ie

Pure water in the beaker

|Learn these different techniques

| Remember mixtures aren’t joined up — so you can separate them by physical methods
| without the need for chemical reactions. And don’t forget — separation techniques are a
| “dead cert” for the exam — so make sure you can scribble all this stuff down. Enjoy.
SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
 va

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

Only four little questions, so you should be able to answer them really quickly.
And there are two exam questions with the answers already written in... they
should ease you in gently before the real stuff on the next page.

) What is an element?
2) What is the difference between a compound and a mixture?
) What is the name of a compound made up of iron, sulphur and oxygen?
) What is chromatography?
SESEESSERE ISS ASSESS SSG soins SSeS
EE oS SSDS OE nn SSS SS ee eee eee ee

The diagrams below represent the arrangement of atoms and

molecules in four different substances, A, B, C and D.

eaten See
S S ‘@ O@ Remember that the periodic
B table only shows elements,
B D not compounds or mixtures.

(1 mark)

(b) Which substance is a mixture of compounds? —....43............-

Careful here — C is a mixture of an element and a (1 mark) |
compound, not a mixture of two compounds. ;
(c) Which substance would you expect to find in the Periodic Table? a
(1 mark)

(d) Which substance is most likely to be water, H,0? ___...... D ie

(7 mark)

Copper is a pinky-orange coloured metal. Compounds of copper

can form coloured crystals. When copper is heated in air,
layers of a black substance form on the metal.

(a) Suggest what the black substance that forms during the reaction is.

(1 mark)

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

78

Exam Questions |

3 One way to make copper oxide (CuO) is to heat green CuCO, powder.
(a) (i) Give the names of the three chemical elements which make up CuCO,.
(3 marks)
(ii) Give the name of the compound CuCO,.
(1 mark)

(iii) Which model below best represents CuCO,?

D (1 mark)
(iv) Give the formula of the compound lost from CuCO, to produce CuO. aa
Mar

(b) Amanda mixes excess copper oxide with dilute sulphuric acid until no more
copper oxide will dissolve. She is left with a blue solution of copper sulphate,
mixed with unreacted copper oxide powder. She separates the copper oxide
powder from the copper sulphate solution by using the apparatus shown below:

(i) Complete the diagram below by filling in the missing labels.

Excess copper &

"Copper sulphate solution (2 marks)

(ii) What is this technique called?

(1 mark)

(iii) Explain how Amanda could obtain copper sulphate

crystals from the copper sulphate solution.
(1 mark)

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 qo

Properties of Metals

tals can be
There are 88 metal elements in the Periodic Table.
Some are shown here in red, to the left of the zig zag:
Fr Ra AcUnqUnpUnhUnsUnoUne

Free negative— |
Metal , charge electrons) |
1) Metals all allow electrical charge to _atoms
pass through them easily.
2) The moving charges are in fact |The bulb|
electrons. Moving charge is otherwise 7 lightsup |
known as electric current. Battery pumps.
poets niouaoy

CONDUCTION OF HEAT
They let thermal energy pass through. 4
f “ Cc

2) The “hot” particles vibrate strongly. Ole it

This is passed_on through the metal. T Db
Lots of movement

They have high tensile strength.

2) This is due to the strong bonds which
exist between the metal particles.
They make good building materials.

tals are Shiny

Metals are easily shaped.

2) The bonds inside metals are
strong and they can
withstand stresses and
movement.

This means they make a nice “donnnnggg” sound when

they’re hit. If you think about it, it’s only metals that do
that — you could make a gong out of plastic, but it
wouldn’t be much good.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

80

Properties of Metals

1) This means they can be drawn into wires.

2) The bonds in the metal don’t break easily.
This means metals aren’t brittle like
non-metals are. They just bend and stretch.

1) A lot of heat energy is needed topinelt metals. aSiagsarasiia

Copper
2) This is because their atoms join up with strong bonds. Whagnesla
Iron -

3) The table shows how hot they have to get to melt or boil. aie
Silver

1) Density is all to do with how much stuff there Lots of particles Not, S Paritles
is squeezed into a certain space.
2) Metals feel heavy for their size (i.e. they’re very
dense) because they have a lot of atoms packed
into a small volume.

1) Only certain metals are magnetic.

2) In the periodic table only iron, nickel and cobalt are magnetic.
Alloys made with these three metals will also be magnetic —
e.g. steel is made mostly from iron and is also magnetic.

12) Metals make Alloys :

1) A combination of different metals is‘called an alloy. wa a
The properties of the metals get jumbled up in the new alloy.
2) So light, weak metals can be mixed with heavy, strong metals
and the result is, hopefully, an alloy which is light and strong.

Metals react ; with oxygen to make metal

;
oxides.
: Combustion
E.g. Magnesium + oxygen — magnesium oxide.

14) Metallic oO‘ide

Ma nesium||
| yt

1) Metal oxides have a pH which is

higher than 7 — i.e. they’re alkaline.
2) So metal oxides react with acids to
make salts and water (see p.109).

SECTION Six — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 81

Properties of Non-Metals
The properties of non-metal elements vary quite a lot. As you will slowly begin to realise...

There are 21 non-metal elements and they’re over

on the right of the zig zag.

Non-metals are all insulators which means

Charge can't get
that charges can’t flow through them. through non-metal
2) If charges can’t move then
Bulb NO
no electric current flows.
lit
This is very useful — non-metals
combine to make things like plugs }.|| Battery tries to pump
and electric cable coverings. 1} the charge around

This makes non-metals really good insulators.

“Hot” particles don’t pass on their vibrations so well.

The bonds in most non-metal elements are strong

but the structure and arrangement of the molecules
Con is weak — this means they break easily.
2) It’s also easy to scrub atoms or molecules off them —
so they wear away quickly.

Most non-metal elements don’t reflect light very well

at all. Their surfaces are not usually as smooth as metals.
This makes them look dull.

Non-metal structures are held

together by weak forces.
2) This means they can shatter
all too easily.

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

82

Properties of Non-Metals

1) The forces which hold the particles in non-metal elements

together are very weak. This means they melt and boil easily.
2) Most non-metal elements are gases at room temperature,
although one is liquid. Very few are solid.

3)Non-metals
1) Obviously the non-metals which are gases will have very low density.
Some of these gases will even float in air — ideal for party balloons.
2) Even the liquid and solid non-metals have low densities. This means
they don’t have very many particles packed into a certain space.

1) Remember only iron, nickel and cobalt

are magnetic. These are all metals.
2) So all non-metals are most definitely
non-magnetic.

Non-metals will burn in oxygen to make oxides.

E.g. sulphur + oxygen — sulphur dioxide.

1) The oxides of non-metals have a pH

below 7. This means they’re acidic.
2) So non-metal oxides will react with a
base to make salts and water.

Non-metals are very dull

There are eleven fascinating facts about non-metals to learn here. Cover the page with a
bit of paper and try and write down each of the points, one at a time. Lower the paper
each time to see if you got it all down OK. Keep trying until you can get them all.
SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
 83

Four Exceptions to the Rule

The last four pages have listed all the normal properties of metals and non-metals.
However, it’s not quite that simple — there are some exceptions to the rules.
The good news is that you don’t need to learn everything on this page in detail,
just remember that some elements don’t behave like you'd expect them to.

mond is a non

Diamond is made purely from carbon atoms

— so it’s a non-metal.

Being a non-metal it should be soft or brittle

— but in fact it’s very hard.
3) This is because the carbon atoms are all bonded very strongly to
each other in a special arrangement as shown in the diagram:
4) This arrangement of atoms makes it very, very strong.
5) It therefore has a very high melting point — 3500 °C in fact.
Being so hard makes it ideal for drill tips and for cutting glass.

1) Graphite is also made purely from carbon atoms.

2) But it has a very different structure from diamond. It’s made up of layers as shown.

3) It’s a non-metal so it shouldn’t conduct electricity,

but it does — because electrons can move
around in between its flat layers.
These layers also make graphite soft and slippery,
because the layers can slide easily over each
other. It’s therefore a good lubricant too.

Remember that graphite conducts electricity

That’s the only thing you must remember from this page. Everything else is just a bit of extra |
information to show you that the rules you learnt on the last four pages don’t always apply. ;
SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
84

Four Exceptions to the Rule |

1) Mercury is a metal. It’s the only metal that’s liquid at room

temperature — it only goes solid at -39 °C. This is because
mercury atoms aren’t held together quite as strongly as the
atoms in other metals — hence a bit of thermal energy
soon breaks the bonds.
2) Mercury expands on heating — this makes it ideal for use
in thermometers.

jodium iIs aa Metal

1) Sodium is a metal. Most metals are hard and strong. But sodium
is very soft — so soft that you can easily cut it with a knife.
2) Unlike other metals sodium is also not very dense.
In fact its density is so low it even floats on water.
3) Sodium metal is also very reactive — it can burn your skin.
Most other metals are much more stable than sodium.

1 Sodium
metal

Two misbehaving metals

_ Mercury is a strange example, as it’s liquid at room temperature.
_ Don’t get fooled into thinking it’s a non-metal and don’t go playing with these elements /

as mercury is toxic and sodium is highaly UE! Nice.

SECTION six — Grasdevnus Names
 85

: Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

Take a look at these warm-up questions and test yourself. If you get any wrong, go
back and have a look at the parts you didn’t know, then test yourself again. Simple.

Where are metals and non-metals found in the Periodic Table?

2) Which oxides are acidic and which oxides are basic?
3) Which metals are magnetic?
4) Are most non-metal elements solids, liquids or gases?
List the four main exceptions to the normal properties of metal and non-metal elements.

Metals and non-metals have different properties.

(a) Here are some properties of most metals.
Metals are good conductors of heat. Metals have high melting and boiling
points. Metals are shiny when polished. Metals are strong and tough.
From the list of properties, give the main reason why:

(i) abridge is made from metal.

WEEE ICE Cr be ae SAC ACe EON Uo ioe Ite ici ease ie ath mee Gr ea Ne ro POC PICT ea OMAP ICA een ICR ECT9-RCT en ne a

(ii) a trophy is made from metal.

Because metals are shiny when poliShed. ooo cscs
(iii) a frying pan is made from metal.
Because metals conduct heat well.
(3 marks)
(b) Oxygen is a non-metal.

(i) Name a property of oxygen There are loads of correct answers to (b) (i).
which is typical of a non-metal. Have
a look on pages 81-82 for some more ideas.
(1 mark)

Oxygen will react with both metals and non-metals.

Use the words below to complete the following sentences:
acidic basic an acid a base a Salt water
i Oxygen reacts with metals to make ........ basic rear metal oxides. A metal
oxide will react with .....421.4¢ld to make .......4.94/b... and water.
vee AGIAle non-metal oxides.

SRS Gea a eee to make a salt and

(3 marks)
eee ncaa A ISA INTESTATE eee

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 Exam Questions

2 Elements can be metals or non-metals.

All Known elements are arranged in the Periodic Table.

Nal_| Fe Pel aaa,

BF Be oe ee gE
Pa Fe Pe mFNn PE
pp], | Ee EEE

(a) From the table above, give the symbol of one element which

(i) is a metal.
(ii) is a non-metal.
(iii) is a gas at room temperature.

(iv) will be attracted by a magnet.

(v) is very reactive.
(vi) forms an oxide that dissolves in water to give an acid.
(6 marks)

(6) Graphite, a form of carbon, is an unusual non-metal.

(i) Give the chemical symbol for the element carbon.
(1 mark)

(ii) What property does graphite have which is more

commonly associated with metals?
(1 mark)

Sodium is an unusual metal. Which two of the following

properties of metals does sodium not have?

good conductor of electricity

high density

hard

malleable

shiny when polished or cut

(2 marks)

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

 87

Revision Summary
We've moved on to chemistry now. Makes a refreshing change from all that slimy biology anyway.
Section Six is actually on physical chemistry — that just means the bits of chemistry which are
nearly physics. Anyway it hardly matters what it’s called because you've still got to learn it all.
And look what I’ve got ready for you here — another page of delicious Revision Summary
questions. You know the drill — work through these questions and try to answer them.
For any you can’t do, look back through Section Six and find the answer — and then learn it.
Then try all the questions again and see how many more you can do that time.
And keep on trying — one day you'll be able to do them all.
— ) What are the three states of matter? Describe five properties for each of them.
NO) Draw the particle arrangement for a solid, a liquid and a gas.
Qo) For any given substance, which state has the most thermal energy?

sy ) Give the names of five changes of state, and say which state they go from and to.
1 ) Explain how gases exert a pressure on the insides of a container.
io) What happens to the pressure of a gas if the temperature of the gas is increased?
=~) What happens to the pressure of a gas if the volume of the gas is decreased?

©o) Explain what diffusion is.

9) What is an element? Roughly how many elements are there in the Periodic Table?
10) In the Periodic Table: a) What is a group? —_b) What is a period?
11) Give the proper group name for groups 1, 2, 7 and 0.
12) Using the Periodic table, give the chemical symbol for these elements:
a) Sodium b) Magnesium c) Oxygen d) Iron e) Sulphur
f) Aluminium g) Carbon h) Chlorine i) Calcium j) Zine
1 3) What is an atom? Draw a diagram of one, with labels.
14)4) What is a compound? How is a compound different from a mixture?
1 5) Sketch some molecules that could be in a compound.
|© 16)) Give one way that iron sulphide is different from a mixture of iron and sulphur.
bi 17)) Is it easy to split up a compound into its original elements?
: 8) Write down the three rules for naming compounds.
1 9) Give the name of the following:
pavig®, 6) CaO: NaCl Ad) SOx e) CaCO, * f) CuSO,
(NB — you'll find answers to these trickier questions on page 165.)
20) Give the name of the compound you get from chemically joining up these:
a) sodium with chlorine —_b) magnesium with chlorine —_c) magnesium with carbon and oxygen.
21) What is a mixture? List four separation techniques.
22) Which of them would you use to try to identify different colours in an ink?
| 23) List 14 properties of metals and list 11 properties of non-metal elements.
24) ) Which (of metals or non-metals) are:
a) best conductors? ) most brittle? c) strongest? d) insulators?
25) What is an alloy?
26) Name three elements that have unusual properties.
27) What is unusual about graphite?

SECTION SIX — CLASSIFYING MATERIALS

88 SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

edahYA-}
(or-|WmOyallate (=i)
Physical changes are ones which rearrange particles without altering any chemical bonds.

ys ical Changes |
Look at this easy example. If you nr
melt a certain amount of ice,
you get the same amount of water — and then if you boil that,
you get the same amount of steam.

Heat out SHeat out

20 g water 20 g steam

No mass is lost as it’s still the same substance, just a different state.

1) When a substance is melting or bailing all the heat energy re

is used for breaking bonds rather than raising the temperature,
hence the flat bits on the heating graph.
2) When a substance is cooled and is becoming a liquid or a solid, the
graph for temperature will show a flat bit as it condenses or freezes.
3) When forces of attraction form between particles, heat is given out as
the particles join together. This means the temperature doesn’t go down
for a while until all the substance has turned to liquid or solid.

Temperature Temperature
| Heating
Boiling , ” is Petes se
Point ? “7,

Melting melting "

Point a

solid Time

_ Nothing disappears during a physical change

If you remember anything from this page, then remember that. And take a good look at these
_ heating and cooling curves, because the next time you see one you might be in the exam.
Saaiand Seven — GaNCINe MATERIALS
 Physical Changes

1) When a substance like salt dissolves, it hasn’t vanished. It’s still there — no mass is lost.
2) If you evaporated off the solvent (the water), you'd see the solute (the salt) again.

20g sa

Learn these seven definitions

about dissolving: Solute the solid being dissolved.
Sreleialt the liquid it’s dissolving into.
ie) teiereya) the dissolved solute and the solvent.
erelitle) ie means it will dissolve.
faksetelel(s Maplerclarci lanai |MN
@MEe | ve) hey
Saturated a solution that won't dissolve any
more solute at that temperature.
Solubility lavenvivananlelel pHANYAN|BrelKoisvey hizem

More dissolves at
higher temperatures

Copper sulphate
& -.@
hae

fills the gaps

| |between the
| |water particles —

1) Water particles tend to bump into the lump of salt and knock the particles apart. The free salt
particles then mix and fill the spaces between the water particles — this makes a solution.
2) At higher temperatures more solute will dissolve in the solvent because particles move faster.
3) However some solutes won't dissolve in certain solvents. E.g. salt won't dissolve in petrol.

There's usually
asimple solution to every problem
It’s well worth learning the definitions on this page. If you're confident with the vocabulary,
then you'll find things a lot easier when it comes to understanding the questions.

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

90

Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions are vital because they maintain all life on Earth.

Cotton thread _|l 4, Thermometer

1) in’asenerriealstfeacHant no mass isSint ne he
reactants turn into the products.
Cotton wool ;
2) A word equation is used to show what's going on. \ Blue solution of
\copper sulphate
3) Chemical reactions involve a permanent Piece of
change not just a temporary one. magnesium

4) They always involve a change in energy — they

always give out or take in energy (usually as heat).
5) Visible changes can occur in the reaction
mixture. These show that a reaction has taken The solution goes clear and
place. E.g. — a gas comes off; a solid is made; the temperature ris a
the mass stays we ame
or the colour changes.

Oxygen combines with substances, usually to make the oxide.

Examples: RUSTING — Iron becomes iron oxide (rust).
COMBUSTION — A fuel like methane is burnt to make carbon dioxide and water
(the oxides of carbon and hydrogen).

a :Exothermic Re
1) The reaction suppliesivyenergy cea heat),
which is given to the surroundings. Heat given out)
2) The temperature of the reaction mixture might go up. |
Examples: COMBUSTION — fuel burning, EXPLOSIONS — TNT exploding.

3) Endothermic Rea Ci
Date ad

1) In these reactions energyANOS to bes

supplied from outside, usually as heat.
2) The reaction takes in the heat energy and uses it to create new chemicals.
3) The temperature of the reaction mixture might go down.
Examples: SMELTING LEAD — Getting lead from lead oxide. —_Heat takenin,
PHOTOSYNTHESIS — Plants making their own food.

Neutralisation is covered
in more detail in Section 8.
1) An acid reacts with a a or alkali (which is just a soluble base) to form a salt and water.
2) These products are neutral (pH 7 — see p. 108). The acidity or alkalinity is cancelled out.
Examples: INDIGESTION TABLETS, LIMING SOILS (see p. 91).

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

 9]

Everyday Examples of Chemical Reactions

You1 need to know some eamples of different chemical reactions for the exam.

) Sugars are turne inte ethane Nel eoalaareveas

2) Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product, which is nice because it makes the drink fizzy.
) No air can be present, as this causes the alcohol to turn into vinegar, which tastes unpleasant.
) Equation: GLUCOSE + WATER — ETHANOL + CARBON DIOXIDE
Uses: Making medicines; making bread; and making alcohol.

alisation is use
Metal carbonates areused to remove excessTTT in1 the stomach,
which is what causes indigestion.
2) Lime is used to remove acidity in soils. Liming (adding calcium
hydroxide to soil) helps get the pH right for crops.

mbustion is burning — a fuel feats il oxygen to release usefulenergy.

2) Most fuels are hydrocarbons, i.e. they contain carbon and hydrogen only.
3) The products of burning are the oxides of hydrogen and carbon —
i.e. water (H,O) and carbon dioxide.
Three things are needed for combustion: fuel, heat and oxygen.

Carbon dioxide (CO,) is created when fuels 1) Most fuels contain

are burned. It then remains in the atmosphere. sulphur impurities.
2) It acts like a blanket which keeps heat in. 2) These turn into sulphur
This causes the Earth to slowly warm up. dioxide when the fuel burns.
3) This could cause problems:
It could speed up the 3) Oxides of nitrogen are
melting of the also made from air by
polar ice caps the heat of burning.
which would
raise sea levels. 4) These oxides react
with water and
And the
climate | Earth heats up — this make acid rain.
could melt the ice caps
could change. making the sea
s level rise.

‘Chemical reactions have advantages and disadvantages

Some chemical reactions give us useful products, like medicine and alcohol. Others cause big |
problems, like aay rain. ees sure ais ely Sos = the be of reaction on these FASE :

Sequae Seige— ree Weeaust

92

\eT=Yo}
Coke|(or-] inOyal-lale [ot-
Geological changes involve changes to rocks both inside and outside the Earth.

=— a8

know about:

Onion Skin Weathering: This happens when the Sun warms the surface of a rock by
day — and then by night it cools down. This causes the surface to expand and
contract, and eventually it breaks away, like peeling an onion.

b) Freeze-Thaw Weathering: When water freezes it expands — if this happens

in a crack in a rock it can make the crack bigger. After freezing and thawing many
times bits break off.

Large forces shatter the rock |

Acid Rain: Rain is naturally acidic due to carbon dioxide

in the air — but pollution causes it to become more acidic.
If it rains onto carbonate rocks like limestone, they undergo
a chemical reaction. This breaks down the rock.

Animals and Plants: Rabbits burrow under rocks —

this weakens them. Tree roots grow through rocks
and weaken them. Weak rocks break up easily.

There are three kinds of weathering to learn about

It shouldn’t take you too long to learn what's on this page. Then cover it up and test
_ yourself until you're really sure it’s soaked in. Then test again just to make sure.
SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS
 93

€7T-Yo}
ore] (or-]fmOdal:late [=%-)
Weathering is just one of the changes that occur in the rock cycle.

The rock cycle involves changing the three types of rock

(igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) from one to another.
This happens by:

—s ) Weathering: breaking down rocks.

NO ) Erosion: wearing down and moving bits of rock.
) Transportation: moving the eroded bits of rock round the world by wind and water (mostly).
(US)) Deposition: laying down of sediment.
ASS

On ) Burial / compression / cementation: squeezing and compressing the layers

— eventually they form sedimentary rocks.
Heat / pressure: further squashing and heating — turns the rocks into metamorphic rocks.
Melting: intense heating makes the rock partially melt — that changes it to magma.
©o Cooling: solidification of the molten rock.
WO Exposure: back to weathering and erosion again.
(The amount of rock on the surface is always about the same,
_ even though it’s weathered away.)

