MODULE I

Syllabus:-

Steam engineering- T- S diagram, Mollier chart, Steam cycles- Rankine cycle, Modified
Rankine cycle, Relative efficiency, Improvement in steam cycles-Reheat, Regenerative and
Binary vapor cycle.

Steam Boilers: Types of boilers –Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Benson boiler,
La Mont boiler, Loeffler boiler, Velox boiler, Boiler Mountings and Accessories

Steam nozzles:-Types of nozzle- Velocity of steam, mass flow rate, critical pressure ratio and
its significance, effect of friction, super saturated flow

Rankine cycle

Developed by Prof. Rankine. It is the theoretical cycle on which steam power plant
works. It is a vapour power cycle [a power cycle continuously convert heat into shaft
work in which a working fluid repeatedly performs a succession of works

The major components are :-

1. Feed water pump

2. Boiler

3. Steam turbine

4. Condenser

Major processes are:- 1-2= isentropic expansion in turbine.

2-3= constant pressure HEAT rejection in condenser.

3-4= isentropic compression in feed pump.

4-1= constant pressure heat addition in boiler.

There are four major processes, when all the above four processes are ideal the cycle is
an ideal cycle called rankine cycle.
Comparison of Rankine cycle & Carnot cycle

RANKINE CYCLE CARNOT CYCLE

Const. pressure heat rejection. Isothermal heat rejection in carnot cycle.

Heat addition process is reversible. All the processes are reversible and
. isothermal.

Only water is pumped from condenser Practically compression of wet steam is

pressure to boiler pressure. very difficult because of large size
compressor & tremendous amount of work
input requires to compress the steam.

The water is heated in the boiler to raise the Water cannot be heated in carnot for
temperature of water to boiling point increasing temperature.
Deviation of actual cycle from ideal

The deviation is due to irreversibility in various components. The irreversibility due to

fluid friction (piping loss) and heat loss. Fluid friction (piping loss) causes pressure drop
in th boiler, condenser and the piping between various components. Due to this steam
leaves the boiler at lower pressure. Also, pressure at turbine inlet is some what lower
than boiler exit due to pressure drop in connecting pipes. The pressure drop in the
condenser is small. This can be compensated by pumping water sufficiently higher
pressure. Heat loss causes another major source of irreversibility. To maintain same
level of net work output more heat needs to transmitted to the steam. Other
irreversibilities are occurring in pump and turbine. Pump requires greater work input
and a turbine produces a small work output as a result of irreversibility. The deviation
is due to irreversibility in various components. The irreversibility due to fluid friction
(piping loss)and heat loss.

• Fluid friction (piping loss) causes pressure drop in th boiler, condenser and the
piping between various components.
• Due to this steam leaves the boiler at lower pressure . Also pressure at turbine inlet
is some what lower than boiler exit due to pressure drop in connecting pipes.
• The pressure drop in the condenser is small. This can be compensated by pumping
water sufficiently higher pressure.
• Heat loss causes another major source of irreversibility.
• To maintain same level of net work output more heat needs to transmitted to the
steam.
• Other irreversibilities are occurring in pump and turbine.
• Pump requires greater work input and a turbine produces a small work output as a
result of irreversibility.

Isentropic efficiency of a turbine

It is the ratio between actual turbine work to isentropic turbine work.
= W actual / W ideal

Improvement in steam cycles (OR) methods to improve the efficiency of rankine

cycle

Methods of improvement of thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle are:-

 Reheating
  Regeneration
 Binary vapour cycle
 Decreasing in condenser pressure
 Increasing boiler pressure
 Superheating the steam to high temperature.

REHEATING

 It is desirable to increase the average temperature and pressure of the steam

at which heat is supplied to it.
  To keep the steam as dry as possible at the end of the turbine.
 In reheat rankine cycle, expansion process takes place in two stages:-
 In the first stage, steam is expanded isentropically to an intermediate
pressure in High Pressure Turbine (HP Turbine).
 The reheated steam is then allowed flow through Low Pressure Turbine
(LP Turbine).
 In the first stage steam expands approximately to the saturated vapour
line. Then the steam is superheated at const. pressure in the boiler.
Remaining expansion take place in LP Turbine.
 Reheating helps to increase the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5% by increasing average
temperature.
 The average temperature can be increased by no of expansion and reheat stages.
 When we are increasing the reheat stages more than two expansions and reheat
process approaches to an isothermal process at the maximum temperature and it
is not possible.
 The main aim of reheating is to reduce the moisture content (x=0.88).
 If the turbine inlet pressure is not high enough, double reheating would causes
superheated exhaust and leads to decrease in cycle efficiency.

REGENERATING
 Most commonly used system to increase efficiency of the cycle.
 The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be improved upon practice by bleeding off some
of the steam at an intermediate pressure.
 This steam is used to heat the feed water in separate feed water heater.
 Feed water heater acts as a mixing chamber where steam mixes with the boiler feed water
deliver from feed water pump.