Exposed metamorphic |
marble
| Exposed sed entary |.
rock, e.g. limestone

Examiners like asking questions about rocks

This diagram has loads of information to take in. Practise drawing it until you can
get it right, and put all the labels in the right place as well. It'll be worth the effort.

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

94

Rock Types 3

lere are Three

PO

1) Magma — molten (melted) rock — is pushed up to the surface of the crust,

and sometimes out through volcanoes. Once there, it cools and becomes solid.
2) There are two types of igneous rocks: extrusive and intrusive.
| Extrusive igneous rocks |
— cool above ground

Intrusive igneous rocks

— cool underground
and eventually get
exposed by erosion.

3) They contain various minerals in When magma solidifies, the moving

randomly arranged interlocking crystals. particles in liquid rock join together,
4) The size of the crystals depends on speed of cooling. making solid crystals (see p. 65).
The longer this takes, the more
The slower the cooling, the larger the crystals.
particles can join together, forming
This affects the texture of the rock.
larger — and fewer — crystals.
Examples: Granite, basalt.

1) These are formed from layers of sediment (rock fragments or dead matter) laid down
in lakes or seas over millions of years. Sedimentary rocks can also form when water
evaporates and leaves a dissolved solid (like salt) behind.
2) The high pressure caused by the rock being squashed between the layers above and
below squeezes out the water. The layers are cemented together by other materials.
Sediment
Pressure
water squis hed
particles
out

=
Pressure Cz minerals

3) Fossils can form in the sediments. These are the long-dead remains of plants
and animals. The type of fossil is used to work out the relative age of the rock.
Examples: Limestone, chalk, sandstone.

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

 Rock Types

1) These are the result of heat and increased pressure exerted

on existing rocks over long periods of time.
2) They may have really tiny crystals and some have layers.
Examples: Marble, slate, schist.

Sedimentary
rock

Metamorphic
rock

Igneous
rock

Magma

SOLS I SOO OSES SE SSS

Elements make up compounds — which make up mine fails. —*

and rocks are made up of mixtures of minerals. For example:

Elements ©Compounds Minerals Rock

Silicon & Silicon dioxide Quartz Sandstone
oxygen

Size of
it RE Se Example Particles
O (QO)
Sion (Gil Very small

Silicon
dioxide (Si0,) | Also very small

Quartz Visible

Sandstone) Rather large

 Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions
You'll need to learn all the stuff in this section before the exam. Might as well
make a start on it now. It’s not a lot of fun, but it’s the only way to get good marks.

Warm-up Que:
If you boil 100 g of water until there is none left, what mass of water vapour will you get?
List three visible changes in a reaction mixture which would show that a chemical change
had taken place.
What is the difference between endothermic and exothermic reactions?
What two changes might we see as a result of global warming?
What happens when oxides of sulphur and nitrogen react with atmospheric water?
Give two examples of each rock type: metamorphic, sedimentary and igneous.

Worked Exam ?
When Sally adds salt to water and stirs it, the salt dissolves in the water.
(a) Complete the table below:

eee [sae salt

You need to learn these scientific terms.
Make sure you know the difference
between them for the exam.

(3 marks)

(6) Sally measures the maximum amount of salt that can be dissolved
in 100 ml of water at room temperature. She then repeats her
experiment with 100 ml of water heated to 60°C.
(i) What name is given to a liquid that can’t dissolve any more solid?
a saturated solution
(1 mark)

(ii) Will Sally be able to dissolve more or less salt

in the water at the higher temperature? Why?

Sally will be able to dissolve

temperature, because the particles
(2 marks)

(iii) Sally finds that she can dissolve 36 g of salt in 100 ml (100 g) of water at
room temperature. What is the mass of the mixture?

(1 mark)

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

 Exam Questions

2 The diagram below shows part of a small volcanic island.

There have been no eruptions for thousands of years.

(a) Rocks A and C have both formed from solidifying magma.

(i) What type of rock is formed from solidifying magma?
(1 mark)

(ii) Choose from the words below to complete the sentences that follow.

slowly quickly large small intrusive

extrusive limestone basalt slate granite

The magma at A cooled . , forming an

rock which has crystals,

(8 marks)

(b) Rock B is metamorphic.

Briefly describe how this metamorphic rock was formed.
(2 marks)

(c) Layers of sediment are being deposited on the seabed at D. The layers will
eventually form sedimentary rock. This process takes millions of years.
(i) Explain how the layers of sediment at point D will be turned into rock.
(2 marks)

(ii) There are often fossils in sedimentary rock.

How can geologists use fossils to work out the age
of different layers in sedimentary rock?

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

98

Revision Summary
There are all sorts of bits and bobs in Section Seven — physical changes, different kinds of reaction,
useful reactions, not-so-useful reactions, and then finally there’s geology and rocks — a fair old
mish-mash really. All you have to do now is learn it all. And yes you've guessed it, here are some
lovely questions | prepared earlier. It’s no good just idly going through them and managing half-
baked answers to one or two that take your fancy. Make sure you can answer all of them fully.
1) What is a physical change?
2) 50g of iron is melted. What mass of liquid iron is produced? (You'll find the answer on p.165.)
3) What is happening during the flat bits of a) a heating curve? __b) a cooling curve?
4) 100 g of sugar are dissolved in 200 g of water.
a) What's the mass of the solution?
b) What would happen if you evaporated off the water?
5) Give a definition for each of the following terms:
a) solute b) solvent —_c) solution d) insoluble —_e) saturated solution _f) solubility
6) Describe what happens to the particles when something dissolves.
7) What happens to solubility when temperature increases? Why?
8) Why are chemical reactions so important?
9) List the five basic facts about chemical reactions.
10) Give three examples of visible changes that show a chemical reaction is taking place.
11) What happens in an oxidation reaction? Give two examples of oxidation reactions.
12) What happens in an exothermic reaction? Give two examples of exothermic reactions.
13) What happens in an endothermic reaction? Give two examples of endothermic reactions.
14) What are the reactants in a neutralisation reaction? Why is it called neutralisation?
15) Name three things that can be made using fermentation.
16) Describe two everyday examples of neutralisation.
17) What three things are needed for combustion to take place?
18) What term is used to describe the harmful gases released by combustion of fuels?
19) Describe how the greenhouse effect occurs. What problems can it cause?
20) ) Describe how acid rain forms. What problems can it cause?
21) ) What is weathering?
22) ) Name three types of weathering and describe how they happen.
23) Draw and label a diagram of the rock cycle.
24) Name the three rock types and give at least two examples of each one.
25) What are the two types of igneous rocks? What is different about them?
26) Describe how the particles are held together when sedimentary rocks are forming.
27) Name two types of evidence that can be used to help work out
the age of sedimentary rocks, and explain how they help.
28) What causes metamorphic rocks to form?
29) What are rocks made up of?

SECTION SEVEN — CHANGING MATERIALS

 SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR 99

The Reactivity Series

Potassium K
Sodium Na
Calcium a
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
(Carbon) ‘non-metal
Zinc Zn
lron Fe
Lead Pb
(Hydrogen) non-metal
Copper Cu
Silver Ag
Gold

The first five metals all need electrolysis, (where electrical

Potassium energy splits up the ore into its constituent elements).
Sodium These five metals weren’t extracted from their ores until the
Calcium Hard 19'" Century (when someone invented electricity).
| Magnesium Carbon (see below) can’t be used — it’s not reactive enough.
| Aluminium The metal holds on to the non-metal bit of the ore too well.

7Ginc Fairl The next three metals need a reduction reaction

Iron pa with coke, (carbon). These metals have been
| Lead eoey known for about 2000 years.

Copper Vv The last three metals are not very reactive at all.
Silver xery Silver and gold are so unreactive that you can find
| Gold easy them lying in the ground and in rivers.
But you have to look pretty carefully.

A metal’s reactivity shows how it will behave in reactions

This is pretty basic stuff. In chemistry, the reactivity of a metal is the most important feature
of it. It shouldn’t be too hard to learn the order they come in, so make sure you learn it all.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

100

Reaction of Metals with Air

Most metals will tarnish after a while in the air.

2) This is a reaction with the oxygen in the air.
It makes a dull layer of metal oxide on the surface. -
3) The more reactive a metal is, the more violent the
reaction when it’s burnt in oxygen or air.

Reaction with Oxygen — Results:

Potassium
; Burn very
Sodium
; ivanwith a
easily
Calcium bright flame.
Magnesium

Aluminium*
Zinc
React slowly
Iron with air when
Lead heated.
Copper

Silver No reaction. eI
CF

* Aluminium reacts with oxygen, making a protective ‘C0

oxide layer which stops further reactions.

Metal + oxygen —) metal oxide

Zinc + oxygen — zinc oxide

2Zn + O, — 27ZnO

| Why can’t | have a potassium wedding ring?

You can see why a lot of people choose gold jewellery — it stays shiny for ever, more or less.
_ More reactive metals aren’t quite so long-lasting, and some would be downright dangerous.
SECTION EiGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR
 101

Reaction of Metals with Water

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will

always react with water to produce hydrogen.
2) The more reactive metals react vigorously with cold water to produce hydroxides.
The less reactive metals react slowly with water, (but quickly with steam), to make oxides.

Reaction with Water — Results:

Potassium : fe
Cadium eact wit
i cold water
Calcium

ees React with

Aluminium* ean .
Zinc (Aluminium looks slow)

Iron

Lead No reaction with water or

Copper steam (lead does react,
Silver but only incredibly slowly)
Gold
“Aluminium reacts with oxygen, making a protective oxide ayer which stops further reactions,

Metal + water emaaap Metal hydroxide + hydrogen

(Less reactive metal + steam ==> Metal oxide + hydrogen)

1) Magnesium + steam — Magnesium oxide + hydrogen

Mg + H,O MgO + H,

2) Sodium + water — Sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na + 2H,O 2NaOH + H,

The metals are split into three groups for these reactions
| | Learn all the details on this page. Aluminium is the only one to be careful with, |
because it doesn’t behave quite like you’d expect. It might crop up in the exam.
a

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

102

Reaction of Metals with Acids

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will Metal + acid — salt + hydrogen
react with acids to make a salt and hydrogen.
The metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series don’t react with acids.
The reaction becomes even less exciting as you go down the series.

More Reactive Me
Reaction with Dilute Acid — Results:
Potassium ~ preg . A
Sodium Violent reaction with :a : ae
pot
Calcium dilute acids
Dilute _
|
acid
The lower the reactivity
inateies React fairly well with — the less visible the
: ; :
L S gn
dilute acids
Zinc reaction.
Iron ~*(Aluminium looks slow)

Lead
Copper No reaction with
Silver dilute acids
Gold
“Aluminium reacts with oxygen, making a protective oxide layer which stops further reactions.

3 ' 2 : The zinc takes the place of

Zinc + sulphuric acid — Zinc sulphate + hydrogen the hydrogen in the acid
7n +HSO => ZnSO + H because it's more reactive
ae 4 t than the hydrogen.

Sodium + hydrochloric acid =-— Sodium chloride + hydrogen

2Na + 2HCI —> 2NaCl +,.H,
The sodium takes the place of the hydrogen in the acid —
again because it's more reactive than the hydrogen.

1) Hydrogen is made using a gas generator Bite a

, 5 AD j lydrogen This is
like the one in this diagram. » hydr hee gas gollecting a, tes
ver water
oxygen, which
Zinc granules react with hydrochloric acid will relight a
and the hydrogen which is produced is glowing splint.
collected in the test tube through water.
If a lit splint is put near the tube,
the notorious squeaky pop is heard.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

 103

Displacement Reactions

The reactivity series tells you which are the most reactive metals
— i.e. the ones which react most strongly with other things.
2) If you put a more reactive metal like magnesium into a solution of a less reactive metal
compound, like copper sulphate, then the magnesium will take the place of the copper —
and make magnesium sulphate.
3) The “kicked out” metal then coats itself on the reactive metal, so we'd see copper.
This only happens if the metal added is more reactive — higher displaces lower. Got it?

Magnesium | Magnesium

into some salt

solutions and see what happens.

Tube 1 ae the copper sulphate ae colourless Salt Copper Sulphate ||Zinc Sulphate || Copper Sulphate | |Iron Sulphate | Zinc Sulphate
and the copper coats the magnesium strip. Solution’ [RASASOSHES BSCR | MO Nae 3)[NEO ea) eases)

‘Magnesium + copper sulphate > magnesium sulphate + copper

Magnesium must be more reactive than copper, as it takes its place.

Tube 2 — zinc is seen coating the magnesium strip.

Magnesium + zinc sulphate > magnesium sulphate + zinc
« Magnesium must be more reactive than zinc, as it takes its place.

Tube 3 — the copper sulphate goes colourless and the copper coats the nail.
lron + copper sulphate — iron sulphate + copper
Iron must be more reactive than copper, as it takes its place.

Tube 4 — iron is seen coating the zinc strip.

Zinc + iron sulphate —> zinc sulphate + iron
Most Reactive
Zinc must be more reactive than iron, as it takes its place.
Magnesium
Zinc
Tube 5 — Nothing is seen — so there’s no reaction.
lron
Copper + zinc sulphate > no way Copper

Copper can’t displace zinc — it’s not reactive enough. Least Reactive

Displacement reactions are really important, so make sure you learn them properly.
Metals higher in the reactivity series displace those lower down. Simple.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

104

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

The good thing about those last few pages is that they all revolve around one thing —
the reactivity series. Basically you need to get your head round that if want to stand a
good chance in the exam. Once you've learnt all the rules for the different reactions,
then it’s fairly easy to work out the answer to any exam question about this kind of thing. —

Warm-up Quesi
What are the only two non-metals in the reactivity series?
Why can’t carbon be used to extract sodium from its ore?
Why does aluminium seem to be less reactive than it actually is?
Why does magnesium react with sulphuric acid?
What would you see happening when a strip of zinc is dipped into a solution of:
a) magnesium sulphate solution?
copper sulphate solution?
—
LS

Stephen poured equal quantities of black copper oxide and grey zinc powders onto
an upturned dish. He used a Bunsen burner to heat one end of the mound of
powder. A reaction started and Stephen removed
the Bunsen burner. The mixture left behind was
glowing, and Stephen saw a yellow solid which
turned white when it was cold.

NB — The displacement reaction in this experiment is

a bit odd because it involves solids (most of the ones
you find in the exam involve metal salts in solution). >
But don't be put off — it follows the same rules. Heatproof mat

(a) Give one safety precaution which Stephen took during this experiment.
You can use your common sense and just look at
the diagram to answer this question — there
are a few correct answers so it’s not too hard. (1 mark)

(6) In this reaction, copper and zinc oxide were produced.

(i) Write a word equation to show this reaction.
Copper. oxide + zinc ~ copper + zinc oxide
(1 mark)

(ii) What kind of reaction is this?

Displacement
(1 mark)
Questions like this are common
in the exams, $0 you really need
to learn the reactivity series.

(1 mark)

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR |

 105

Exam Questions

reaction with reaction with cold ti inet

oxygen water reaction with steam

tin reacts slowly to form NEOSHO ti

a white surface layer a

lithium
Bers oa a2 | sha metal fidate,
bright red flame, to
and fez
melt
iB ~ f
't bedone
on h fs Se oa:
safel
foerinsniieuaciid es energetically | in schools)

burns easily, with a the metal glows very

magnesium | bright white flame, to |no reaction brightly, and a white
form a white solid solid is formed

(a) Write the names of these four metals in the order of their reactivity,
beginning with the most reactive.
(4 marks)

(b) Write a word equation for the reaction of tin with oxygen.
(1 mark)

(c) A piece of red litmus paper will turn blue when dipped in the solution
formed after the reaction of lithium with water.
(i) What is the name of the lithium compound formed?
(1 mark)

(ii) Is the compound acidic or alkaline?

(1 mark)

3 Archaeologists often look for items made out of metal when they are trying to
find out about life in the past. If they find an object made from aluminium,
they know that it is less than 200 years old.

(a) Explain how the archaeologists know that objects

made from aluminium are less than 200 years old.
(2 marks)

(b) Suggest a metal that the oldest objects found are likely to be made from.
(1 mark)

(c) Explain why it is very unlikely that any objects made

from pure calcium would ever be found in the ground.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

106

Acids share lots of characteristics with one another.

These eight facts will help you recognise acid substances and the way that they behave.

| 1)Acids have.
Acids have a oH below7 so they turn pH paper red or orange. gn

a8
2000?

Acids have Hydrogen in them -

Hydrochloric acid (HCI) Nitric acid (HNO,) Citric acid (C,H,O.)
Sulphuric acid (H,SO,) Ethanoic acid (CH,COOH) — Something acid (H something)

There are eight things to learn

on this page |
Some of them are really obvious, too, so it shouldn’t take too long to get them learnt.
Cover the page, and see how many you can write down from mueOe

SECTION Risin — PeghuanignOF Breaucoulk

 107

Alkalis
Alkalis are the chemical opposites of acids, at the other end of the pH scale.
They have some important properties, and we use them for a lot of different purposes.

They are often hard to wash off so they

can burn your skin worse than an acid.

| Bis
Alkalis Neutré
They make a salt and water on neutralising an acid.

(neutralise acids)

Alkalis
(soluble bases)

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO,)

Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH),) Ammonia solution (NH,OH)
Calcium carbonate (CaCO,) Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Bee stings are acid, wasp stings are alkaline... strange |

There are six things to learn here about alkalis and bases.
Jot them down and get them learnt. It shouldn’t take you very long.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

108

The pH Scale :

- SS

2°34 516 7 8 9 SPORIIZeioa

Strong ACIDS Weak ACIDS : Weak ALKALIS Strong ALKALIS

SS
NEUTRAL

¥
Sulphuric
;
acid
20o: . Soap
4 flakes \

Washing-up
aie

|
Ethanoic neem
acid —

ors are Dyes

1) An indicator is just a dye that changes
— |Indicator| / Match colour change
colour depending on whether it’s in an
to pH chart
acid or in an alkali.
2) Universal Indicator solution
is a very useful mixture of dyes
which gives the colours shown at the top | Colour change Dimple tile
of the page and opposite:
3) Litmus paper is quite a popular indicator — but it only tells us whether a
liquid is an acid or an alkali — it does not say how strong it is.

_ We use loads of acids and alkalis in our daily life

_ You need to know roughly what pH the things in these pictures are.
| They’re positioned below their actual pH on the pH scale. Learn them or lose easy marks.
SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR
 109

Useful Neutralisation Reactions

Se iiclication reactions are useful for loads of everyday things.
For example, they can cure indigestion.

1) “Indigestion” is caused by too much hydrochloric acid in the stomach (or rich food).
2) To remove it, the excess acid must be neutralised
with a medium strength base like magnesium oxide.

|
ES
| Too
Too much good
good living
living — neAlkali Happy chappy

Strong alkalis like sodium hydroxide can’t be used for indigestion tablets.
The reason is that a little too much would send the pH way too high.
This would affect the activity of enzymes in the stomach — so food
would not be digested properly. It could also damage the stomach itself.
Now, neutralisation results in a salt. All salts have a metal and a non-metal in them.
‘When you take indigestion tablets, (which contain a base, e.g. magnesium oxide)
then a salt is formed inside your stomach (— in this case magnesium chloride).

~. Neutralisation reactions always produce a salt and water:

Acid + base => a salt + water

E.g. Hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide > magnesium chloride + water

indigestion treatment

You might be very grateful for this neutralisation reaction

If it weren’t for neutralisation reactions, you’d never recover from bouts of indigestion.
So you BRE, eneinical reactions pint a GCE? sononsense to aballenge Houe Aaa taint

cen EIGHT — PATTERNS OF Serene

110

Useful Neutralisation Reactions

Farmers and gardeners find neutralisation reactions useful too. Learn the example below.

Soil can be acidic either because of acid rain, or

because of naturally acidic minerals in the local rocks.
2) Certain plants prefer acid soils and others prefer neutral or alkaline soils.
3) The fact is that plants are fussy. The wrong pH means poor growth.
‘Liming’ the soil neutralises the acid, getting the pH just right for the plant.

Tas.
M0
6.5
6.0
be
Ae)
45

Acid + base = a salt + water

E.g. Sulphuric acid + calcium hydroxide — calcium sulphate + water

That equation should be looking pretty familiar by now

_ It’s possible they'll ask you about farmers liming their fields.
_ Not eae) but learn that equation and nothing should faze you.

Gina aan _ alias OF Pe tie

 111

Problems Caused By Acid Reactions

Not all acid reactions are helpful. When acid attacks your teeth
and you have to have loads of fillings, you'll be reminded of that fact.

Carbon dioxide + water — carbonic acid

1) Rain is naturally a bit acidic due to carbon dioxide in the air.

2) Acidic pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
mix with water in the atmosphere and make acid rain (see below).
3) When metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series are exposed
to acids, they corrode by chemical reaction.
4) This weakens the metal, with devastating effects.

Steel cans are coated with tin (a less reactive metal) to prevent a chemical reaction.

Acid + metal — salt + hydrogen

E.g. Sulphuric acid + iron > iron sulphate + hydrogen

Putacoin in a can of fizzy drink and see what happens

After a few days you'll find it will have corroded from the weak acid in the drink.
When you've finished messing around, then perhaps you should learn these facts.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

 112

Problems Caused By Acid Reactions

1) Rocks like limestone, chalk and marble

contain calcium carbonate.
2) If acid rain falls onto these rocks, a chemical reaction
turns them into a calcium salt, water and carbon dioxide.
This weathers the rock.

Carbonate

General equation:

Acid + metal carbonate = salt + water + carbon dioxide

E.g. Nitric acid + calcium carbonate—> calcium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide

Pp Acid rain is mainly caused by acid pollutants

“he reacting with water.
i ~— Acid|
CO, 4

O
rob Aci
gase

|Depressing stuff but it still needs learning

| know there are lots of equations on these pages, but mostly it’s just the same one over and
| over again. Acid rain is a problem that affects us all, and it could well come up in the exam.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

 BZ

Making Salts
You might have done something like this in the lab — make sure you know all this stuff:

oo
lass ‘ '

& Bin Us paper of the water

hydrochloric S i 4
acl i —— J :

drops to | |=
neutralise test if solution
is neutral
every few drops leave to evaporate
until sodium chloride
25 cm? of sodium salt crystals form
hydroxide solution

pees

1) Wearing eye protection, add an acid to an alkali dropwise with a pipette.

2) After every few drops, remove a small sample to check if the pH is neutral (pH 7).
3) Keep adding acid until the solution is neutral.
4) When it’s neutral the solution is put in an evaporating dish and about two thirds of it
can be boiled off to make a saturated solution of the salt.
5) Leave this solution overnight and nice big crystals will form. The slower the crystallisation,
the bigger the crystals (like slow cooling magma gives big rock crystals).

The f hydrochloric a
displaced or replaced by sodium from the
alkali (sodium hydroxide in the example
here), i.e. the H is replaced by Na.
2) This makes NaCl and H,O. Neutralisatio

3) NaCl is sodium chloride — 1c) * Be

common salt and of course H,O
is water. Of course you knew.

2 hae
SE Ea

Hydrochloric acid reacts to make chloride salts... like sodium chloride.

2) Sulphuric acid reacts to make sulphate salts... like copper sulphate.
3) Nitric acid reacts to make nitrate Saits.:. like sodium nitrate.

It shouldn’t be a great surprise that adding acids to alkalis gives you a neutral solution.
The trickier part is remembering exactly what's going on in the displacement reaction.

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

114

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

These questions are designed to test what you know. If you’ve gone through the section and
learnt the facts, then you should be able to have a go at these questions.

What pH might an acid have? What pH might an alkali have?

No What is an indicator?
Why is litmus paper not as useful as Universal Indicator paper?
WwW
KR List two useful and two less useful reactions which involve acid reactants.
—_—
i
"OAS What kind of acid would you use to make a sulphate salt?

Worked Exam

1 Acids and alkalis are chemical opposites.

(a) Containers of acids and alkalis are often labelled with this symbol:

(i) What does this symbol tell you about the chemical?
It'S corrosive

(ii) Give one safety precaution you would take before

opening a container labelled with this symbol.

i a eee eee rrr rrr rr

It's a sate bet that safety will crop up in the exam.

(1 mark)

(b) An alkali is a soluble base. Sometimes excess acid can be a problem.

Bases can be reacted with excess acid to get rid of it.
(i) What kind of reaction is this?
neutralisation

Seem seeeeererererercsesesesscescessescces | seeeesesseeseeeseesesseeesessseesssessssseeee

COP STAASCO ORME SCC R ETUDE DER SE DETAR DE TSR R OTR TECH TERETE TUT RETR SEEMS UU RRSRFRRERS EHO R Renee a veeeunennutuennenaenvenaad

You could also write about reducing soil (1 mark)

acidity to improve crop growth, or reducing
the effect of acid rain in lakes for (b) (iii).

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

 Be)

Exam Questions

2 Fossil fuels such as coal and oil contain sulphur impurities. When they are burnt, the
sulphur burns too. The poisonous gas produced is one of the causes of acid rain.
(a) Complete the following word equation for the combustion of sulphur:
SULOMUG ie ceed ae Pete et
(1 mark)

(b) Explain how the gas that is produced when sulphur burns forms acid rain.
(1 mark)

(c) When acid rain falls on limestone (calcium carbonate),

a chemical reaction takes place.
(i) What is the process in which chemicals erode rocks called?
(1 mark)

(ii) A gas is produced when acid rain reacts with limestone.

When collected and bubbled through limewater, the gas
turns the limewater milky. Give the name of the gas.
(7 mark)

An environmentalist is studying a lake in Norway. He is recording the species that

he observes living in the lake and is taking measurements of factors such as the
pH of the water. Below is a summary of part of his report, and a table showing
the minimum pH levels that some organisms can tolerate.

The pH of the water was very low, only organism | minimum pH tolerated
pH 4.3. | observed no trout or perch at
trout 5.0
all. | observed a few frogs in the shallows.
Drastic action will need to be taken if perch | 4.5

this lake is ever to support fish again. frogs 4.0

(a) Why did the environmentalist observe frogs living in the lake, but no fish?
(2 marks)

(b) A study done 15 years before had found both trout and perch living in the lake.
Suggest one reason why the pH level of the lake might since have fallen so low.
(1 mark)

(c) In 1998, a decision was made to add powdered limestone to the lake to
raise the pH of the water. Explain why this increased the pH of the water.
(1 mark)

(d) By 2000, trout and perch were living in the lake. However, in 2003,
the pH of the lake began to fall again and the fish populations decreased.
Explain why the pH level began to fall.
(1 mark)

(e) Suggest a solution to the problem behind this low pH which

would last for longer than “liming”.
(71 mark)

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

 116

Revision Summary
Here we are again — another jolly Revision Summary to cheer up your dreary day. Don’t forget,
these questions are only here to make sure you've learnt everything you should’ve done. You're
supposed to be able to answer all of these questions effortlessly — and you're supposed to keep
practising them until you can. OK, |grant you it’s not the most exciting thing you can do of an
evening, but there you go — nobody ever said life was going to be all fun and sunshine, did they...
1) List the reactivity series in the correct order. Take the first letter of each element and make
up a rhyme to help you remember it — there, that'll cheer you up.
2) Which metal in that reactivity series is hardest to remove from its ore?
3) Why was aluminium very rare in the 1600's?
4) Describe what you see when the following metals are burnt in air:
a) magnesium b)sodium c) silver.
5) How do very reactive metals in the reactivity series react with water?
6) What does magnesium “take” from a water molecule when it reacts with steam?
7) Why does aluminium seem so unreactive when it’s so high in the reactivity series?
8) What do metals produce when they react with an acid?
9) Which metal will react the most violently with acid?
10) What is the test for hydrogen?
11) What does displacement mean?
12) What is the rule for displacement reactions?
13) Explain why magnesium can displace copper from copper sulphate.
14) List the eight properties of acids and the six properties of alkalis.
15) Give the names and formulae of six acids and six bases.
16) Describe how you would measure the pH of an unknown liquid.
17) Classify the following as either an acid, a base or a salt: (Answers on page 165.)
a) citric acid _b) calcium oxide c) calcium carbonate d) sodium chloride e) formic acid.
1 8)) What is neutralisation?
1 9)) How can indigestion be helped using neutralisation?
20) ) Give an equation for a base reacting with hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
21) ) What happens to a crop if the soil it has grown in has the wrong pH?
22) Give the general equation for an acid reacting with a metal.
23) Baked beans are acidic — what will they do inside a dented steel can?
24) Why is all rain naturally acidic?
25) Give the general equation for an acid reacting with a metal carbonate.
26) ) Bacteria in plaque feed on the sugar left on your teeth and produce acid.
Why is it a good idea to use bicarbonate toothpaste and brush the plaque off twice a day?
27) What's the test for carbon dioxide?
28) Outline the method used to make common salt — sodium chloride.
29) Hydrochloric acid makes chloride salts — what salts does sulphuric acid make?
30) What kind of salts do you get from nitric acid?

™N

SECTION EIGHT — PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR

 SECTION NiNE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 117

Electricity
Electricity is a really important part of our lives. We don’t notice how
much we use it until we have a power cut and nothing works any more.

(Well OK, graphite does too, and some liquids

and solutions do — but mostly it’s just metals.)

Electricity will only flow in a complete 5) Metals are conductors of electricity.

circuit. 6) Nearly all other materials are
That usually means that metal must join to insulators — which just means they
metal all the way round. don’t allow electric charges to pass
If there’s a break, the current won't flow, through them.
This is because only metals will allow Common insulators are: wood,
charge (electrons) to pass through them. plastic, rubber, glass, ceramics
(Yes yes, and graphite and (pottery), etc.
solutions, | know.)

A battery ho A switch: alii

— open hes

A motor -clsed =
-O-O—

Start at the battery and go round the circuit,

putting in the symbol for each component
until you return to the battery.

Don't lose marks by not knowing your symbols

It seems a bit silly, but if you don’t know the symbol for an ammeter, how are you going to
cope when you have to draw one in the exam? Don’t lose marks unnecessarily.

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 118

Electric Currents in Circuits

urrent is

1) Electric current is: the flow of charge around a circuit.

Pista The actual
seston
, : Gch this way
2) It can only flow if a circuit is complete.
3) Ina circuit the cell acts like a pump — it provides
the driving force to push the charge round the circuit.
4) The moving charges are actually negative electrons.
i
tt
5) Irritatingly, they flow the opposite way to the direction
of conventional current, which is shown on circuits as
arrows pointing always from positive to negative.
It’s vital that you realise that current is not used up.

Low pressure High preseure 1) The pump drives the water along.
ame The water is there at the pump and is still there
N : when it returns to it — and just like the water,
L PUMP electric current in a circuit doesn’t get used up either.
lL | 2) Note also how a narrow bit will
i A bit... .
a
os se 4 create resistance to the flow.
which is like 3) Ammeters measure electric current (in amperes).
resistance

ies Circuits —C
1) Current flows out of the cell, through the ammeter,
the bulbs, then through the other ammeter and the switch
and back to the cell. As it passes through, the current Ammeters
gives up some of its energy to the bulbs. A> Suen |
2) The current is the same anywhere in this Circuit, as it
has no choice of route. Did | tell you current isn’t used up?
— well, don’t forget.
3) In series circuits the current is either ON or OFF — the switch
being open or any other break in the circuit will stop
the current flowing everywhere.

| Why don’t you wire your house lights in series?

_ It’s pretty obvious, | reckon. If a bulb went, all the lights in a series circuit would go
off, leaving
_ you in total darkness. So it won’t come as a surprise that there is another type of circuit...

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 119

Electric Currents in Circuits

Current flows out of the cell and it all flows through the first ammeter A..
It then has a “choice” of three routes and the currents
splits down routes 4) Quand.
The readings of ammeters A,, A, and A, could be different,
depending on the resistances of the components
— i.e. the bulbs.
The split-up current joins up again on its way back to the cell.
So the readings of A,+ A,+ A, added together will be equal to the
reading for current on ammeter A, (which will also equal A,).
It’s difficult to believe | know, but the current through A, is the same as the current through
A, — the current is not used up. (I may have told you that once or twice already.)

5) Parallel circuits are sensible because part of them can be on while other bits are off.
In the circuit here, two bulbs are on and the other one is off.

| through —
— that bulb|

Switch 3
Switch 1 Switch 4

So now you know the two different types of circuits

Make sure you know which is which — it's vital for exam questions. Parallel circuits are a lot
more versatile than series circuits. Andgelusehin case you'd iPigeticn, the current is not used us

eee ete — mien, iy

ANDey Ne een
 120

The circuit is complete when the switch is

closed — the bulb lights up.
2) Ammeter reading = 4A.

1) The bulb is twice as bright compared to (1).

2) The two cells provide twice the push
for the current, so the bulb shines brighter.
3) Ammeter reading = 8A.

1) The bulbs are dimmer than in (1).

2) With two bulbs in series, and only one cell
to “push”, the current is only half as big.
3) Ammeter reading = 2A.
It’s tricky to understand why, but if the two bulbs were
in parallel, they would both be just as bright as normal.

1) The bulbs are as bright as in (1).

2) The two cells provide twice the ‘push’
compared to (1), but the two bulbs give
twice the resistance for it to “push” against.
3) Ammeter reading = 4A. i.e. same current as (1).

1) In the diagram you can see that the current takes

the easy route round the bulb and not through it.
This is known as a short circuit.
2) It's easier for the current to go through the wire simply
Short circuit
because the wire gives much less resistance to the flow. (short cut
Once the short circuit is in place, the circuit behaves for current)

like there’s only one bulb. ;

3) Hence the ammeter reading would be back to 4A as in (1) above.

_ What a lot of circuit diagrams

They're not too complicated, though. The good thing about physics is that it’s pretty logical.
Once you've learned the rules, you'll be OK.

SecTION NinE — ELectricity AND MAGNETISM

 121

WM ETefatsiay

Only iron, steel, nickel and cobalt are magnetic.

Bar magnets HAVE to be made using one of these metals.
All bar magnets have invisible magnetic fields round them.
One end of the bar magnet is called the north pole, and the other end
(astonishingly enough) is called the south pole.
The field lines always point from the N-pole to the S-pole:

Lines of magnetic force

Se,

cian, Repelling

A magnetic field is a region where magnetic materials (e.g. iron) experience a force.
You can investigate magnetic fields using either iron filings or a plotting compass:

The iron filings The field lines (or ‘lines of force’)

will align along always point from north to south.
the field lines. 6

The compass will always

point from NtoS along “
the field lines, wherever
lron filings are sprinkled onto a piece of
it’s placed in the field.
thin card which is covering the magnet.

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 127

| Repulsion is the |
1) The only true test of whether or not a piece of metal is a permanent magnet
is to get repulsion, because you need two magnets to get repulsion.
2) There are two possible reasons why an unknown
piece of metal will be attracted to a magnet:
a) It might actually be a magnet, or
b) It might only be made from a magnetic material
(iron, nickel etc.), but not actually be a magnet.

|Pre-magnetised paper clip

-Repulsion

Non-magnetised Pre-magnetised
steel paper clip S steel paper clip

N S
|Same effect in both cases — attraction |

Get hold of some magnets and experiment

The best way to remember this stuff about magnets is to play around with them for a bit
and do some of these experiments, until you've convinced yourself that it’s all true.
/

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 123

Electromagnets
Electric current also creates magnetic fields.
We can use this effect to create powerful electromagnets.

TASES VIED SORTER EE SEALS

1) A current going through a wire causes a magnetic field around the wire.
2) A solenoid is just a long coil of wire. Its magnetic field is the same as that of a bar magnet.

Magnetic
fiel i lines

Wire witha
current in it.

An electromagnet

1) More current More turns on 3) Acore of soft iron

in the wire. the solenoid. inside the solenoid.

ES

More wigs Soft iron

Ry:
core

Soft iron has to be used for the core to make it perform as an

electromagnet should — i.e. turning on and off when the
Current is turned on and off.
If a steel core was used, it would stay magnetised after the
current was switched off — which would be no good at all.

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 124

Electromagnets

1) When the switch is operated, the current flows through the

coil and the electromagnet attracts the hammer.
2) As the hammer moves, it not only clangs the bell but also pulls the contacts away,
and the circuit is broken. This turns off the electromagnet, which releases the hammer
and it springs back to its original position.
3) This turns the electromagnet back on which again attracts
the hammer, which again clangs the bell...

TC:
Relay
1) Asmall current in one circuit is used to switch on
a much larger current in another circuit.
2) When the small current is switched on the electromagnet activates
and the iron lever is attracted to it. This makes the lever rotate.
3) As it rotates, the other end of the lever pushes the
contacts together which turns on the other circuit.

| Electric magnets... whatever next

| You can have a lot of fun with electromagnets. Honest. Electromagnets are used in power
| stations to generate electricity and they also turn up in loads of handy gadgets, like hairdryers.

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 N29

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

There’s a good mix of warm-up questions to get you started, then you can launch yourself into
the nitty-gritty of circuit diagrams and magnetism. What a great way to spend an evening.

What is an insulator? Give an example.

Draw the circuit symbols for a) a cell b)abulb —_c) an ammeter.
Why is a parallel circuit more useful than a series circuit?
Which elements are magnetic?
What is a solenoid?
How can the strength of an electromagnet be increased?

Stella wraps a piece of copper wire around a

plastic tube and connects it to a simple circuit.

Plastic tube Copper wire

AUC
(a) When Stella switches on the circuit she finds she can pick up three steel paper
clips using the wire coil. Suggest one change to the apparatus to make the coil
pick up more paper clips at once.

She could also increase the number of coils inthe (1 mark)

wire, or increase the current by adding another cell.

(b) Stella tries to pick up a small silver earring with the coil, but it doesn’t work.
Explain why the coil will attract steel paper clips but not a silver earring.

(2 marks)

(c) Stella places a small compass at one end of the coil.

The needle points into the coil. ss

Remember — a compass needle

always points from N into S along
the field lines of a magnetic field.
ACCC)
Where will the needle point if she connects the battery the other way around?

(1 mark)

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 126

Exam Questions

2 When a key is turned in a car ignition, ore

a small current flows in the ignition
circuit. Using a relay, this switches on ct | Tine
the starter motor to start the car. as ae: starter
motor

ignition circuit —: motor circuit

(a) The relay is an electromagnet.

(i) Give the name of the most likely material to
be used for the core of the electromagnet.
(1 mark)

(ii) Give the name of a suitable material to use for the rocker.
(1 mark)

(b) Explain how the relay works to switch on the starter motor.
(3 marks)

Abby is building-amodelecar = «© — 4
She has designed a circuit to control .
the electric motor and headlights. Switchon Headlights

Switch B

(a) Copy and complete the table to show how the switches
can be used to control the motor and headlights.

Switch A| Switch B| Is the motor working? | Are the headlights on?

closed closed
a
open open ia

closed open
— —|
open closed
(4 marks)

(b) Abby wants to add a switch to the circuit that will allow her to turn
the headlights on when the motor is off. On the circuit diagram above,
label a suitable place for the switch with an ‘S’.
(1 mark)

(c) Abby now wants to add a light in parallel that will come on when
switch A is closed. On the circuit diagram above, draw a bulb and
connecting wires to show how she could do this.
(1 mark)

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 Ezy

Revision Summary
Phew. Electricity and magnetism — it’s no holiday, that’s for sure. There are certainly quite
a few grisly bits and bobs in this section. Then again, life isn’t all bad — just look at all
these lovely questions I’ve cooked up for your delight and enjoyment. These are very simple
questions which just test how much stuff you've taken on board. They're in the same order
as the stuff appears throughout Section Nine — so for any you can’t do, just look back, find
the answer, and then learn it good and proper for next time. Yep, that’s right, next time —
the whole idea of these questions is that you just keep practising them time after time after
time — until you can do them all effortlessly.

1) Give the name of the most common group of conductors.

2) Give the names of five insulators.
3) What is needed for electricity to flow?
4) Cana bulb light if electricity doesn’t get to the bulb?
5) What is a circuit diagram? Why don’t we draw out the real thing all the time?
6) Sketch the circuit symbol for all of these:
a)abuzzer b)abulb c)abattery d)aswitch (open) e) a cell.
7) Current is the flow of what?
8) What job does a battery do in a circuit?
9) What instrument do we use to measure current? What are the units of current?
10) What happens if there is a break in a series circuit?
11) Which type of circuit allows part of the circuit to be switched off?
12) In parallel circuits current has a choice of what?
13) What is not used up in a circuit?
14) In a series circuit, what happens to the current if you double the cells present?
15) In a series Circuit, what happens to the current if you increase the number of
components in the circuit?
16) What is a short circuit? Why does the electricity flow through this route?
17) What are magnets always surrounded by? Name three magnetic materials.
18) ) Draw a labelled diagram of a bar magnet. What are the lines around it called?
19) ) What is a magnetic field? In which direction do field lines always go?
20) ) Show the lines of force for two magnets that are a) attracting —_b) repelling.
21) ) Sketch a diagram showing how a plotting compass points around a bar magnet.
22) Show a) two poles attracting —_b) two poles repelling.
23) ) How can you test if a material is magnetic?
24) What's a solenoid? What do the field lines around a solenoid look like?
25) ) What's an electromagnet? List three ways to increase the strength of one.

SECTION NINE — ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 128 SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MoTION

This line means

A formula
J» divided by or
me clare & d aie.
shared by (+).
Time
1) Speed is simply how far you've travelled in a certain time.
2) The formula triangle is definitely the best way to do speed calculations.
3) Use the word SIDOT to help you remember the formula:

Remember SIDOT.: Speed Is Distance Over Time

4) There are three common units for speed, as shown below.

You should realise that they’re all kind of the same: i.e. distance unit per time unit:
metres per second — m/s (or even ms")
miles per hour — m.p.h. or miles/hour /
kilometres per hour — km/h Always use units.

To work out speed you need to know the distance travelled and the time taken.
EXAMPLE 1: A sheep is running down a farmer's track. It takes exactly
10 seconds to move between two fence posts, 10 metres apart. What's the sheep’s speed?

Answer: Put your finger over ‘S’ in

Step 1) Write down what ou know: the formula triangle —
distance,d=10m_ time, t= 10s which leaves d/t
Step 2) We want to find speed, s (i.e. d=0).
From the formula triangle: s = d/t
Speed = distance + time = 10 + 10 = 1 m/s

Speed questions are a doddle if you just learn the formula triangle

EXAMPLE 2: A van drives down a road and travels

15 miles in 30 minutes. What's its speed?

Answer:
Step 1) Write down what you know:
distance, d= 15 miles time, t = 30 minutes = 0.5 of an hour.
Step 2) We want to find speed, s — From the formula triangle: s = d/t
Speed = distance + time = 15 + 0.5 = 30 miles/hour (mph)
For the answer to be in mph you need the distance in miles and the time in hours, so the 30 mins had to become 0.5 hrs.

Don’t be scared by this formula

Speed is a pretty simple idea really. Mind you, that doesn’t stop people getting muddled up
_ about it. Learn the formula, the units, and go through the examples until you're sure.

SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MoTION

 £29

Force and Movement

a a iS
TOTO

Forces can’t be seen, but the effects of a

force can be seen.
2) They are measured in newtons —N.
3) They usually act in pairs. an
4) They always act in a certain direction.

) A newton meter is used to measure forces.

Speed up] /

Slow Down wo
; ©. bia

ih es
— like hitting a ball with a bat. diesionos
| vu Do; C
aN
ACE
SPANNER
— like turning a spanner. turn} Changing shaneWe J aaa j

Sst a EB Bending

— like stretching, twisting, compressing, bending.

Learn these two important statements:

Table produces an
<— 7 upward force which stops
Balanced forces produce the book falling through
the table (reaction)
no change in movement
~ Gravity pulls its
mass down (weight)

Unbalanced forces change the speed and / or

direction and / or shape of moving objects Unbalanced
es Force causes
movement

SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MOTION

130

Air Resistance and Friction

Resistance is a For 2 Se

1) Air resistance (or “drag”) pushes against objects which are moving through the air.
2) This is a kind of frictional force because it slows objects down.
3) If things need to go fast, then they have to be made very streamlined Gnu
or “aerodynamic”, which just means they can slip through the air
without too much resistance. A good example is a sports car.

At the start, the sheep only has the force

of its weight (i.e. gravity) pulling it down
— so it starts to move faster.

resistance

When the parachute opens air resistance

increases enormously — because there’s
a much larger area trying to cut through
the air. The sheep loses speed and
slows down.

Very quickly the air resistance becomes

equal to the weight — the two forces are
balanced. The overall force is zero, so the
sheep now moves at a steady speed.

~ Once safely on the ground, the sheep’s

Upward force weight acting downwards is balanced by
from ground
an equal upward force from the ground.

SECTION TEN — ForcES AND MOTION

 131

| Air Resistance and Friction

Friction allows the tyres to grip the road surface — without this grip you
couldn’t make the bike move forward and you wouldn't be able to stop it either.
It'd be like riding on ice.
2) Friction also acts at the brakes where they rub on the rim of the wheel.
3) Friction also lets you grip the bike — important if you want to ride it without slipping off.
It also holds all the nuts and bolts together. That’s handy too.

Bad Points of
Friction always wastes energy. The transfer of energy from the rider’s
legs to the wheels isn’t perfect — friction between moving parts
warms up the gears and bearings, which is a waste of energy.
2) Friction limits top speed. The air resistance (or drag) takes most of
your energy, and also limits your maximum speed.

Air resistance despite

Force driving
bike forward
streamlining of cyclist

Forces mean lots of arrows to draw

This example of the bike is a classic one. But the principles are the same whatever example
you get in the exam. Friction can be useful or a right pain, depending on what you're doing.

SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MOTION

 132

me) mex: r-lalell ace) r-rel )

A pivot is the poi

happens — like the middle of a seesaw.
A pivot is also known as a fulcrum.
2) A lever is a simple machine. It’s called a
machine because it helps us do work more
easily, Levers often make a job much
easier, by multiplying the force you put in.
3) Lifting a big rock is pretty hard work, if not impossible for really big ones — but
using a long rod as a lever, as shown in the diagram, makes the effort force required
from you very much less because the long lever multiplies the force that you exert.
Learn this VERY
IMPORTANT RULE The longer the lever, the greater
about levers: the turning force about the pivot.

In other words: e
the longer the lever i_\
on the job — the easier
the job will be.

Make sure you learn where to put the load and effort force arrows on these drawings.
Practise sketching each drawing out until you can get it totally right.

Getting lids off Doors |

Wheelbarrows

Scissors

The arm acts as a lever, but it’s

kind of the wrong way round —
the effort from the muscle has to
be much greater than the load.

| Levers are really handy when you’re doing DIY

_ Try undoing a nut with a short wrench, then try again with a long-handled one.
| You'll really notice the difference, and it’s all down to levers.

SECTION TEN — Forces AND MorTION

 $33

Moments

1) When a force acts on something which

has a pivot, it creates a turning force.
2) A turning force is also called a moment.
Learn this important definition:

Balanced
moments Distance from
pivot
mean that...
“Clockwise|
FY ese! ae
ANTICLOCKWISE: — . CLOCKWISE:
force x perpendicular distance = force x perpendicular distance
100 N x 0.5 m = 100 N x 0.5 m /- BALANCED
50 Nm = 50 Nm

Which rulers are balanced? If you think the ruler is balanced, write it under the drawing.
If you reckon it’s unbalanced, then write unbalanced but say which side of the ruler will
dip down. (Words to use: balanced, not balanced, left side dips or right side dips.)

It'll only take a few moments to learn these facts |

I’m afraid I’ve no idea why they call them ‘moments’. It seems to cause a lot of confusion. :
Still, there you go — it wouldn’t be proper science if it made perfect sense first time round.

SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MOTION

134

: ssure Is how |mu

area = length x width (for squares a ees)

ate
The units give a clue to the formula, Pressure =
Force
if you think about it! m?=mxm cm?=cmx cm. Area

ae a PT

ifa force of 1 Newton iss spread over

oF an areaa of11 Mm’ (as an
then it exerts a pressure of 1 Pascal. Simple as that.
1 Newton/metre2 = 1 Pascal
1 N/m? = 1 Pa

Pressure
= force + area
= 10N=0.1 m
Using the formula triangle: | = 100 N/m? or 100 Pa
Pressure = force area
= 10\N=2mr
my = 5 N/m@or 5 Pa

a allthese cases the pressure is small ae the area is large.

This means that the force is spread out over a bigger area so the pressure is low.

Elephant on 4 feet Drawing pin

In all these cases the pressure is large because the area is small. This means that the force
is concentrated onto a small area and not spread out, so the pressure is high.

Ss %
Stiletto heels ; gS Very high [r=
\ \ eS, i : Se pressure hin

You've got the theory, now / start explaining itall

_ Now you know how it all works, try answering these questions:
_ 1) Explain how snow shoes work. 2) Why doOsean knives cut better than blunt ones?

Seance Fick— Reatnec AND Manik

 135

Units and Formulae

Shown below are all the quantities that you need to know (so far!).
They’re all listed with their symbol (which you use in formulae) and their standard unit.
You absolutely must start writing the proper unit after every number or answer you give.
You'll also spot some nice formulae. There are lots more physics formulae that you'll
come across in the next year or two — so that’s something to look forward to anyway.

Quantity Symbol Standard Units Formula

Area (of rectangle)
metres“,papeets
m = length x width
Volume (of block)
metres?, m? ue | x W X h (lengthxwidth xheight)

kilograms, kg

feat
ff

13 |Current amperes, A habeas Bh)

(14 Resistance
me | poe Ns ||
‘5. Potential niference!| | ee
oars ree
The more you get into the nitty gritty of science, the more you'll have to use all those
formulae — along with quite a few more. That’s when all these symbols and units
get to be really important — and really tricky too. This lot is like the physics alphabet
and if you don’t learn it thoroughly, then you'll find things just get trickier and trickier.
Of all the science subjects, physics is the one that really uses formulae alot.

Sixteen physical quantities for you tolearn SS

Just leave the ‘Quantity’ column showing, and the four headings, then fill in all the other
details -) eachie eantin® Weety dls eds theoor column auenias and esa

Seana ia — cata AND var

136

VE
Tdaabiel om-lalemns\Cola¢-to ll=>¢- [1g m@lU(-s-)
4(0)pt
There are quite a lot of calculations to get to grips with here.
Go back over the ones you get wrong until you’re confident about how to do them.

How is speed calculated? What are the units of speed?

A girl cycles for 30 seconds at 5 m/s. How far has she cycled?
Why does a parachutist fall at a steady speed for most of his jump?
What is the rule about levers and turning forces?
If a girl weighing 500 N balances on one ice-skate (area: 20 cm?), how much pressure
does she exert on the ice? Give the units.

A tennis player tosses her ball in the air before serving.

(a) As she waits for the ball to fall, the tennis player is not moving,
although there are forces acting on her. What does this tell
you about the forces acting on the tennis player? If something isn’t moving, then the
The forc
are es
balanced, toesaed On le
(1 mark)

(b) As the ball begins to fall back towards her, she strikes it with her racket.
Suggest two ways in which the force of the racket acts on the ball.

SU eee A OCU ew a CC eS uae Cire? Siti a aie Noe NTnGt tos POCO NOG) IIe WO CIRaC IRC IIC CIC irICR Pe tue

(2 marks)

(c) The ball leaves the tennis player’s racket at a speed of 50 m/s and travels a
distance of 20 m before bouncing.
(i) Calculate how long it takes the ball to travel this distance.

HITE = Algvance/ ¢ PEER SUL BACT ORR... tas hescasent

Make sure that you're using the right units — (1 mark)
in this case the answer should be in seconds.
(ii) The actual time taken for the ball to travel this distance is slightly
longer than you have calculated. Suggest a reason why.

SECTION TEN — Forces AND MoTION

 t37

=plan @lurst-j
ale) ats

2 Stuart is using a single hole-punch.

Force
applied

As he presses down on the handle, the cutter

presses down on the paper, making a hole.
(a) Calculate the moment (turning effect) of the 6 N
force Stuart applies to the handle. Give the units.
(2 marks)

(b) This moment makes the cutter press down on the paper.
Calculate the force with which the cutter presses down on the paper.
(1 mark)

(c) The area of the edges of the cutter is 0.1 cm*. Use your answer to (b)
to calculate the pressure of the cutter on the paper. Give the units.
(2 marks)

Martin is sliding on a polished wooden floor in his socks.

(a) When Martin is sliding, he usually stops moving after a couple of metres.
Name one force that is acting to slow Martin down.
(7 mark)

(b) When Martin takes his socks off, he doesn't slide as easily.
Suggest a reason for this.
(1 mark)

(c) Martin’s mother wears shoes with a pointed heel. After she has walked across
the floor, Martin notices that her heels have left dents in the floor.
Martin weighs 700 Newtons and his mother weighs 600 Newtons.
(i) Explain why his mother has dented the floor, even though she weighs less.
(2 marks)

(ii) One of his mother’s shoes has an area of 60 cm?

Calculate the total pressure that his mother is putting on the floor
when she is standing on two feet. Show your working.
(2 marks)

SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MOTION

138

Revision Summary
Section Ten is all about forces and motion. It’s all pretty straightforward stuff really, and the
questions below will just test whether you've learnt the basic facts. If you can’t answer any of
these then you haven't learnt the facts. Don’t start kidding yourself that it’s too difficult for you to
“understand” — sit down and learn it instead. If you’re having trouble learning the stuff, try
taking just one page on its own. Start by learning part of it, then covering it up and scribbling it
down again. Then learn a bit more and try scribbling that down. You'll find this “grown up”
method is about 100 times more effective than the usual 14 year-old revision technique, namely:
“Errm, | think just reading it through once will be OK, won't it?”. Yeah right.

— ) What exactly is speed? Write down the formula triangle for speed.
2) ) How does SIDOT help you remember what speed is?
3) ) A mouse runs 5 m in 2 seconds. Calculate the speed of the mouse.
4) ) On sports day you run 100 m in 20 seconds. Can you move faster than the mouse?
) When a car is going at 40 mph, how far will it travel in 15 minutes?
eon
Oy ) Can forces be seen? How do we know they’re there?
a ) What are the units of force? What would you use to measure force?
ee)) What are the five different things that forces can make objects do?
O) What do balanced forces produce? What do unbalanced forces do?
10) What is air resistance? What's the best shape for avoiding air resistance?
11) When a parachutist first jumps out of a plane, what happens to their speed?
12) As the person moves faster, what happens to the air resistance?
13) What happens to air resistance when the parachute opens?
14) Does the speed then change? When does the person’s speed become steady?
15) What might happen if the ground didn’t provide an upward force
to equal the person's weight?
16) Give four good points of friction. Give two bad points of friction.
17) What is a pivot point? Give another name for it.
18) What is a lever? How can a lever help you roll a rock over?
19) What important rule must you learn about levers and turning forces?
20) Draw out and label five examples of levers, and put in the effort and load arrows.
21) What is a moment? Give the formula for a moment.
22) What does “balanced moments” mean?
23) ) A force of 100 N is put 1 m away from the middle of a seesaw. What distance from
the middle should a force of 50 N be applied to balance the seesaw?
24) What is pressure? Give the formula for calculating pressure.
25) Explain how an elephant can walk on dodgy sand but a car would sink.
26) A force of 200 N acts on an area of 2 m?. Calculate the pressure.
27) A force of 200 N acts on an area of 10 cm?. Calculate the pressure in N/cm?
28) Why do stiletto heels damage wooden floors?
(NB - Answers to questions 3-5, 23 and 26-27 can be found on page 165.)

SECTION TEN — FORCES AND MOTION

 SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND 139

Properties of Light

1) The light travels in a straight line from the sheep to the tracing
paper screen through the pinhole. Because the hole is small,
only one ray gets in from each point on the sheep.
2) bithe image
| ofthe sheep seen by the eee
|
ee
farmer is upside down and crossed over.
This is because the rays of light cross
over inside the camera, as shown:

dows are Place. 2

Transparent means “see- through’i
Opaque means “not see-through”. Beir shee
Light travels in straight lines from the bulb to the cA
screen — but leaves a dark area (i.e. a shadow)
where it can’t go through the Opaque object.
The shadow is the right way up (upright) and gets i

bigger as the object gets nearer to the light source. Smaller shadow >

Gjaht travels very ae — each eal faster than sound.

When a starting pistol is fired (some distance away),
you see the smoke first — and hear the bang afterwards.
This is because the light reaches you before the sound does.

1) Light is produced by ito: nee Eien as the CGP Top Value

Revision Book
Sun, candles, light bulbs, flames, and glow worms.
Light reflects off non-luminous objects, in other
words, everything else, e.g. the Moon, planets,
you, me, sheep, books, etc.
Reflects off
Light reflects off these objects and into our eyes | epee) ea
and that, my friend, is how we see.

Light travels atabout 300,000 km/s... now that’s fast.

You don’t need to learn this fact — | just thought it was interesting. However you do need to
learn userestee ble Egon — aaa Gass Oe. — it write it down ugar SHEL
Gacneh ee _ ae AND ae
140

Reflection :

Being teenagers you'll be familiar with mirrors. Well, reflect on these facts:

Light travels in rays which reflect off mirrors

and most other things.
2) Mirrors have a very smooth shiny surface which reflects all
the light off at the same angle giving a clear reflection.
3) Rough surfaces look dull, because the light is
reflected back in lots of different directions.
This is called a diffuse reflection.
Not shiny
Learn the Law of Reflection:

Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Angle i = angle r

Shiny side Dull side

of mirror _|f//|_of mirror
, eps J
ightGorey
ray Ve
Z

7,(Normal Make sure you draw

straight lines and get the
angles the same when
drawing these ray diagrams
— get yourself a protractor.

1) Checking that you're still beautiful.

2) Rear-view mirrors in cars, etc.

3) Periscopes — used in submarines. eC »

The Law of Reflection is a useful one to know

| It’s really worth learning the stuff on this page. Learn the diagram as well, because
| they’re quite leh to ask you to draw an angle:of reflection in the exam.

RET ELEVEN — LiGHr: AND SOUND

 141

eX Vigsleqdte)al

tion iis
s when Li
1) Light won’t travel through opaque material, bia will goceaibitain Beek ransparent.
2) When light travels from one transparent material to another, it bends or refracts.
3) Any substance that light travels through is called a medium. (The plural is media.)
(...things that carry information)

LEARN When light goes from a LESS dense medium to a MORE Example:
THESE dense medium: Light bends TOWARDS THE NORMAL air to glass.
REALLY
WELT: When light goes from a MORE dense medium to a LESS Example:
dense medium: Light bends AWAY FROM THE NORMAL glass to air.

Light bends — like a car hitting sand at an angle. The right wheels get slowed down first
and this turns the car to the right — towards the normal.
2) Leaving the sand, the right wheel speeds up first and this turns
the car to the left — away from the normal.
3) If both wheels hit the sand together they slow down together,
so it goes straight through, without turning.
Light rays do exactly the same.

|, This wheel Incident ray

Leecontinues to
aS move fast

Ray bends
towards the
normal

Normal
Refracted ray

es pay
.

| Wheels all slow

|- fe.
| or speed up at |
dade time | Not refracted

Don't get reflection and refraction mixed up

If you learn one thing from these pages, learn the difference between reflection and refraction.
Learn the
Robie actingstale
learn theeailiapranianeandfeud‘Il soonBinaye it sorted out.

Gane er — Ricca,ANDsee
142

Colour |

Bit of a shocker, | know — but white light is actually a mixture of colours. This shows up
clearly when white light hits a prism or a rain drop. It gets dispersed (i.e. split up) into a full
rainbow of colours. The proper name for this rainbow effect is a spectrum.

s == Se para FT eT Se IE red

Learn the order that the colours come out in: A prism orange
‘ A spect
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet. Se yN ax Oe yellow
rite lignt
Remember it with this historical jollyism: green
Richard OfYork Gave Battle In Velcro. blue
Violet is bent the most indigo

violet

cata foured Filters a They

1) A filter only Aico one 2 iteeatee abet a lightto
to go
Se
2) All other colours are absorbed by the filter — so they don’t get through.
Red Red | Red
Orange 3 (Orange| Orange 3 |Orange| 4
|Vellow |B | Yellow | g
L
Green White Green S Green White Green 0 White
i O 7 Blue
Blue $ light piven R Blue light| —T light.
Indis B ; 'B
ty Indigo |£ > 2 Indigo .
Violet 5 Violet |D Violet > [Violet |P Violet >

1) Blue jeans
j are> blue pacauce they reflect
wee Blue ete ane absorb all the spies colours.
2) White objects reflect all colours.
3) Black objects absorb all colours.

Objectss seem toChi n

IN WHITE LIGHT! WE
GREEN LIGHT|
Green SS
— oP 5
light SS
~
1) The boot looks red — it reflects red © 1) The boot looks red 1) The boot looks black
light and absorbs all other colours. — it reflects the red light. — it has no
light
red to reflect
and it absorbs the green light.
2) The lace looks green — it reflects 2) The lace looks black — it has
green light and absorbs no green light to reflect and it 2) The lace looks green —
all other colours. absorbs all the red light. it reflects the green light.

Rainbows happen when light is dispersed through raindrops

It’s worth getting to grips with the stuff on this page, because you’re very likely to get questions
on it in the exam. For example they might ask why a blue anorak looks odd in a disco.

SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND

 143

The ringing can be

heard through the jar
because the vibrating
vibratin ( oo
bells make the air
inside vibrate. This
makes the jar vibrate, ;
which in turn makes Can hear
air (alarm clock
the air outside vibrate __
— and then we hear it.

Now the alarm can’t be

heard because even
though the bells are
clanging, there’s no air
in the jar to carry the ey hee
vibrations. If there’s Paar ee cn
nothing there to vibrate, a. = aap
then sound can’t travel. ’ ——-_

~ ‘yyy ) ) ) ) i
Sound needs a medium to travel through because
something has to pass on the sound vibrations.
2) Sound carries energy — as the glass shows.
3) It can be reflected and refracted just like light. ATR.
An echo is sound being reflected from a surface. \
\
4) Sound travels much more slowly than light. al

Learn the headings and you’re halfway there

So make sure you do that first, then learn the diagrams and scribble them down from memory.
Then do the same with the details. If you do that for five minutes, it might just help.

SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND

144

1) If sound is seen on an oscilloscope

it looks like this — a wave.
) The amplitude of a sound is the height of the wave. ©
3) The amplitude shows how much energy the sound has.
) A large amplitude means the wave has lots of energy.
) A large amplitude also means the wave is louder.
So a wave with more energy has a bigger amplitude and is louder. |
6) A whisper has a low amplitude — a shout has a large amplitude.

Quieter Louder —

Sore ee corer BOLERO .

1) The frequency of a sound is the number of complete waves

that pass a point per second.
2) It’s a measure of how high pitched the note is.
3) A high frequency means a high pitched note.
4) A high frequency also means more vibrations per second.
More waves per second means the sound gets HIGHER PITCHED.
5) A mooing cow produces low frequency sounds, whilst screeching
teenagers produce high frequency sounds.

‘Frequency=number
leseaSper second
| of th

Lower pitched Higher pitched

_ Make sure you're familiar with oscilloscopes

| You need to learn the difference between frequency and amplitude, because chances are
they’re going to test you on it in the exam. Get to know these wave patterns now.

SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND

 145

Hearing

Vibrations of ruler
passed to air particles =
00008 0 00000000 @ dada SOB
NN \A

Ear bones

Hairs vibrate
Object CN Ear drum ! Ear bones in the cochlea,
vibrates vibrates vibrates Melts
sending a message
to the brain.

Audible Range of |
Some people can’t hear higher pitched sounds.
2) Poor hearing like that is caused by:
a) Wax blocking ears.
b) Nerve damage.
c) Damage caused by illnesses and infections.
kee d) Old age and general deterioration.
3) Dogs, bats and dolphins can hear much higher
frequencies than humans, as the chart shows.

But then you Raney, eae knew that.

2) Loudness is measured in decibels, (dB).
3) Young people tend to hear quiet
sounds much better than older people. 20dB 4048 60 dB 110 dB
=p Ear damage likely
4) Someone with good hearing has a good audible range. Hearing can be damaged
by too much loud noise such as noisy machinery, or loud music.

There's a fair bit of biology on this page

The thing is, you still have to learn it. Remember, we hear things because the air carries the
ens ogee into our ear. Learn the Sn! about audible ranges for eel and jue es too.

Sean eee _ hee ANDAISISINE

146

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions 3

Have a bash at these questions, and see how far you get.
There’s a worked example to get you into the swing of things. You won’t be surprised to find
that it involves someone with really bad fashion sense in a disco — examiners seem to love that
sort of thing. It’s probably best to do the warm-up questions first, for practice.

Which travels faster: light or sound?

Name three luminous objects.
Name two uses of mirrors.
What does the term refraction mean?
Name one thing that sound can’t travel through.
What does the term ‘amplitude’ of a sound wave refer to?
What units do we use for measuring the volume of a sound?

Tyrone had his favourite green t-shirt and blue jeans on for the school disco.
He also wore red boots with white laces.
(a) When he got to the disco there were red spotlights on
the dance floor and green ones in the seating area.
Complete the table below to show what colour Tyrone’s clothes seemed to be:

Tyrone's clothes | colour in red light colour in green light

:
t-shirt
This type of question is common.
black green They can ask you about different
black black situations, but don’t gSt confused
— all you need to do is apply the
rules you've learnt in this section

ewe
| red
to the question.

(4 marks)

(b) At the end of the disco the DJ put the main lights on,
so that everybody could see and leave the school safely.
(i) What colour did Tyrone’s jeans now appear to be?

(1 mark)

(1 mark)

SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND

 147

Exam Questions

2 The diagram below shows a cross section of the ear.

Ear bones

Cochlea

Ear flap

Ear drum

Sound waves enter the ear at the ear flap and move towards the ear drum.
(a) What happens to the ear drum when a sound wave hits it?
(7 mark)

(6b) Which part of the ear generates electrical signals to send to the brain?
(1 mark)

(c) Jim is playing his stereo in his bedroom.

He turns the volume down, making the sound quieter.

(i) What effect will this have on what’s happening to his ear drum?
(1 mark)

(ii) The next track on his CD has a much lower pitch.

What difference will this make to the way that Jim’s ear drum moves?
(1 mark)

(d) Jim’s Gran doesn’t notice the noise of the stereo

very much because she has poor hearing.
Give three possible causes of her poor hearing.
(3 marks)

SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND

148

Revision Summary
Section Eleven tells you everything you need to know about light and sound. There are quite a
few long words in there — and some pretty important diagrams too. Science is never easy of
course, and you're bound to find some of the facts hard to learn. But, (as somebody famous
once said) “Nothing can take the place of persistence” — in other words, if you want to
achieve anything worthwhile or difficult, there’s no other option than to keep on slogging
away at it. ‘Tis just the way of the world.

1)) How does light travel?

) Sketch a diagram of a pinhole camera.
ies) ) Use a diagram to explain why the image is upside down and crossed over.
) What does opaque mean?
) What does transparent mean?
Oo ) Which travels fastest, light or sound? Give a piece of evidence which shows this.
7) What do luminous and non-luminous mean?
) Describe how light gets from the Sun to an object and then to our eyes.
ee)

9 ) Name three things that produce light. Name three things that reflect light.
] 0 ) What is a mirror?
11)] ) What is meant by a diffuse reflection?
12) What is the law of reflection?
13) Give three uses of mirrors.
14) What is refraction?
15) ) What does the word “medium” mean?
16) ) What happens when light goes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium?
17) ) What happens when light goes from a more dense medium to a less dense medium?
18) ) Explain in your own words why light “bends” as it enters a glass block.
19) ) Explain what is meant by dispersal of light.
20) ) How could you show that white light is not just one colour?
21) What is the jollyism for remembering the order of colours in a spectrum?
22) Which colour is bent the most through a prism? Which one is bent the least?
23) What colour of light will a red filter let through?
24) When white light hits a blue filter, then a red filter, no light gets through. Why not?
25) Why does something blue look blue in white light?
26) What happens to all the colours in white light when they hit a black object?
27) In white light red boots look red. What colour will they look in red light and why?
28) ) What does ‘audible range’ mean?
29) Why can’t you hear a ringing bell in a vacuum?
30) What does amplitude mean?
31) ) What does frequency mean? Explain the difference between high and low frequency sounds.

SECTION ELEVEN — LIGHT AND SOUND

 SECTION Twelve — THE EARTH AND BEYOND 149

That's what a day actually is — one complete 2 ="

rotation of the Earth. AN, Se remmae
2) The Sun doesn’t really move, so as the Earth rotates, Day|| : >
any place on its surface (like the UK, say) will timel|
| mg time
sometimes face the Sun (daytime) and other times G
face away into dark space (night time).
ole

Seasons are
ES ae

1) The Earth takes 365 4 days to orbit once around the Sun. That’s one year of course.
(The extra % day is sorted out every leap year.) Each year has four seasons.
2) The seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth’s axis.
This tilt has two effects which both alter the heating effect of the Sun ina big way:

Summer for the UK Winter for the UK

March 21st - spring | ;
Papamoa, Mid-winter
patna e e = December 21st
~

Sun's rays spread |

over alarge area |
of land
aN A
fi ~~
Midsummer
June 2)st
September 22nd — autumn |

1h The north is tilted towards the Sun. 1) The north is now tilted
2) Look carefully and you'll see the northern away from the Sun.
half of the Earth spends more time in 2) The north now spends less time
sunlight than it does in darkness, in sunlight so days are shorter
i.e. days are longer than nights. than nights.
3) Not only that, but the Sun’s rays cover 3) Also, the Sun’s rays cover a larger area
a SMALL AREA of land, as shown. of land so the heat is more spread out.
4) So it gets warm and we have summer. 4) So it gets colder and we have winter.

SECTION TWELVE — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

150

patti ek

e Sun and Stars dor

1) The Sun “rises” in the EAST every morning. (Hence ‘Japan - land of the rising Sun’.)
2) The Sun “sets” in the WEST every evening.
3) The Sun is highest in the sky at midday.
(12.00 noon in winter, but 1.00 pm in British Summer Time.)
4) So shadows are always shortest at midday.
5) In summer the Sun gets very high in the sky.
6) That’s why shadows are so short in summer.

tg ine

Be Star
Pole
This picture is like a long exposure
taken over several hours
at night time. It shows that the stars
seem to move in circular paths around
the night sky. The Pole Star in the
north of the sky stays ‘fixed’ and the
other stars ‘rotate’ slowly around it.
This is all simply caused by the
rotation of the Earth. (Stars are there
day and night — but are just too dim path ofa star
to see in daylight.) '

It's weird to think there might be life on other planets

As physics goes, I‘d say this stuff isn’t too boring. It is a bit tricky to get your head round
though, so it’s worth spending some time learning it all properly.

SECTION TWELVE — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

 (51

Satellites

SRO TESS =

Moons are “natural satellites” — because they’r Diagram not

: é 3 to scale
natural objects which orbit around planets.
2) Our Moon orbits the Earth in 28 days. It goes
anticlockwise — that’s the same direction
as the Earth spins.
3) The Moon appears to change shape as it goes
through a full orbit of the Earth (over a 28 day
period) as shown in the diagram.
4) This is because we only see the part of
the Moon which is reflecting light from the Sun.
5) We see different amounts of the Moon’s sunny side as _____
View from |
it orbits the Earth — that’s why it seems to change shape, because you can’t see the dark bits.

Anything with mass will attract anything else with mass. In other words,
everything in the Universe is attracted by the force of gravity to everything else.
(But you only notice it when one of the things is really big, like a planet.)
2) The Earth and Moon are attracted by gravity
— that’s what keeps the Moon in its orbit.
3) The heavier the object (or body) — the stronger the force
of gravity (so big planets have high gravity).
4) The further the distance between objects
— the weaker the gravitational attraction becomes.

Zs SSS EIR STAI OTS

Communication and Navigation

Radio, TV and telephone signals are relayed round the world.
2) Monitoring the Weather
Weather systems are observed to help weather forecasting.
3) Observing the Earth
Spy satellites have military uses and
satellite photos help to map the land.
4) Exploring the Solar System
E.g. the Hubble telescope orbits the Earth. From there it gets
a clear look at the Universe, unhindered by the atmosphere.

This page is jam-packed with fascinating facts

There’s a lot to learn on this page, so you might like to try the mini-essay method. Scribble :
down a mini-essay that covers all the details on this page. Then check to see what you missed.

SECTION Twelve — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

152

Solar System

You need to know the order of the planets — do it by learning this little jollyism:

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, (Asteroids), Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto
(My Very Energetic Maiden Aunt — Just Swam Under — North Pier)

A planet is something which orbits around a star.

2) The Sun (at the centre of our Solar System) is a small star.
The Earth is one of nine planets which orbit the Sun.
3) The Sun is really huge compared to the planets,
and has a big mass — so its gravity is really strong.
The pull from the Sun’s gravity is what keeps all the planets in their orbits.
4) The planets all move in elliptical orbits (elongated circles).
5) Planets don’t give out light but the Sun and other stars do.
The Sun gives out a massive amount of heat and light.

Just think of all those other planets out there

None of the others look quite as suitable for living on as dear old Earth though.
Mind you, most of them are so far away there’s no way of knowing about them. Scary.

SECTION TWELVE — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

 153

_ Solar System

ortant In rn
You don’t need to learn every last detail in this table.
What you do need to do is get a good overall idea of how the planets compare to each other,
e.g. biggest, smallest, farthest, nearest, etc.

_ PLANET (eg.cm—incaseyou (numberof

| — Wanttodraw them) Earth masses)
op)
es)
oO
MERCURY
VENUS
=
—
or
i
oO
Sc
EARTH
iS
MARS
fo
s

“juerrer |: ‘
| SATURN

Ee} PLUTO

1) Most of the stars you see at night are in our own galaxy — the Milky Way.
2) The Universe is made up of millions of galaxies.
The others are all so far away they just look like small fuzzy stars.

Other galaxies

You are here in fig ‘ Loe : ae

my the Milky Way —ris : :

Know the difference between a planet, a star and a

It sounds obvious, but you really need to get a feel for how these things fit together.
You don’t have to learn the table, but the more stuff you know about the planets, the better.

SECTION TWELVE— THE EARTH AND BEYOND

154

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

Wow. All this talk about the Universe makes me feel so small and insignificant.

How many stars are in our solar system?

In summer the Sun is high in the sky. Does this lead to longer or shorter shadows?
Why can’t we see the stars in our galaxy during the day?
What does the term “satellite” mean?
What does the term “gravity” mean?

Worked-Exam
1 The Earth moves in two different ways.

Orbit Sun

es ~
Barth NOT TO SCALE

A: it revolves in an orbit around the sun B: it rotates on its axis

(a) (i) Which of these motions causes day and night?

a: Pe ae
mark)

(ii) Explain your answer.

(2 marks)

(b) What do we call the length of time that it takes the Earth
to make one complete orbit of the sun?

(1 mark)

(c) How long does it take the Earth to rotate once on its axis?
24 hours
(1 mark)

(d) How many times will the Earth rotate on its axis
during one complete orbit of the Sun?

(1 mark)

SECTION Twelve — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

 155

=> €:100m@LU(=t-y
a(0) af

NOT TO SCALE

(a) In the diagram above, which position of the Earth

represents summer in the northern hemisphere?
(1 mark)

(b) Explain why, when it is summer in the British Isles, it is winter in Australia.
(2 marks)

3 Kurt thought that the Moon was a satellite of Earth.

Some of his friends said that he was wrong. They said that
Satellites are machines and that they are sent into space by people.

(a) Is Kurt right to say the Moon is a satellite of the Earth?

(1 mark)

(b) Give three uses of the satellites that people have sent into space.
(3 marks)

4 (a) The 9 planets in our solar system are listed in the

table below, but they are not in the correct order.
Complete the table below to show the correct order of the planets,
where number 1 is the planet nearest to the Sun and number 9 is the
planet furthest away from the Sun. One has been done for you.

Planet |Earth | Jupiter |Mars | Mercury |Neptune | Pluto |Saturn Uranus |Venus

Rank 9 | |

(4 marks)

(b) Which of the planets would you expect to be the hottest planet?
(1 mark)

(c) (i) Do you think that Neptune is likely to be hotter or cooler than Earth?
(1 mark)

(ii) Explain your answer to (c) (i).

(1 mark)

SECTION TWELVE — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

156

Revision Summary
Section Twelve only has five pages of information — not much really, considering it deals with
the whole Universe. In your exam you’re bound to get one or two questions seeing how much
you know about this kind of stuff, especially the solar system. In particular, they really like to
make sure you know all about the Sun and the Earth. That means being able to explain exactly
what’s happening when you watch the Sun rise in the morning or watch it set at night; or being
able to explain why it gets colder in winter and why the Sun doesn’t get so high in the sky.
It’s amazing just how many people go their whole lives and never really know the answers to
all these burning questions. Learn the burning answers now...
1)) How long does it take for the Earth to complete one full rotation on its own axis?
N ) How long does it take for the Earth to complete one full orbit around the Sun?
Ww ) Explain what “day time” and “night time” actually are.

aN) Do all places on the Earth have “day time” at the same time?
) How many seasons are there? Name the seasons in the right order (start in January).
) Give two reasons why it’s (supposedly) hotter in Britain in summer than in winter.
3&1!
ony

N ) Give two reasons why it’s colder in Britain in the winter.

oo ) In which part of the sky does the Sun rise?

9) In which part of the sky does it set?
10) Where is the “Land of the Rising Sun”? Why is it called that?
11) At what time of the day is the Sun highest in the sky?
12) In which season does the Sun get highest in the sky?
13) In which season are shadows generally longest?
14) At what time of day are shadows always shortest?
15) Why do photos of the North Star (also known as the Pole Star) show circular paths
for other stars around it?
16) In what position is the Moon relative to the Earth and Sun when it’s a full moon?
17) ) What force keeps the Moon orbiting the Earth?
18) ) What is gravity?
19) ) What is at the centre of our solar system?
20) ) List the order of the planets in the solar system, going outwards from the Sun.
21) ) Which planet is the “third rock from the sun”?
22) ) How are all the planets kept in orbit around the Sun?
23) ) What is an elliptical orbit?
24) Which planet do you think is hottest, Mercury or Pluto?
25) Draw scale pictures of the planets using the relative sizes on page 153.
26) List all the planets which are a) bigger than the Earth —_b) smaller than the Earth.
27) Which planet is furthest from the Sun? Which planet has the longest year?
28) Is there a link between time taken to orbit the Sun and distance out from the Sun?
29) Which is the largest planet? Which is the smallest planet?
30) ) On which planet will gravity be the strongest?

SECTION TWELVE — THE EARTH AND BEYOND

 SECTION THIRTEEN — ENERGY 157

Eight Forms of Energy

There are am forms of energy. Make sure you can recognise each form and give an example.

Electrical energy is very useful, because it’s easily converted into other
forms — wherever there’s a current flowing, there’s electrical energy.

Anything luminous gives off light energy, , oy Rg aes

— things like the Sun, light bulbs and candles... and glow worms.

Anything noisy gives off sound energy,

— things like vocal chords, speakers and instruments.

Anything with a temperature above absolute zero (-273°C)

has heat energy — obviously, that means everything has some
- heat energy. The hotter something is — the more heat energy it has.

Biting that is above the art has gravitational potential energy,

— i.e. anything that can fall, like ski jumpers, aeroplanes and climbers.

‘Anything stretched has elastic energy,

— things like rubber bands, springs, knicker elastic, etc.

Retning:with stored energy which can be released by a ele

chemical reaction has chemical energy — things like food, fuels and patience

Beipcrature is a measure of me hot something is — it’s measured in degrees Celsius, (°C).

Heat is not the same thing. Heat is a form of energy and it’s measured in joules, (J).
Heat (energy) flows between things that have different temperatures. Temperature isn’t a form
of energy — and temperature doesn’t flow. When heat energy flows, then the temperature
increases or decreases. That’s what heat and ae are all about. It’s tricky.

Use some chemical energy to get your brain cells working

And then you can learn all the facts on this page.
Make sure thatvanescan list
eS Ka eae foreach form ofEMETEY.

Seauek Fe — Burnes
158

=tal-lacehVambe-larcyce)atariive)amr:lalem =tal-)aeham ielaljicles

There are many different forms of energy. It’s important that you use the word form
(not type) to describe the different kinds of energy.

rgy can be Transfo

Heat : = Heat | |Chemical Heat

Chemical Kinetic Electrical Sy Light
Chemical — > Electrical ‘= Light

x Heo er ls HEAT
This is when vibrating particles pass on their extra =e
vibrationalenergy to neighbouring particles.

This |is when heated stuff moves in bulk to 4

a cooler region and takes the heat with it. I) Purple crystals.
inwater

All hot ee radiate heat to the surroundings by invisible

heat waves. This “heat radiation” doesn’t need particles so it
means heat can travel across a vacuum.

Important: Heat and temperature are different things.

Heat is a form of energy. Temperature is the measurement of that energy.

SECTION THIRTEEN — ENERGY

 159

Energy Resources

Mont of ie ey aetietiate us erin s from the on wis Caneseane Teaches Earth and is
converted into many forms which we then convert (or “use”) tos
supply our energy demands.

New chemical

Basically all our energy comes originally from the Sun

These six energy transfer chains show that in action. Cover the page, and scribble down
all six of them. Then nape’ younaanswers and do itbesa untilyou gel it to

‘Graal, Fe nema _-Te

160

Generating Electricity

rer Stations Generé —

| Chemicate Heat . Kinetic . Electrical

| energy a a energy energy energy

Fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burnt in the boiler which releases heat energy.
Petrol is definitely not burnt in power stations — it would be too expensive. Oil is.
) This is used to heat up water which then changes to high pressure steam.
3) The steam is used to drive huge turbines, which are just like really big fans.
) These turbines are attached to a generator, which spins round like a big dynamo.
) This makes the electricity, which is then fed onto the national grid and out to our homes
where it powers our T.V.s, trainsets etc. It also supplies a lot of industries.

Fossil fuels took millions of years to develop — and only take minutes to burn.
2) Once they've been taken from the Earth — that’s it, they’re gone (unless you’re
going to wait around a few more million years for more to be made).
3) There’ll come a time when we can’t find any more and then we could have a problem.
4) The thing is, crude oil is vital for making all sorts of useful plastics and medicines, so it's
not necessarily such a good idea to keep burning it. The answer is:

Save energy (e.g. turn lights off, drive cars with small engines, etc.).
b) Use more renewables. Energy resources like wind power, biomass, wave power, solar
power, tidal power, hydroelectric power and geothermal power are all renewable.
c) Renewables don’t cause acid rain or the greenhouse effect, and could help protect
the environment.

Most of our power stations still use fossil fuels

We're starting to invest more in renewable sources of power,
but if we’re not careful, it could be too little, too late. It’s a tricky one.

SECTION THIRTEEN — ENERGY

 161

Generating Electricity

wable Ene

|Wind turbines ree

ay

— and change light to electrical energy.

Our planet needs non-polluting, renewable energy resources

Don’t call renewable energy resources ‘re-usable’. They’re not re-usable — they’re renewable.
TreesSeerOW eeu if linesrepolepiamiecalbutee can’t re-usepethat
use tree.

Src F cnRRatN — ENERGY

162

Conservation of Energy
Scientists have only been studying energy for about two or three hundred years so far,
and in that short space of time they've already come up with two pretty important principles
relating to energy. Learn them really well:

THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

Energy can never be created or destroyed
— it’s only ever converted from one form to another.
That means energy never simply disappears — it always converts into another form.
This is another very useful principle:

Energy is only useful when it’s converted from one form to another.
Think about it — all useful machines take in one kind of energy and give out another.

sformations turn som

1) Useful devices are Esefal ae they convert
energy from one form to another.
2) When energy transformations happen in a useful
device some energy is always lost (i.e. it turns
into a form that isn’t useful), often as heat.
3) As the diagram shows, the energy input will always
end up coming out partly as useful energy and partly
as wasted energy — but no energy is destroyed:

Total energy input = the useful energy + the wasted energy

Energy is never lost or destroyed

| If you think you've lost some energy, then you'll find it has just turned into something less
useful, like heat or sound. Ena isnda because you never see it, only feel its effects.

‘SHerian Figen -- uae

 163

Warm-up and Worked Exam Questions

This is the final section in the book, so you're nearly there. Energy can be a bit of a tricky topic
to understand, so take your time to work through these questions until you're sure,

What units are used to measure energy?

Explain what ‘conduction’, ‘convection’ and ‘radiation’ mean.
If ‘energy is never created or destroyed’, explain where
the energy in all of our energy resources has come from.
Explain what is meant by ‘renewable’ energy resources.

Ricky was on a caving holiday. He fixed his head torch on to

his hat, to help him see when he was inside the dark cave.
maa eo,
eae)

(a) When Ricky fixes the head torch onto his hat it is switched off.
Complete the sentence below by underlining the correct option.

The energy is stored inside the battery / bulb

as electrical / chemical energy.
Don't forget that the energy in batteries is chemical energy. (2 marks)

(b) As Ricky enters the cave he switches his head torch on, to check that it is
working. Complete the flow diagram to show the energy transformations that
take place when Ricky switches the torch on.

light energy

chemical energy ————~> electrical energy a

=~ heat energy
Most electrical devices give off
(2 marks)
heat energy as ‘wasted energy’.

SECTION THIRTEEN — ENERGY

164

Exam Questions

2 Natural gas is an important fossil fuel used in power stations and in the home.
(a) (i) Natural gas is described as a ‘non-renewable energy resource’.
Explain what this term means.
(1 mark)

(ii) Give two examples of renewable energy resources.

(2 marks)

(iii) Explain why it is important to use more renewable energy resources.

(1 mark)

Fossil fuels like gas are often burnt in power stations to generate electricity.
The stages involved in generating electricity are given below. They are in
the wrong order. Write the letters of the stages in the correct order.
A _ The steam turns the turbines.
The electricity is generated and fed to the National Grid.
Fuel is burnt and heats the tanks of water.
Turbines turn the generator.
The water changes to high pressure steam.
(2 marks)

Copy the sentences below, and fill in the gaps with the energy
transformations that have taken place.

(i) A wind turbine spins and produces electricity.

energy to

Freddy talks down the telephone to his sister.

Sound energy to energy to
energy.

Coal is burnt in a power station.

energy to energy.

A skydiver jumps out of a plane.

energy to energy.
(4 marks)

SECTION THIRTEEN — ENERGY

 165

Revision Summary
This is the last set of Summary Questions, so let me just remind you one more time... These
questions are basic, brutal and brief. You need to be able to answer them all, because all they do
is test the basic facts. There’s no understanding needed for these little jokers — it’s just a matter of
learning the stuff. So keep practising them, over and over again. For any you don’t know, look
back through the section and find out the answer — and then learn it for next time. Enjoy.

) What are the eight main forms of energy? Give two examples of each of them.
) Can temperature flow?
) What does a microphone convert sound energy into?
) What kind of energy is stored in a battery? What kind of energy is found in food?
) What does a wind turbine convert kinetic energy into?
) What are the units of energy?
) What are the units of temperature? What temperature is absolute zero?
) Heat energy can only be transferred if there is a difference in what?
) What is conduction? Give an example of a conductor.
10) What is convection? Describe an experiment that shows convection currents.
11) What is radiation? Sketch how energy from the Sun reaches the Earth.
12) What is the difference between heat and temperature?
13) What are fossil fuels? How does the Sun’s energy get stored in fossil fuels?
14) How does the Sun's energy a) create wind? b) get stored in food?
15) Describe in detail how electricity is generated and supplied to your home.
16) Name three fuels that are burnt in power stations to generate electricity.
17) Why is petrol definitely NOT burnt in power stations?
18) ) What are non-renewable energy resources? What are renewable energy resources?
19) ) Why will renewable energy resources never run out?
20) ) What are the best two ways of reducing the amount of fossil fuels we burn?
21) Give two examples of the use of solar cells. Describe how waves generate electricity.
22) ) What is the Principle of Conservation of Energy?
23) When is energy most useful? Why are all energy transfers NOT perfect?
24) ) What form of energy does wasted energy usually appear as?

Answers to Selected Revision Summary Questions

The answers to most of the questions are found in the relevant Revision Summary Eight.
section but here’s a bit of help with the trickier ones. Q.17 a) Acid. b) Base. c) Base. d) Salt. e) Acid.
_ Revision Summary Six. Revision Summary Ten.
Q.19 a) Magnesium oxide. 6) Calcium oxide. c) Sodium Q3 2.5 m/s. Q.4 5m/s, (yes).
chloride. d) Sulphur dioxide. e) Calcium carbonate. Q5 s=dit sod=sxt=40x 0.25 =10 miles.
f) Copper sulphate. |Q.20 a) Sodium chloride. (15 minutes = 0.25 hours).
b) Magnesium chloride. c) Magnesium carbonate. Q27350 >a= 100 fsor = 2 m.
Revision Summary Seven. Q.26 200/2 = 100 N/m?. Q.27 200/10 = 20 N/cm’.
Q.2 50g of liquid iron. Q4a) 300 g of solution.

SECTION THIRTEEN — ENERGY

166 As final preparation here is a practice exam to get you ready for the real thing. |—
It’s designed to give you the best exam practice possible. If you're doing Tier
3-6 then you won't have learnt every bit — but it’s still good practice.

eel Key Stage 3 — Science Test

Paper 1A
| Levels 5-7
¢ The test is one hour long.
¢ Make sure you have these things with you before you start: pen,
pencil, rubber, ruler, calculator.
¢ The easier questions are at the start of the test.
¢ Try to answer all of the questions.
¢ Don’t use any rough paper — write all your answers and
working in this test paper. (Marks may be awarded for working.)
¢ Check your work carefully before the end of the test.
* If you’re not sure what to do, ask your teacher.

1 (a) Alamp gives out light. It is a light source.

Put a tick beside the two objects below that are light sources.

z
2 marks

(6) Daniel is reading a book. On the picture, draw a ray

of light to show how Daniel can see the book.

el
2 marks

maximum 4 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

 2 (a) The diagrams below show the arrangement of particles in different substances.
In the space below each one, say if it is an element, a compound or a mixture.

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(b) Elements are sometimes called the ‘building blocks’ for all other substances.
Explain what this means.

1 mark
(c) Sodium chloride has the formula NaCl.
Explain how this formula tells you that sodium chloride is a compound. ]
Bat Re ee na nt og) OE Es ey aed Pic eer ote Gis cS RMR cn de vaasdsikapdesgiixaneikin cava ae
(d) From the list below, identify the following:
sodium helium calciumcarbonate rocksalt copper _ iron

(OD CANGrY TEACIVEI etal te et in eetlcad pints tiie tcdincin sath men

(ii) A light, inert gas. e sc eli he PMR Age Gok oiacochaaad beg: is
Olt AULIXICG OL SAISANC GANG. twee c.f, .s..sonee RR. aa asie
(e) Briefly describe how you could separate the
two parts of the mixture you named in (d)(iii).
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maximum 11 marks

3 Our white blood cells help to stop us getting diseases, but sometimes it
is necessary to be vaccinated against specific diseases, such as measles.
(a) List three ways that white blood cells attack the microbes that cause disease.

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2 Ci ean on ee ii

Din cde SETS eee Tatas ttc SRSRNIHA Deg a tnrh inna ea Aras AeA TRA ra he BAIT APN NN eae
(6) What does the measles vaccination
contain that stops you from getting the disease? z=

ee i ee ee ees 41 mark

maximum 4 marks
Practice Exam A © CGP 2004
168

4 The diagram shows a cyclist and the four forces acting on him and his bike.
Only two of the forces have been labelled.

air
thrust resistance

(a) Label the two remaining forces on the diagram. ||

2 marks

(b) When the cyclist puts his brakes on, he slows down.
What force causes him to do this? E

1 mark

(c) When cyclists are racing, they bend low over the handlebars.
Explain how this causes the bike to go faster.

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(d) The cyclist is moving at a constant speed.

Underline the correct statement below to describe the forces acting on him.

The force moving him forwards is greater than the force holding him back.

The forces moving him forward and holding him back are equal.

The force holding him back is greater than the force moving him forward. =

1 mark

maximum 6 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

 (d) If all the rabbits were killed by a disease, what do you think
would happen to the populations of the following animals?
Give a reason for your answer in each case.

(i) the weasels?

er ir rrr rir ir rir rice iin air i en eee 1 mark

Drees ae Ce MIese xa ses TAME MPT MEARE PARSE aietee ee te RC ORT SIRE eS THES BO RIE Saeed wax yuna 1 mark

maximum 7 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

170

6 Acar contains solids, liquids and gases. The bodywork

and mechanical parts are solids. The petrol and oil are liquids.
The petrol is the fuel and the oil lubricates the moving parts
of the engine. The tyres are filled with a gas.

(a) State one property of a solid that makes .

it suitable for the car’s bodywork. ||

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(b) State one property of a liquid that makes

it useful as a lubricant for the engine. z

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(c) The first cars that were made had solid rubber tyres.
Explain one property of gas-filled tyres that makes them better than solid ones.

We vcen cis goeipelnbns stent ste RY SO IE EI 20 ORO. GEM AA AGEN. | ey

2 marks

(d) Sunita is filling her car with petrol when she spills some
on her jacket. When she gets back into the car, she puts
her jacket on the back seat, and she can still smell the petrol.
Explain how this happens.

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(e) When she gets home, Sunita’s jacket no longer smells of petrol.
Suggest a reason for this.

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maximum 7 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

a
a
e
-
 171

7 Magnets are pieces of metal that can attract other magnetic materials.
Only certain metals can be magnetised.

(a) Name three metals that can be used to make magnets.

|tS eae!
Wisaoe fig. 8. CO ae

2 tlt OR Die ROI ie

Gen
NEMO meee he 3 marks

(b) In the diagram below, the poles have not been marked on the magnets.
The lines of magnetic force are shown.
Use the evidence in the diagram to answer the questions below.

(i) Are the two magnets in the diagram

attracting or repelling each other? ||

1 mark

(ii) Mark the poles (use N = north, S = south) on the

diagram and give a reason for your choice.

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maximum 6 marks

8 Differences between members of the same species are called characteristic features.
Characteristic features can be inherited or environmental.

(a) From the list below, say if the characteristic feature is inherited,
environmental or a mixture of the two.
intelligence weight blood group |
3 marks

(b) Characteristic features are inherited when genes are passed from parents
to children. What structure, in every living cell, contains the genes? a
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(c) Explain how two human beings could have identical genes. ee
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maximum 5 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

172
ee

9 The solubilities of potassium sulphate and copper sulphate

are shown in the graph below. Solubility is measured by
the amount of solid that will dissolve in 100 g of water.

Copper sulphate _.

grams/100
in
Solubility
water
g Potassium sulphate |
ORO 8 920) SONA ORO mG On ee Om SOLE OO OO
Temperature (°C)

(a) Describe the differences in the solubilities of copper sulphate

and potassium sulphate, as shown in the graph.

ae ee Eh i PS IN gC Le ec Re See PA caer ae i 2 marks

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(c) From the graph, what would the solubility

of copper sulphate be at 55 °C? ||

Fai LidldselisiaseG TUR te Pa ea Tae Sa ee ea awtentnnie see epaiua cas te mieaeeteeeeet 1 mark

(d) Copper sulphate dissolves in water to form copper sulphate solution.

The water is called the solvent.
What term is given to the copper sulphate? g&

oS npau eae cingos Sep Sema be ete mec ciuk Oe pike Oe deme aera ecco nicnwat CEeioes 1 mark

(e) What acid would be used to make copper sulphate

and potassium sulphate? a |

0 ee CoRR eR In CE Cee Cer SE CPAP ET ip nr itonGapacdoda cgladnric cmancci aca nanosen 1 mark
maximum 6 marks
Practice Exam A © CGP 2004
 10 The diagram shows the human breathing system.

Voice box

(a) Use the terms below to label the diagram. eT

trachea diaphragm bronchus intercostal muscle Sans

(b) Describe how the diaphragm moves when we breathe in and out.

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(c) State two ways in which the air that is breathed

out is different from the air breathed in.

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(d) The oxygen in the air we breathe in is used by

the body's cells in a process which releases energy.
What is this process called? ea
CER RASEE RODEN SHORE IICRCACHAROR EF CECE aU aa ar en mar AASB PRES Rann eee Maes 1 mark

(e) Write a word equation for the process you named in (d). es
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maximum 8 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

174

11 Brian did an experiment using starch and the enzyme amylase.

His experiment is shown in the diagram below.
After 5 minutes, he added brown iodine solution to both test tubes.

TUBE A TUBE B

starch solution
+ water
+ iodine starch solution
+ amylase solution
+ iodine

water at 37 °C

The liquid in test tube B stayed brown,

but the liquid in test tube A changed colour.

(a) Describe the colour change that Brian would have seen in test tube A. |_|

Tee eee eee ee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee 4 mark

(b) Explain why no colour change was seen in test tube B.

BR COC ORCS ROOT COO OICOCCOCUC CREE Coen POUL M Scion Ton AnL TRA RCOr CTS ODT Och IGA Srer Cer Ia OC OOOO nN TOG, BOGE Ca 2 marks

(c) Suggest a reason why the water in the beakers was kept at 37 °C. ||
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(d) Brian did a second experiment, in which he tested the solutions by boiling
them with Benedict’s solution instead of adding iodine. The test tubes and
procedure were the same in every other way. Describe the appearance
of the two tubes at the end of this second experiment.

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2 marks

maximum 6 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

 12 The diagram shows the moon orbiting the Earth.
The eight ‘phases’ of the moon are shown, and numbered 1-8.

No, ©*
Moon

o@ 0X
© 7
©
not to scale

(a) How many days does it take for the moon

[ei]
to orbit the Earth once?

1 mark

(6) Draw the way that the moon would look from the Earth
when it was in phase 7. Hal
1 mark

(c) The moon is a natural satellite of the Earth.

There are also man-made or artificial satellites.
Give two uses of artificial satellites.

|_|
2 marks

(d) What is the name of the force that keeps the moon
in its orbit around the Earth?
|_|
1 mark

maximum 5 marks

Practice Exam A © CGP 2004

10
176

Key Stage 3 — Science Test

CGP Paper 1B
Levels 5-7
Instructions
¢ The test is one hour long.
¢ Make sure you have these things with you before you start: pen,
pencil, rubber, ruler, calculator.
¢ The easier questions are at the start of the test.
¢ Try to answer all of the questions.
¢ Don’t use any rough paper — write all your answers and
working in this test paper. (Marks may be awarded for working.)
¢ Check your work carefully before the end of the test.
¢ If you’re not sure what to do, ask your teacher.

1 The diagram below shows the wave pattern of

two sounds, as seen on an oscilloscope.
Use these diagrams to answer questions (a) and (b) below.

Wave pattern of soundA Wave pattern of sound B

(a) Which sound, A or B, has the higher pitch?

Give a reason for your answer. &

ete eee eee eee eee eee eee ee ry 1 mark

(b) Which sound, A or B, is louder?

Give a reason for your answer. at

sag basen avian saandlewaw ene cdeeaatdetea ddd nade dd RROae hee eces eae Mee Rhea es Deum eaemaeaec se WeEe Ree Re mGERS 1 mark

2 marks

maximum 4 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

 2 The diagram below shows an organ of the human body

Renal vein

aS Renal artery

Seater tee eeterects eccricia cleinlolaiara gasdswsa.a eoyie'a wiseCcinls 1 mark

(b) State one function of this organ in the body. ||

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(c) Name the system that this organ is part of. fa

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(d) Tube B is joined to another organ in this system.

Name the organ it is connected to.

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we
1 mark

maximum 4 marks
3 Acids and alkalis are different types of chemicals.
They react together to give a salt and water.

(a) Underline the word below that is the best description

of the reaction between an acid and an alkali. i
explosion oxidation neutralisation fermentation

(b) Give one example of how this type of reaction can be useful. =

(c) Suggest a way that you could tell if a chemical

was an acid or an alkali. a

Riefactabatiefa araTarYs tatehfeeta'altefutnySve/Svc elafotslef afafaltates aPane eiaduns i ceiaahata a termha otietets etebslaateeeratencis 1 mark

maximum 3 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

178

4 The diagram below shows “Hero's Engine”. This was the first machine to demonstrate
steam power. Water is boiled in the large bowl. Steam travels through the tubes
supporting the revolving ball and is ejected through the two ‘jets' attached to the sphere,
Causing it to spin.

revolving ball

bowl of water

burning wood

(a) What ‘change of state’ happens to water when it boils? ||

1 mark

(6) Starting with the energy in the wood, describe

the energy transformations that occur in Hero’s Engine.

3 marks

(c) Wood is a renewable energy source.

Name two non-renewable energy sources.

| cesta sonscecrad nd Seated 2. gue mae ee te eee tte ae eee |_|

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maximum 6 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

 179

5 Look at the following circuit diagram.

strip of copper

(a) Underline the correct name for this type of

circuit, from the words below: zZ
parallel power double series ee

(b) (i) If bulb A breaks, will bulb B stay on or go off? |

SSAC Uosncyichinorinnd virioncearacouticenaostcanmcrersioor 1 mark

(ii) If bulb B breaks, will bulb A stay on or go off? r

Suh edibabs Gis vines cep seit he eee ae

(c) If the piece of copper was replaced with a piece of sulphur,

what would happen to:
(i) Bulb A? =
SOO ei eee is 1 mark

DOMIGHIGG OL Cre sO Oh cic OOOO ICI CL ORM DCm MmOren Orton ir CIA Delt CRC CO GLA 41 mark

(d) Give reasons for your answers to (c)(i) and (c)(ii).

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maximum 8 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

180

6 Richard put an iron nail into a test tube of blue

copper sulphate solution and left it overnight.
The next day, he saw that the nail was coated in copper, and the liquid was colourless.

Day 1

Copper sulphate |e
solution

Iron nail

Shiny silver Dull orange

(a) Explain why the nail was coated in copper.

ee 2 marks

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ee eee eee eee ee eee ee ed 1 mark

(d) Which of the following metals would not have been coated
in copper when placed into copper sulphate solution?
Underline the correct answer. a
silver zinc aluminium 4 yeeaeic

(e) Explain your answer to (d).

SOOO OOOO OC CGS SSS SOS Ome Meee eaten ennnneennninnnicnnncr remem iri irir 2 marks

maximum 8 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

| 181

7 Rocks can be worn away by weathering.

Identify the types of weathering described in sections (a) - (d) below:

(a) Water in a crack in a rock freezes.

The ice expands as it forms and splits the rock. ||
etalela ih?a tandotabtat sin eten/aisiafal katejuseyeinicspnin hcialainieieisiaiaiettalayc isteneem eisrecinioteimcc ote a ce EE 1 mark

(b) Ivy on a wall grows between the bricks, pushing them apart. ||
vat aims Paven/onminiain 476/015 So(e)AYoYeaetelata tatatav fete! 5 eveheiialabadete ate re eticlaistate contestoi eter ta ors 1 mark

(c) Acid rain slowly dissolves a stone statue. ||

BURR TC CHORE E COCR TONES OU RET Sar Cac fey TeCRE eCIemrT mere Brie: oar aE nme PE eee 1 mark

(d) Rock expands during the day and contracts at night due to
temperature changes, causing chunks to break off it.
LJ
1 mark

maximum 4 marks
8 The diagram below shows a sperm cell.

Cytoplasm Nucleus —Taj

1 mark

(b) Name two features that are found in the sperm cell
that would also be found in plant cells.

2 2 marks

(c) The sperm cell fertilises an egg cell.

Explain how two features of the sperm help it to fertilise eggs.

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SCS EICOCICIORR Ce UCIRC Omit. CRIP ene mm Cun NIEIRERI DEI oe OIA TOD PICID DA mC OSCR CI CCE OOO (Oa m DO A TORRES C circ 2 marks

maximum 5 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

182

9 The picture shows James and his dad on a seesaw.

The seesaw is not balanced, because James’ dad is much heavier than James.
James weighs 400 N, and his dad weighs 800 N.
James’ dad can balance the seesaw by moving towards the pivot (fulcrum).

400 N 800 N

(a) Will the seesaw move clockwise or anticlockwise

when James’ dad is sitting on it?

eee eee eee eee eee ee

Calculate the moment created about the pivot by:

(i) James’ dad

(ii) James

aenuaeaeeeGiem 1 mark

Show your working.

How far from the pivot will James’ dad need to sit
to make the seesaw balance? Show your working.

ede fee
bestia 2 marks

(d) James holds his baby sister to give her a ride on the seesaw.
She weighs 100 N. Suggest how far James and his dad
could sit from the pivot to make the seesaw balance now.
Show your working.

Sai Es
Sane 2 marks

maximum 7 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

 10 Look at the graph below, which shows the percentages
of boys and girls aged 11-15 who smoked in 2002.

a
Percentage

CTI
11 12 13 14 19
Age in years

What percentage of boys aged 14 smoked in 2002?

1 mark

Is the problem of smoking greater in boys or girls?

Give a reason for your answer.

1 mark

(c) Name the chemical in the tobacco smoke

which causes people to become addicted.

1 mark

A school plans to introduce a programme to highlight

the dangers of smoking. From the data given
in the graph, which would be the better age group to target —
11 year-olds or 15 year-olds? Give a reason for your answer.

1 mark

() Smoking causes lung cancer. Name three other health problems

that smokers are more likely to get than non-smokers.

3 marks

maximum 7 marks
E EE T
ee ee ee oem en
Practice Exam B © CGP 2004
8
184

11 Sarah wrapped a piece of foil around a leaf of a plant and left the plant in the
light for 24 hours. She then tested the leaf for starch, using iodine solution.
The diagram below shows what her leaf looked like after she tested it.

Section A (dark blue-black colour)

Section B (yellow-brown colour)

(a) What is the name of the process plants use to make energy?
eee eee eee eee eee ee 41 mark

1 mark

eee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee ee

eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee ee ee ee ee et

eee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee ee eee eee) 3 marks

maximum 7 marks

12 Sally has three rocks. She wants to find out what type of rock each one is.
The three types of rock are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Use the clues below to help Sally identify her rocks.

(a) Rock 1 is made of distinct layers. There is a fossil in it.

TRIS TOCKHS™ a eee rock. 4 mark

(6) Rock 2 also has layers, but they are ‘wavy’.

There are some small crystals visible. ||
TIS FOG IG eo rcceeccnatteak
acters ences ts rock. 1 mark

(c) Rock 3 has no layers and is made of lots of crystals. ie

PING HOCK IS a rcctccacts chee rock. 1 mark
maximum 3 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

 185
13 A chemical (X) was heated over a period of time, and its temperature was monitored.
The results of the experiment are shown in the graph.

Temperature
(°C)

Time (minutes)

(a) What is the temperature of the chemical after 2 minutes? |

EKER URES RON AE Ah na RTE RMS AO KNEE
1 mark

SS AR SE ae TS Oe Te a hee Ck TA her eae Oke Aen kd de 3 marks

(c) From the data in the graph, suggest what chemical X is.
Give a reason for your answer.

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(d) Say if the three statements below are true or false.

(i) Between 0 and 0.5 minutes, chemical Xis asolid. 0 woeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees

(ii) Between 1.5 and 3 minutes, the chemical

iSauMixture-Oi-ersOlidcandraniquid,; eeTe

(iii) Between 3 and 7.5 minutes, chemical X_ e

iS eMIXture Giza UQUICLANd 2 GAS; RE,cervance 3 marks

maximum 9 marks

Practice Exam B © CGP 2004

10
186 ANSWERS
Section 1 — Life Processes and Cell Activity They have a thin layer of outer cells (1 mark).
(d) The liver(1 mark),
Page 7 (Warm-up Questions
1) Movement, sensitivity, nutrition, excretion, respiration, growth, 3 (a)
reproduction (in any order).
2) Nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane (in any order).
3) It has a tail so that it can swim to an egg. It has enzymes in the
tip of its head enabling it to digest its way through the egg
membrane. It has chromosomes in its nucleus which carry
genetic information from the father.
4) A tissue is made from a group of similar cells, while an organ is
made from a group of different tissues working together.
5) Digestive system, respiratory system, excretory system,
circulatory system, skeletal system, nervous system, endocrine Slightly movable joint should indicate the spine (other answers
(gland) system, muscle system, reproductive system (any order). possible e.g. pelvis) (1 mark). The majority of joints in the body
are freely movable so there are many acceptable answers e.g.
Page 8 (Exam Questions) knee, hip, wrist, ankle, shoulder (1 mark).
(b) To cause movement (1 mark) and to store energy (1 mark)
ee
Key Organs | Organ System should be underlined.

Muscles, tendons The muscle system (1 mark) | (c) The cartilage usually reduces friction between / rubbing together
of the two bones (1 mark). When it is worn away then the
Brain, nerves, spinal
aoe The nervous system (1 mark)
friction between bones increases which causes pain / inflamation
Thyroid, pancreas, The endocrine system / discomfort (1 mark).
ovaries, testes (1 mark)
Exam questions like this make you think for yourself a bit more.
You're told that healthy joints are lined with cartilage and joints
(b) To produce hormones and secrete them into the bloodstream.
become painful when the cartilage wears away. So you can guess that
(1 mark).
the cartilage stops the bones rubbing against each other.
(c) (i) Any four from: mouth, liver, pancreas, gullet / oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus Page 22 (Warm-u uestions
(4 marks).
Make sure that you name organs in your answer rather than 1) Adolescence is another name for puberty. It is the time during
tissues or cell types. which children change into sexually mature adults.
2) Boys: hair grows on face and chest, sex organs grow, testes start
(ii) It is absorbed (1 mark) into the bloodstream (1 mark).
to produce sperm and hormones, pubic hair grows, voice
3 (a) @ C @i)B Gi) A (Gv) D (WD Wi) C Wii) A deepens, behaviour changes. Girls: ovaries start to release eggs
(1 mark for every correct answer.) and hormones, pubic hair grows, menstruation starts, breasts
(b) @) Photosynthesis (1 mark). (11) Chlorophyll (1 mark). grow larger, behaviour changes.
Remember, plants need four things for photosynthesis — 3) Day 14.
chlorophyll, sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. Chlorophyll is
4) The placenta allows the blood of the baby to get close to the
the only one that they produce themselves.
blood of the mother so that substances like oxygen, carbon
dioxide and food can be exchanged.

Section 2— Humans as Organisms Page 23 (Exam Questions)

Page 16 (Warm-up Questions 2 (a) (i) In the fallopian tube / oviduct (1 mark).
(ii) When the nuclei of the egg and the sperm join (1 mark).
1) Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, roughage /
(b) 39 weeks (1 mark).
fibre, water.
3 (a) name of
2) So that it is small enough to pass through the intestine wall organ

(gut wall) and into the bloodstream. It can then be taken sperm duct B (1 mark)
anywhere in the body for use.
glands A (14 mark)
8) Mechanical digestion — chewing the food. Chemical digestion
erectile tissue | C (1 mark)
— using enzymes to break the food down.
4) Kidneys. scrotum E (1 mark)

5) Protection, support and movement. testis D (1 mark)

Page 17 (Exam Questions) (b) Testis / testes (1 mark).

2 (a) (1 mark) Page 31 (Warm-u uestions

1) So that oxygen can be picked up and taken to respiring tissue
and so that carbon dioxide can be expelled from the body.
2) Respiration.
small intestine
3) Nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide.
~—-rectum
4) Any six from: mouth cancer, throat cancer, lung cancer, stomach
(b) To digest food (protein) (1 mark) and to kill bacteria (1 mark). cancer, emphysema, coughs / colds, heart disease.

(c) They provide a large surface area for absorption (1 mark). 5) White blood cells.
They have a good blood supply (1 mark).

ANSWERS
 187

Page 32 (Exam Questions) (c) Lizard (1 mark).

2 (a) Oxygen (1 mark). (d) Frog (1 mark).

(b) Carbon dioxide (1 mark). (e) Sparrow (1 mark).

(c) Any two from: they have a big inside surface area, they have
a good blood supply, they are moist (1 mark each).
Section 5 — Living Things in their Environment
(d) Substance Effect

carbon monoxide |Makes the red blood cells incapable

at Page 60 (Warm-up Questions)
(1 mark) of carrying oxygen around the body. 1) An organism’s habitat is the place where it lives,
iy
nicotine
Causes addiction to smoking and can lead to
3 ,
heart disease through narrowing of the
its environment is the conditions in that place.
(1 mark)

tar
arteries.
2) Hibernation, growing thick coats, insects spend winter as pupae,
(1 mark) Can cause lung or throat cancer. storage of food, migration to warmer places / places where there is
more food.
3) Sustainable development is development which enables us to meet
Section 3 — Green Plants as Organisms the needs of today without impairing our ability to meet the needs
of tomorrow.
Page 39 (Warm-up Questions)
4) The arrows in a food chain or web show which organisms feed on
1) Light, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll and water. each other / the direction of energy flow.
2) Nitrates, potassium and phosphates.
5) An individual which is well adapted to its environment, competes
3) Ovule. successfully and avoids predators.
4) Wind dispersal, animal dispersal and explosions.
Page 61 (Exam Questions)
Page 40 (Exam Questions) 2 (a) (i) Energy used to keep warm / for moving / growth OR not all
2 (a) Jim is correct (1 mark). of the lemming is eaten / bones and skin are lost OR some of
the lemming is excreted by the fox (maximum | mark).
(b)
stage order
(ii) [arctic foxes
The nucleus of the pollen grain joins with
the nucleus of the egg cell (ovule). saNlalaticlns) lemmings

Pollen grain lands on the stigma. 4 plants |

The ovary develops into a fruit with the seeds inside. 5 (1 mark) (1 mark for correct shape, 1 mark for correct labelling.)
The nucleus from the pollen grain moves down through
Your pyramid doesn't have to be exactly measured — it just has
the tube. =. Chmark) to have sensible sized boxes to show that the number of
A pollen tube grows down through the style to the ovary. 2 (1 mark) organisms at each level gets less as you move up the food chain.

Don't be thrown by all the fancy names involved in fertilisation —

(b) (1) Food supply for the lemmings runs out / there is a disease
epidemic / bad weather / increase in number of predators
the process itself isn’t that complicated really.
(1 mark).
3 (a) Warmth (1 mark), oxygen (1 mark), water / moisture (1 mark). (ii) As the lemming population increases so does the fox
population (1 mark). When the lemming population
(b) To attract insects for pollination (1 mark).
decreases so does the fox population (1 mark).
(c) They would hook onto the fur of animals (1 mark).
3 (a) A — long beak helps the heron to spear fish (1 mark).
B — grey feathers help prevent the heron from being seen by
Section 4 — Variation, Classification and Inheritance its prey / provide camouflage (1 mark).
Using the correct words like camouflage’ always impresses
Page 49 (Warm-up Questions) the examiners.
1) Temperature, sunlight, moisture, soil conditions.
C — long legs help the heron wade through reed beds (1 mark).
2) The genes are organised into structures called chromosomes.
(b) There is not enough mercury in the fish to affect them (1 mark),
3) To produce new varieties with desirable features that will but the herons eat lots of fish so they have higher levels /
benefit humans in some way. concentrations of mercury in their bodies (1 mark).
4) A vertebrate.

Page 50 (Exam Questions) Section 6 — Classifying Materials

2 (a) (i) Rose B (1 mark) and Rose C (1 mark).
Page 68 (Warm-u uestions
You can work out the answer to this question by looking at the
table. Rose C has the most flowers, so its genes are needed for Gas.
that — plus it has OK resistance to disease and insects. Even Solid.
though Rose B has the least flowers, it is the plant with the They move faster, they move about more, they have more energy,
best resistances, so its genes are needed for that. they may undergo a change of state.
(ii) Choose best offspring and breed them together (1 mark). Changing state directly from solid to gas (or from gas to solid).
(b) Any two from: one site may have more swilight than another, the The pressure increases because the particles are squashed up in a
soil may have more nutrients at one site than at another, there smaller space, so they hit the sides of the container more often.
may be more water available at one site than at another, one site
may be warmer than another (maximum 2 marks).
3 (a) Starfish (1 mark).
(b) Mouse (1 mark).

ANSWERS
 188

Page 69 (Exam Questions) (b) (i) C (1 mark).

(11) It conducts electricity (1 mark).
Za) Air molecules exert pressure by colliding with the walls of the
tyre (1 mark). (c) High density (1 mark), hard (1 mark).

(b) The air molecules are compressed into a smaller volume

because the car tyre gets squashed by the weight of the heavily Section 7 — Changing Materials
loaded car (1 mark), so they hit the walls of the tyre more
often (1 mark). Page 96 (Warm-u uestions
(c) (1) The air molecules will move faster (1 mark). 1) 100 g.
(ii) The molecules will collide with the wall of the tyre
harder OR more frequently (1 mark).
2) A gas comes off, a solid is made and the colour changes.

The tyre might blow-out / explode / burst (1 mark).

3) Endothermic reactions take in energy (heat) and exothermic
reactions give out energy (heat).
This answer is just common sense really — you just have to imagine
what might happen in real life if a tyre’s pressure is too high. 4) Climate change and sea-level rise.

It has changed into a gas / it has evaporated (1 mark).

5) Acid rain is formed.

Condensation (1 mark). 6) Metamorphic — marble, slate or schist

Sedimentary — limestone, chalk or sandstone
Jenny is incorrect / wrong (1 mark) because physical changes Igneous — basalt and granite (other answers are possible).
don’t change the particles / it is only the arrangement / energy
of the particles that changes (1 mark). Page 97 (Exam Questions)
Page 77 (Warm-u uestions 2 (a) (1) Igneous rock (1 mark).
(ii) The magma at A cooled slowly (1 mark), forming an
1) An element contains only one type of atom. intrusive (1 mark) rock which has large (1 mark) crystals,
2) In a compound different atoms are chemically joined together e.g. granite (1 mark).
to make molecules. In a mixture the atoms or molecules are The lava at C cooled quickly (1 mark), forming an
simply mixed together, not chemically joined. Compounds extrusive (1 mark) rock which has small (1 mark) crystals,
cannot be separated by physical methods but mixtures can. e.g. basalt (1 mark).
3) Iron sulphate (b) The metamorphic rock was formed by heat from the volcano
4) Chromatography is a method used for separating mixtures (1 mark) and pressure from the mass of the rock above (1 mark).
of coloured substances which have different solubilities in a (c) (i) Pressure from the weight of the layers above squashes the
particular solvent, e.g. separating dyes in inks. water out (1 mark) and the sediments are cemented
together by salt crystals (1 mark).
Page 78 (Exam Questions) (ii) The more primitive fossil types are found in the oldest
3 (a) (1) Copper (Cu) (1 mark), carbon (C) (1 mark) and layers (1 mark).
oxygen (O) (1 mark). The best way to learn about the rock cycle is to learn the
(ii) Copper carbonate (1 mark). diagram really, really, well — so that you can reproduce it
(111) C (1 mark). perfectly.
(iv) CO,( mark).
(b) (i) A= filter paper (1 mark).
B = funnel (1 mark). Section 8 — Patterns of Behaviour
(ii) Filtration (1 mark).
(iii) Page 104 (Warm-up)
Warm / heat it gently OR evaporate the water (1 mark).
1) Carbon and hydrogen.
Page 85 (Warm-up Questions)
2) Carbon is less reactive than sodium.
1) Metals are found on the left of the Periodic Table
3) Aluminium reacts with oxygen, making a protective oxide layer
and non-metals are found on the right. which stops further reactions.
2) Non-metal oxides are acidic and metal oxides are basic.
4) Magnesium is more reactive than hydrogen and takes its place in
3) Iron, nickel and cobalt. the acid (forming magnesium sulphate).
4) Most non-metal elements are gases. 5) (a) Nothing — zinc is less reactive than magnesium.
5) Diamond — a hard non-metal. (b) The zinc strip becomes coated in orange copper and the
Graphite — a non-metal that conducts electricity. solution goes colourless, because zinc is more reactive than
Mercury — a metal that is liquid at room temperature. copper and displaces it in the solution.
Sodium — a soft metal which has a low density.
Page 105 (Exam Questions)
Page 86 (Exam Questions)
2 (a) Lithium (most reactive) (1 mark), magnesium (1 mark),
2 (ai) (1) Na OR Fe OR Cu (1 mark). tin (1 mark), silver (least reactive) (1 mark).
(ai) COR He (1 mark).
(b) Tin + oxygen — tin oxide (1 mark).
(iii) He (1 mark).
(iv) Fe (1 mark). (c) (1) Lithium hydroxide (1 mark).
(ii) Alkaline (1 mark).
(v) Na (1 mark).
(vi) C (1 mark). 3 (a) Aluminium is extracted from its ore by electrolysis (1 mark),
Don’t be put off by questions that are based on the Periodic Table Electrolysis wasn’t developed until the 19" century, so no
— you just need to look at the information given in the diagram and objects made from aluminium could be older than this (1 mark),
use it to answer the questions. E.g. in this question, it’s more (b) The oldest objects are likely to be made from gold OR silver
about recognising symbols than using the Periodic Table. (1 mark).
(c) Because calcium is very unstable / reactive (1 mark).

ANSWERS
 189

Page 114 (Warm-up Questions (1 mark for every correct row in the table,
to a maximum of 4 marks.)
1) Acids have a pH below 7, alkalis have a pH above 7.
2) An indicator is a dye which changes colour depending on the pH (b) | 44
of the solution it’s in.
3) Litmus paper only tells you if something is an acid or an alkali, Switch A

but Universal Indicator tells you what pH it is.

4) Useful examples include: neutralising excess stomach acid that
causes indigestion and reducing the acidity of soil to counter the (1 mark for an S placed anywhere on the circuit in the area
effects of acid rain, so that crops will give higher yields. indicated by the dashed line.)
Less useful examples include: acidic food can attack steel cans
1-4}
and acid rain can corrode and weaken some metals and certain (c) (1 mark)
rock types. Headlights

5) Sulphuric acid. Switch A Motor

Switch B

Page 115 (Exam Questions) |

2 (a) Sulphur + oxygen — sulphur dioxide (1 mark).
(6) Sulphur dioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere (in Section 10 — Forces and Motion
clouds) to produce weak sulphuric acid / acid rain (1 mark).
(c) (i) Weathering or chemical weathering (1 mark). Page 136 (Warm-up Questions)
(ii) Carbon dioxide (1 mark).
1) speed = disfaney
37) The frogs can tolerate a pH of 4.0, so they can live in the lake
which has a pH of 4.3 (1 mark). The fish can only tolerate a pH The units are m/s, m.p.h or km/hr.
above 4.5, so they cannot live in the lake at all (1 mark).
2) distance = speed x time = 30 x 5 = 150 m.
(b) Acid rain falling / being washed into the lake (1 mark). 3) The force of air resistance acting on the parachutist increases
(c) The limestone is a base so it neutralises the acid in the lake / it until it becomes equal to his weight, and so the forces on his
causes the pH of the lake to increase (1 mark). body are balanced.
(d) Acid rain is still going into the lake (1 mark). 4) The longer the lever, the greater the turning force about the
(e) Reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide from power stations / pivot.
factories OR reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides from vehicles
_ force’ _ 500 _ 2
(1 mark). 5) pressure = og = 9 25 N/em (NOT Pa)

also accept == 0.002

SWOT 250 000 N/m’ 2 or Pa
Section 9 — Electricity and Magnetism

Page 125 (Warm-up Questions) Page 137 (Exam Questions)

2 (a) Moment = force x perpendicular distance = 6 x 3 = 18 (1 mark)
1) An insulator is a material that does not conduct electricity, e.g.
Nem (1 mark).
wood, plastic, rubber, glass, ceramics (other answers possible).
Always include the units in number questions — e.g. here you would
2) 2 es only get half the available marks ifyou missed off Nem. So including
(a) at— (b) ot 7 ()c +A) units is an easy way of picking up extra marks.

SE (b) force = — = Ae =36 N (1 mark).

3) A parallel circuit is more useful than a series circuit because the
devices in it can be operated independently. (c) pressure = force = a6 =360 (1 mark) N/ cm?(1 mark).
4) Iron, nickel and cobalt. 3 (a) Friction OR air resistance / drag (1 mark).
5) A solenoid is a long coil of wire which has a magnetic field that (b) There is more friction between Martin’s feet and the floor
is the same as a bar magnet. (1 mark).
6) By increasing the number of coils in the wire, increasing the
(c) Gd) Martin’s mother’s weight is spread over a much smaller
current or by adding a core of soft iron inside the solenoid. area (1 mark) than Martin’s so the pressure is higher
(1 mark). (Answers stating that Martin’s feet have a larger
Page 126 (Exam Questions)
surface area so the pressure is lower are also acceptable.)
2 (a) (i) Iron (1 mark). (ii) Pressure = force / area
(ii) Any one of: iron, nickel, steel or cobalt (1 mark). Pressure = 600 N/ (60 x 2) cm?
(b) When the ignition switch is closed and a current flows in the = 600 N/ 120 cm?
_ coil, the coil becomes an electromagnet (1 mark). The . = 5 (1 mark) N/cm? (1 mark)
electromagnet attracts the rocker (1 mark), which presses the OR = 600 N / (0.006 x 2) m?
contacts together to complete the motor circuit (1 mark). = 600 N/ 0.012 m?
= 50 000 (1 mark) N/m? or Pa (1 mark)
3 (a) Switch A | switch B cootinerd Are the headlights on? You've been asked to give the pressure when she’s standing on
closed closed yes yes both feet, so you have to double the area of one of her shoes to
open open no no
get the right answer.

closed open yes no

open closed no no

ANSWERS
190

Section 11 — Light and Sound Section 13 — Energy

Page 146 (Warm-up Questions) Page 163 (Warm-up Questions)
1) Light. 1) Joules (J).
2) Any three sensible answers e.g. the Sun, candles, glow worms. 2) Conduction is where vibrating particles pass on their extra
In periscopes, for rear view mirrors (or other sensible answer). vibrational energy to neighbouring particles.
Refraction is where light rays bend as they travel through Convection is where heated material moves in bulk to a cooler
materials of different densities. region, where heat will be transferred. Radiation is where hot
objects give off heat waves which can travel across a vacuum.
A vacuum.

The amplitude is the height of a sound wave. It shows the 3) Most of the energy around us originates from the Sun.
energy / loudness of the sound. 4) Renewable energy resources are ones that are naturally replaced
so they will never run out.
7) Decibels.
5) Any three from: wind, solar, tidal, hydro-electric, biomass, wave,
Page 147 (Exam Questions) geothermal.
2 (a) It vibrates (1 mark).
Page 164 (Exam Questions)
(b) The cochlea (1 mark).
2 (a) (i) Non-renewable energy resources are being used up much
(c) (1) The vibrations will be smaller / have lower amplitude / less faster than they are naturally replaced, so they will
energy (1 mark). eventually run out (1 mark).
(ii) It will vibrate more slowly / the vibrations will have a
(ii) Any two from: tidal, wave, solar, hydroelectric, biomass,
lower frequency (1 mark). wind, geothermal (1 mark for each correct answer,
Any three from: hearing deteriorates with age, her ears may have maximum 2 marks).
been damaged by loud noise / illness / infection, there might be (iii) It’s important to use more renewable energy resources so
wax blocking her ears, the nerves in her ears might be damaged that there are alternatives available when all the non-
(maximum 3 marks). renewables are used up (1 mark) OR to conserve supplies
You have to know about how the inside of the ear works for physics of oil which are vital for making certain plastics and
questions like this, even though it might seem more like biology. medicines (1 mark).
(b) Letters should be in the following order: C, E, A, D, B
(2 marks if all letters are in the right order. Only 1 mark given
Section 12 — The Earth and Beyond if there’s a mistake in the order. No marks if there is more than
one mistake in the order.)
Page 154 (Warm-up Questions)
(c) (i) Kinetic, electrical (1 mark).
1) One (the Sun). (ii) Electrical, sound (1 mark).
2) Shorter. (ii1) Chemical, heat (1 mark).
Too dim to see in the daylight, because they’re so far away. (iv) Gravitational potential, kinetic (1 mark).
Remember that an energy transformation is when energy is
Any object which orbits a planet or star.
transformed from one form to another. The eight possible
The attraction between two bodies. forms of energy are light, heat (thermal), sound, chemical,
Jupiter. electrical, gravitational potential, kinetic and elastic.

Page 155 (Exam Questions)

2 (a) D(1 mark). Practice Exam Papers
(b) In summer the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun so Paper A
it is warm in Britain (1 mark). At the same time the southern
hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun so Australia is cooler 1 (a) Ticks should be by pictures of the TV set and the burning candle
(1 mark). (1 mark each).
Yes (1 mark). (b) Ray should be drawn as a straight line from the light bulb to the
Any 3 from: monitoring the weather, communication (radio, TV, book (1 mark) and then from the book to the boy’s eyes
telephone), navigation, observing the Earth, exploring the solar (1 mark). No marks if the ray does not have at least one arrow
head to show direction of travel.
system, spying (1 mark each up to a maximum of 3 marks).
pe {(e)) From left to right, labels should read:
Planet |Earth | Jupiter |Mars | Mercury |Neptune | Pluto |Saturn |Uranus | Venus
element, mixture, element, compound (1 mark each).
Rank 3 5 4 1 8 9 6 7 2
(b) A substance can be made from a pure element, mixtures of
(1 mark for every two correct, to a maximum of 4 marks.) elements, or elements joined together, so elements make up any
Mercury (1 mark). material (1 mark).
(a) Cooler (1 mark). (c) The formula shows that sodium chloride is made from two
(ii) Because Neptune is further from the Sun than the Earth different elements OR shows that sodium chloride contains Na /
(1 mark). sodium and Cl / chlorine (1 mark).
When questions ask about what you think or what you expect,
(d) (1) sodium (1 mark) (ii) helium (1 mark)
then just use your common sense. The Sun gives out lots of (iii) rock salt (1 mark)
heat, 50 it’s likely that planets nearer to it will be warmer. In
actual fact, other things like the composition of a planet's (e) The sand and salt in rock salt can be separated by dissolving
and filtering (1 mark), then by evaporation (1 mark).
atmosphere can make a difference — but you won't need to
worry about that. 3 (a) Engulf / eat microbes (1 mark). Produce antibodies (1 mark).
Neutralise poisons / toxins (1 mark).

ANSWERS
 19]

Harmless / dead / modified microbes of the disease (1 mark).

The arrow above the cyclist is labelled weight / gravity (1 mark).
The arrow below the cyclist is labelled reaction from ground
(1 mark).
(b) Friction (1 mark)
(c) It reduces air resistance (1 mark) so there is less force pulling
(3 marks if all 4 correct, 2 marks if 2 correct, 1 mark if only 1
the cyclist backwards (1 mark). answer is in correct place.)
(d) The forces moving him forward and holding him back are equal (b) Diaphragm moves down when breathing in, and up when
(1 mark). breathing out (1 mark).
Any two from: rabbit, mouse, sparrow (1 mark each). (c) Any two from: air breathed in is cooler; air breathed in has more
(b) Any two from: fox, weasel, buzzard (1 mark each). oxygen; air breathed in has less carbon dioxide; air breathed in
The Sun (1 mark). has less water vapour. These can be also be stated in reverse
(c) ; .g. “air breathed out has| ee g :
(d) (i) |Weasel numbers would drop because they would have less (8 a oe ee
food (1 mark). One mark if the effect on numbers and the (d) Respiration (1 mark).
reason are correct. No mark if the answer suggests the (e) Glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water (+ energy). 1 mark
weasels die. if whole equation is correct — mark is still given if (+ energy) is
(ii) The number of mice would go up because there would be omitted or not within brackets.
more food for them OR because there are now fewer Make sure you know this word equation for respiration off by heart —
weasels OR mouse numbers would drop because the it often crops up in the exam.
weasels would eat more of them now that there are no
rabbits (1 mark). Mark only awarded if the reason explains Me ae ere ca Me ea)
the effect on numbers. The mark can also be awarded if (b) There is no starch (1 mark) because it has been broken down by
the same answer concludes that mouse numbers would stay the enzyme / amylase (1 mark).
the same overall. (c) 37 °C is the best temperature for amylase / the enzyme to work
Solids have a definite shape OR solids are not easily squashed (1 mark). Also accept: 37 °C is close to the body temperature
(1 mark). and amylase usually works inside the body.
Any one from: liquids flow easily; liquids match the shape of (d) Tube A won’t change (1 mark). Tube B will change to orange /
their container; liquids reduce friction between solids (1 mark). red (1 mark).
Gases are easily squashed (1 mark) so the ride is not so ‘bumpy’ | 12 (a) 28 days (1 mark).
(1 mark). OR Gases are less dense than solids (1 mark) so gas- (b) (1 mark).
filled tyres are lighter (1 mark).
(d) neeen ee cree) ton a i ee CEeocrs (c) Any two from: communication / navigation / sending TV signals
eee the ain (1 mark )itorSuniiaisiosos Usehotthe / sending radio signals / sending telephone signals/ monitorin
word “evaporate” or “evaporation” is essential for the first mark. & : ae ee me e
the weather; observing the Earth / spy satellites / taking photos
(e) All of the petrol has evaporated from the coat (1 mark). of the Earth; observing the solar system (1 mark each).
Any three from — iron, steel, nickel, cobalt (1 mark each for a (d) Gravity (1 mark).
maximum of 3 marks).
(b) G) Attracting (1 mark). Paper
aper BB
(ii) (1 mark — both must be correct). | 1 (a) A, because the waves have the highest frequency / there are
more waves than in B (1 mark).
(b) A, because the waves have a higher amplitude / are higher than
in B (1 mark).

Lines of magnetic force always travel from north to south, Shea even sy ie apa aoa saaeagee:
The second mark is given for understanding that in a vacuum,
as shown by the arrows OR The arrows point towards the there chaihide (6 lait) Ombre
south pole / away from the north pole (1 mark). g E
Intelligence: mixture (1 mark), weight: mixture (1 mark), blood Aik pitty AT hearis) : benbs
group: inherited (1 mark). (b) Any one from: removing waste / urea / excretion / vara

ee Saeco) Gina)
This would happen if they were identical twins. Note: the word
ee ei eae TS hos
constant / controlling the amount of water in the urine / blood
‘identical’ is essential to get the mark (1 mark). (1 mark).
The copper sulphate is more soluble / dissolves more than the (c) The excretory system (1 mark).
potassium sulphate at all temperatures (1 mark). The solubility Kay Tio Uledder (1 mark):
of the copper sulphate also increases more as temperature ed
increases (1 mark). (Also accept answers from the opposite 3 (a) Neutralisation (1 mark).
point of view, e.g. the potassium sulphate is less soluble, etc.) (b) Any one of: Stopping indigestion; neutralising acid soil;
(b) Increasing the temperature speeds up the particles so the solid treating wasp or bee stings (other answers possible) (1 mark).
particles mix with / fit into the spaces between the water (c) Use an indicator / litmus paper / universal indicator/
particles more quickly (1 mark). phenolphthalein / pH paper / red cabbage juice (or any other
(c) Any answer between 36 - 39 g/ 100 g of water (1 mark). named indicator) (1 mark).

(d) Solute (1 mark). (e) Sulphuric acid (1 mark). 4 (a) Liquid to gas (accept evaporation’) (1 mark).
(b) Chemical (1 mark) to heat / light (1 mark) to kinetic (1 mark).
Any two from: natural gas, coal, oil, nuclear (1 mark each).

ANSWERS
 22

5 (a) Parallel (1 mark). smoking (1 mark). The idea needed is that prevention is better
(b) (i) It will stay on (1 mark). (11) It will stay on (1 mark). than cure, and that it is more difficult to get someone to give up
smoking than it is to prevent them starting.
(c) (i) It would stay on (1 mark). (ii) It would go off(1 mark).
Any three from — heart disease / emphysema / cancer of
(d) Bulb A will stay on because the electricity is still flowing
stomach, mouth, or throat / bronchitis / colds / bad breath /
through it / the circuit is still complete (1 mark). Bulb B will go
stained teeth / fingers / no sense of smell (1 mark for each).
off because there is no electricity flowing through it / the circuit
is broken (1 mark) because sulphur / non-metals do not conduct Photosynthesis (1 mark).
electricity (1 mark). Carbon dioxide + water > glucose / sugar / carbohydrate +
The copper was displaced by the iron / the copper was removed oxygen (1 mark for correct left hand side of equation, 1 mark for
from the copper sulphate (1 mark) because iron is more reactive correct right hand side of equation).
than copper (1 mark). Section B (1 mark).
Iron + copper sulphate — iron sulphate + copper (1 mark for Section B has no starch in it (1 mark). This means that no
correct left hand side, 1 mark for correct right hand side.) photosynthesis has occurred in section B (1 mark). The foil
The copper sulphate has changed into iron sulphate, which is a blocks out the light and prevents photosynthesis (1 mark).
colourless solution (1 mark), Sedimentary (1 mark). (b) Metamorphic (1 mark).
Silver (1 mark). Igneous (1 mark).
Silver is less reactive than copper (1 mark) so it can’t displace 50 °C. As the graph has no gridlines, any value between 45 and
copper (1 mark). 55 °C can be awarded a mark (1 mark)
Remember — metals are always more reactive than the metal they Area A: the heat energy is being used to change chemical X
displace. from a solid into a liquid / to melt chemical X (1 mark) instead
Physical / freeze-thaw weathering (1 mark). of raising its temperature (1 mark).
Area B: the heat energy is being used to change chemical X
Biological weathering (1 mark).
from a liquid into a gas / to boil chemical X (1 mark) instead of
Chemical weathering (1 mark). raising its temperature. Note: 1 mark is given for the idea that
Physical / onion skin weathering (1 mark). because the energy is being used to cause a ‘change of state’, it
Reproduction (1 mark). cannot also be used to raise the temperature. This could be
mentioned in either the explanation for area A or area B.
Any two from; nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane,
It can be given a mark in either section, but not in both.
(1 mark each).
Any two from; tail helps it swim / not much cytoplasm reduces
(c) Chemical X is water (1 mark). Reasons — EITHER the melting
point of the chemical is 0 °C OR the boiling point of the
weight / streamlined shape helps it swim / contains enzymes to
chemical is 100 °C (1 mark).
break down the egg membrane / the chromosomes in the nucleus
contain genetic information to be passed to the offspring (d) (1) True (1 mark). (ii) False (1 mark) (it is a liquid).
(1 mark each, maximum 2 marks). (iii) True (1 mark).
Questions about specialised cells are common in exams, so learn the
main ones — sperm, ova, cilia, palisade and root hair cells.
Clockwise (1 mark)
(4) M=800N x 2 m= 1600 Nm (1 mark). Working out your level
Also accept M = 800 N x 200 cm = 160 000 Nem.
Find your score for the two papers (there are 150 marks in
(ii) M = 400N x 2 m= 800
Nm (1 mark).
total — 75 for each paper).
Also accept M = 400 N x 200 cm = 80 000 Nem.
Look it up in this table to see what level you got. Ifyou're borderline,
(c) His dad would have to sit 100 cm (1 m) from the pivot (1 mark).
don’t push yourself up a grade — the real examiners won't.
Working (1 mark) should show the calculation of distance x 800
= 200 x 400, so distance = 200 x 400/800 = 100 cm (1 m). 105
- 150
OR 800 is twice 400, so the distance = 200/2 = 100 cm (1 m).
OR 1600 is twice 800, so distance = 200/2 = 100 cm (1 m).
ee
ee
Important
(d) Correct answer (1 mark). The most likely correct answers are The practice exams cover Tier 5-7. Ifyou're doing Tier
listed below, but any answer where distance of dad is 5/8 of 3-6, you could get a level 2 or 3 instead of anN. In any case...
distance of James is acceptable. Likely answers: Obviously these grades are only a guide —
and the more you practise, the better you'll do...

Working should show that:

_ If you want to be really ready for the exam,
force x distance on one side = force x distance on the other you need to do more practice papers.
(1 mark), e.g. 800 x distance of dad = 500 x distance of James.
It's important to show your method when you have worked something You can either hassle your teacher for
out — you could still get marks, even ifyour final answer is wrong.
past papers, or buy CGP’s pack of
10 (a) 13% (1 mark).
specially written practice papers.
(b) Girls. The reason given should indicate that the total of all the
columns is greater for girls than for boys (1 mark).
Nicotine (1 mark).
| Up to you.
(Cc)
(d) 11 year-olds. At that age, only a few children have started

ANSWERS
 193

A blood groups 43 cochlea 145 ecosystem 56, 59

absolute zero 157
boiling 66, 88 Golo 124 ecstasy 28
bonds 66, 71, 80, 81, 88 coke 99 effort force 132
absorbing food 13
bones 15 colds 29 egestion 12
absorbing gases 24
absorption 12, 36
born 21 colour 142 egg cells 18, 19, 20, 21
brakes 131 combustion 91 elastic energy 157
acids 82, 90, 102, 106,
108-113
bread 91 community 56 electric charges 79, 117
breasts 18 compass 121 electric current 79, 118
acid rain 91, 112
adaptation 52, 53, 54, 59
breathing 24, 25 competition 59 electricity 117, 160
bulb 117, 120, 139 compounds 71, 72, 73 electrolysis 99
addictive 27, 28
adolescence 18
burial and compression 93 compressibility 63 electromagnets 123, 124
compression 63, 65, 93, electrons 70, 117, 118
air resistance 130, 131
alcohol 91 C 129 elements 70, 71, 72, 73,
alcohol-emulsion test 11 cactus 53
condensing 66, 76 95
alimentary canal 12 caffeine 28
conduction of heat 158 embryo 21
alkalis 80, 90, 107-110, calcium 10, 99-102
conductors of electricity 117 embryo plant 38
rts calcium carbonate
conservation of energy 162 emphysema 27
alloys 80 106. 107 12
consumer 57 emulsifies (breaks up) 12
convection current 158 endothermic reactions 90
aluminium 99-102 calcium hydroxide 107, 110
convection of heat 158 energy 26, 58, 144, 162
ammeters 117, 118 camel 52
ammonia solution 107 cancer 27
conventional current 118 energy flow 56
amphetamine (speed) 28 copper 99-103 environmental variation 43
cannabis 28
amplitude 144 carbon 83, 99
copper sulphate 11, 103 enzymes 12, 36, 109
amylase enzyme 12 copulation 19, 21 erectile tissue 19
carbon dioxide 5, 25, 26,
angles of incidence and core of soft iron 123 ethanoic acid 106
eR AM « WOK, Wh, Wie
corrode 111 ethanol 91
reflection 140 carbonate rocks like lime-
crude oil 160 evaporation 74, 89, 94,
anther 37 stone 92
antibiotics 28 crystallisation 74 ites}
carbonates 106, 107, 112,
crystals 74, 94, 113 exothermic reactions 90
antibodies 30 vie)
anus 12 carbonic acid 111
euntent 117 118,44 19) expand and contract 92
arctic conditions 52 carcinogens 27
120 exposure 93
area 134 extrusive igneous 93, 94
carnivore 57
arrangement of particles 64 carpels 37 D eye colour 43
aspirin 28 cartilage 15 daily changes 54
F
asteroids 152 cell membrane 1, 3, 13, day 149
atomic number 70 36 decibels 145 faeces 12
atoms 70, 71 cells f. (2) 35 oO ait deficiency symptoms 36 fallopian tube 19, 21
attraction 121, 122 cellulose 12 dense medium 141 fats 10, 12
audible range 145 chalk 94, 112 density 63, 65, 82, 84 fermentation 91
changes of state 66 deposition 93 fertilisation
B characteristic feature 42 depressant 28 US ZORA, BWA Se

babies 21
characteristics 43, 46, 59 desert conditions 52 fibre 10
charge 117, 118 diamond 83 field lines 121
backbone 47
| bacteria 29
chemical bond 71 diaphragm 24, 25 filament 37
| balanced diet 10
chemical formula 72 diffuse reflection 140 filters 14, 142
chemical reaction - see diffusion 63, 67 filtration 74
balanced forces 129, 130
bar magnets 121, 122
reactions digestive system 5, 12 finger-like projections 13
barbiturates 28
chest 25 dispersed light 142 flow 63
chewing 12 displacement reactions 103, flow of charge 118
basalt 93, 94
chicken pox 29 is) flower 37
bases 80, 90, 107-110,
1}
chloride 73 dissolving 89 flu 29
| battery 117, 118
chloride salts 113 distance 128 fluoride 73
chlorophyll 4, 34 distillation: 76 fluorine 73
bell jardemo 25
chromatography 75 DNA 45 foetus 21
Benedict's test 11
| bicarbonate indicator 26
chromosomes 45 drag 130 ROOM O: [nlen unl Sone
circuits 117-120 driving force 118 food chains and webs 56,
| bile 12
circuit symbols 117 57, O38
biomass 159, 160
Biuret test 11
citric acid 106 E food energy 58
classification 47 food poisoning 29
bladder 14 ear 145
coal 159, 160 food tests 11
blood 13, 14, 20, 24, 26 Earth 149, 151, 152
cobalt 80, 121 worees. 12S), 1310), Sw, 13s),
echo 143
134

THE INDEX
 forces of attraction 65 loud music 144, 145 north pole 121
formula 128, 133, 134 LSD 28 nucleus..1,.2,. 34 2ieee)
identical twins 43
formula triangles 128, 134 lubricant 83 45
igneous rocks 93, 94
fossil fuels 159, 160 luminous 139, 157 nucleus of an atom 70
image 139
fossils 94 lung cancer 27
immunity 30
freezing 66, 88
frequency 144
implantation 20, 21
lungs 24, 25, 27 O
friction 131
infectious 29 oesophagus 12
inherited variation 43 M oil 159, 160
fruit 38
fulcrum 132
insoluble 12, 89 machine 132 omnivore 57
insulation 52 magma 93, 94 Opaque 139, 141
funnel 74
insulators 81, 117 magnesium 99-103 orbit 151, 152
intercourse 19, 21 magnesium oxide 80, 107 ores of metals 99
G internal workout 10 magnetic 80, 121, 122, oscilloscope 144
galaxy 153 intestine 12 123 ovary] 8/51/92 SyaRee
gas pressure 67 intrusive igneous 93, 94 magnetic fields 121 oviduct 19, 21
gases 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 invertebrate 47 marble 95 ovule 37, 38
generator 160 iodine 10, 35 mass 151, 153 oxidation 90
genes 42, 43, 45 iodine test 11 matter 63 oxide 73, 80, 82
genetic information 29 iron 10, 72, 80, 99- medicines 28 oxides of nitrogen 111
geothermal power 160 LOSF a2 medium 141, 143 oxygen 5, 24, 25, 26, 34,
german measles 29 iron filings 121 melting 66, 88 73, 80/82) 90 On
germinate 38 iron reacting with sulphur menstrual cycle 20 95, 100
glucose 13, 26, 34, 35 TO mercury 84
gold 99-102 iron sulphide 72 metal oxides 80, 100 P
granite 93, 94 metamorphic rocks 93, 95
graphite 83, 117 pain killers 28
methedrine 28
gravitational potential energy pancreas 12
microbes 29, 30
joints 15 paracetamol 28
Wy migration 54
jollyism 152 parallel circuits 119
gravity 130s lot S2 Milky Way 153
joules 157 parents 43
greenhouse effect 91, 160 minerals 3, 4, 10, 36, 94
groups 70 particle theory 64, 65
mirrors 140
growth 10 K mixtures 71, 74, 75, 76
pedigree dogs 46
keys 48 penis 19
modified microbes 30
period 20, 70
H kidneys 14 molecules 71
periodic table 70, 79
kilometres per hour 128 molten (melted) rock 93, 94
habitat 52, 56 permanent magnet 122
kinetic energy 157 moments 133
hair colour 43 pestle and mortar 74
knee 15 moon 151
hallucinations 28 petals 37
health 27, 28, 29 morphine 28
petrol 160
hearing 145 L motor 117
pH .80,...62, 1067 siz
heart disease 27 large surface area 36 muscles 6, 15
108, 7 OSs
heat 66, 67, 158 law of reflection 140 phosphates 36
heat energy 157 lead 99-102 N photosynthesis 4,
heating and cooling curves leaves 4, 34 natural gas 159, 160 3A; 3D 9O
88 legal drugs 28 navigation 151 physical changes 66, 88
herbivore 57 lever 132, 15, 124 nectaries 37 pipette 113
heroin 28 light 54, 139, 140, neutralisation 90, 91, pitch of sounds 144
hibernation 54 141, 142 LOG OZ MO) pivot 132, 133
high blood pressure 27 light energy 157, 162 TSO ealislis placenta 21, 30
hormones 6, 18 lighted splint 102 neutrons 70 planets 151, 152) (fee
Hubble telescope 151 limestone 92, 94, 112 newtons 129, 134 plants 4, 34, 35, 36,
hydrocarbons 91 limewater 26, 112 newton meter 129 3738
hydrochloric acid lines of magnetic force 121 nickel 80, 121 plotting compass 121
12), 1102, 91067 1,09; lining of the uterus 20 nicotine 27 poisonous waste 14
us lipase enzymes 12 nitrate salts 113 poisonous gas 27
hydroelectric power 160 lipids 10, 12 nitrates 36 Pole Star 150
hydrogen 99, 101, 102, liquids 63, 64, 65, 66 nitric acid 106 polio 29
ROG elle liver 12 nitrogen 25 pollen 37, 38
hydroxides 101 livestock breeding 46 non-magnetic 82 pollen grain 37, 38
load and effort force arrows non-metal oxides 82 pollination 37
182 non-metals 81, 82

THE INDEX
 195

pollution 92, 112 scissors 132

population 59
stigma 37, 38
U
screen 139 stimulants 28
potassium 36, 99-102 scrotum 19 Unlisei23 9135
stomach 12, 109
predation 59 universal indicator 108
seasons 149, 150 stomach cancer 27
pregnant 20, 21 sebum 18 Universe 153
stored energy 157
pressure 134 secondary consumer 57 upbringing 43
streamlined 130
primary consumer 57 urea 14
sedimentary rocks 93, 94 subliming 66
prism 142 urine 14
seeds 37, 38 sulphate 73
producer 57 selective breeding 46 useful energy 162
sulphate salts 113
products of a reaction wierus 197 DOW 21
semen 19 sulphur 72
72, 90 separation techniques 74, sulphur dioxide 91, 111
properties of non-metals 81, Udy, HS sulphur impurities 91 Vv
82 series circuits 118, 120 sulphuric acid 102, 106 vaccine 30
properties of solids, liquids serum 30 summer 149 vacuum 25, 158
and gases 63, 64 sexual intercourse 19, 21 Sun 149, 150, 152 vagina 19, 20, 21
protease enzymes 12 shadows 139, 150 sunlight 34, 44, 149 variation 42, 43, 44
protein coat 29 short circuit 120 Sun's energy 57 vertebrate 47
proteins 10, 12 silicon dioxide 95 surface area 13, 24, 52 vibrations 65, 66, 143,
protons 70 silver 99-102 survival 59 158
psychologically dependant skeleton 15 sustainable development 55 villi 13
28 skull 15 sweat 14 viruses 29
puberty 18, 20 slate 95 switch 117, 119, 120 volcanoes 94
pump. 118 smelting 90 symbols 135 volume 63
smoking 27
Q sodium 10, 14, 84, 99-102
sodium chloride 73, 113
T W
quantities 135 ein Dye waste 14
quartz 95 sodium hydrogencarbonate
tarnish 100 wasted energy 162
107
tastier beef 46 waters: 10; 12) 14) 26,
sodium hydroxide
R 107, MOS alts:
taxonomic groups 47 34, 36, 44, 52, 53,
radiation of heat 158 teeth 12 TA they, USO Silly, MON
soil 36, 44
rainbow 142 temperature 44, 54, 66, 106, 107, 109-113
solar power 160, 161
88, 157-8 water vapour 25
reactants 72, 90 solar system 152, 153
reactions 72, 90, 91, 99,
tendons 15 wave 144
solenoid 123
OO Oil, 102; 103,
tensile strength 79 wave power 159, 160, 161
solids 63, 64, 65, 66
test for hydrogen gas 102 weather forecasting 151
109-113 solubility 89
reactivity series 99-103 testes lg weathering 92, 112
soluble 12, 89
red blood cells 27 tests for carbon dioxide weight 130
solute 89
reduction reaction 99 Ay, WNtl: white blood cells 30
solution 89
reflection 140, 143 tetanus 29 white light 142
solvent 75, 89
refraction 141, 143 the almost legendary starch whooping cough 29
sore throats 29
renewables 160, 161 testo wind power 159, 160, 161
sound 143, 144, 145, 157
repair 10 thermometer 84 winter 149
south pole 121
| reproduction thyroid 10 winter wheat 46
species 42, 59
LOO 21 37,38
tidal power 160 womb 19, 20
spectrum 142
repulsion 121, 122 tilt of the Earth’s axis 149 word equation 72, 90
speed 28,428
resistance 118, 120
time 128
Sorsiinn) 2 ey, Ail, NS
respiration 24, 26 spine 15
tin 111 Y
rock cycle 93 tobacco 27
spots 18 yeast 91
rocks 92, 93, 94, 95 top carnivore 57
spy satellites 151
root hairs 36 top speed 131
stamens 37
transfer of energy 131 Z
roots 4, 36 standard units 135
transparent 139, 141 zinc 99-102
roughage 10 Starch tile oo
transformation of energy zygote 21
stars, 1>O 1527153
158
S states of matter 63, 66
transportation 93
saliva 12 steady speed 130
trophic levels 58
steam 160
sandstone 94 turbines 160
satellites 151 steel 80, 121
turning forces 133
steel cans 111
saturated solution 89 twins 43
schist 95 steel core 123
stem 4

THE INDEX
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