Binary vapour power cycle

• It is a combination of two cycles. One operates in the high temperature region
and other will be in the low temperature region.
• It uses 2 working fluids one with good high temp characteristics and another with
good operating characteristics at low temperature.
• In binary vapour cycle, 2 ideal rankine cycles are combined, such that condenser
of high temp cycle (topping cycle) act as boiler of low temp (bottom cycle) cycle.
• Common working fluids used in topping cycle :- Mercury, sodium, potassium
and sodium potassium mixture.
• Mercury is good working fluid for BVPC, since critical temp is 8980C.
• Critical pressure of mercury is about 18 MPa, hence it is safer.
• Mercury can not be used during full cycle, since at atmospheric temp creates air
leakage problems.
• Further due to low specific enthalpy, the mass flow rate of mercury in the binary
cycle is several times higher that of water. Therefore, the use of the mercury as
a working fluid is limited to high temperature cycle only.
• The heat transfer between two cycles is accomplished in an interconnecting heat
exchanger, which serves as a condenser for mercury cycle and the boiler for
steam cycle.
• The efficiency of such cycle is more than steam cycle.
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 Steam Boilers
• Close vessel in which steam is generated from water by combustion of fuel.
• Basically it is a HEAT EXCHANGER
• Also known as steam generator
• Function is to convert chemical energy of fuel into heat by combustion & to transfer
this heat to water to produce steam
Steam boiler – Components
• Boiler shell: Exterior of steam boiler, forming a case to contain water & steam. Made
up of steel bent into cylindrical form.
• Combustion chamber: Space generally below the boiler shell, meant for burning fuel.
• Grate: Platform in the combustion chamber upon which the fuel (coal or wood) is burnt.
• Furnace: Space above the grate & below the boiler shell, in which the fuel is actually
burnt. Furnace is also called fire box.

Boiler Mountings & Accessories

Mountings:- The boiler cannot work with out mountings.
1. stop valve,
2. safety valve,
3. water level gauge,
4. fusible plug,
5. blow-off cock,
6. pressure gauge
7. water level indicator

Water level indicator: Safety device upon which working of boiler depends. Indicates water
level inside the boiler.

Safety valves: Devices attached to steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive
internal pressure of steam. Function is to blow off steam when the pressure of steam inside the
boiler exceeds the working pressure.

Feed check valve: Regulates supply of water, which is pumped into the boiler, by feed pump.
Fitted below the normal level of water in the boiler.

Pressure gauge: Measures pressure of steam inside boiler.

Steam stop valve: Fitted to highest part of shell. Function is to control the flow of steam from
boiler to steam pipe.

Blow-off- cock: Fitted to bottom of a boiler. Function is to empty the boiler when required &
to discharge mud, sediments, etc, which are accumulated at bottom of boiler.

Fusible plug: Function is to put-off fire in the furnace of boiler when water level falls below
an unsafe level.

Accessories:- The accessories which helps to increase the efficiency of the boilers
 1. super heaters,
2. economisers,
3. feed pump.

Boiler feed pump: Used to supply water to boiler with sufficient pressure.

Super heater: Used to increase temperature of steam without raising pressure. Placed in the
path of hot flue gases from furnace.
Economiser: Used as a heat exchanger to preheat feed water by utilizing heat from exhaust
flue gases.
Air pre-heater: Used to recover heat from exhaust gases. Preheats air required for combustion

Classification of Boilers
1. Use and application:
 Stationary
 mobile Boilers.
2. Tube contents:
 Fire tube Boilers: cochran, simple vertical boiler, lancashire boilers
 Water tube Boilers: babock and wilcox, stirling boilers
3. Position of drum:
 Horizontal Boilers: locomotive, babock and wilcox boilers.
 Vertical Boilers: cochran, simple vertical boilers.
4. Type of fuel used:
 Coal fired
 Oil fired
 Gas fired boilers.
5. Capacity of boilers
 Low Capacity (up to 1000kg/hr)
 Medium Capacity (1000-10000kg/hr)
 High Capacity greater than (10000kg/hr)
6. No: of tubes:
 Single
 multi tubular boilers
7.Method of water circulation
 forced
 natural

According to flow of water & hot gases

 Fire tube boiler: Hot gases pass through tubes which are surrounded with water. Simple
vertical boiler, cochran boiler.
 Water tube boilers - Water circulates through large number of tubes & hot gases pass
around them. Babcock & Wilcox boiler.

According to the axis of the shell

  Vertical boiler: Axis of the shell is vertical. Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler
 Horizontal boiler: Axis of the shell is horizontal. Babcock & Wilcox boiler, locomotive
boiler.
According to location of the furnace
 Externally fired boilers: Separate furnace built outside the boiler shell & usually below
it. Water tube boilers are externally fired
 Internally fired boilers: Furnace forms an integral part of boiler structure. Furnace is
located inside boiler shell. Most of fire tube boilers are internally fired.
According to the application
 Stationary boiler: Installed permanently on location. Used in power plants & in
industrial process work.
 Mobile boilers: Can be moved from one place to another. These are locomotive &
marine boilers

Comparison between water tube boiler & fire tube boiler

Particulars Fire tube boiler Water tube boiler

Position of water & Hot gases inside the tubes & water Water inside the tubes & hot gases
hot gases outside the tubes. outside the tubes.

Mode of firing Generally internally fired. Externally fired.

Rate of steam
Lower. Higher.
production

Chances of explosion Less High

Suitability Not suitable for large power plants. Suitable for large power plants.

For a given power, it occupies more For a given power, it occupies less
Floor area
floor area floor area.

Operating cost Less High

Construction Difficult Simple

Transportation Difficult simple

Treatment of water Not so necessary More necessary

Cochran Boiler
• Vertical multi-tubular low pressure fire tube boiler.
• One of the best type of vertical fire tube category.
• Consist of cylindrical shell with dome shaped top for collecting steam.
• Fuel is burnt on grate & ash collected is disposed of from ash pit.
• Hot gases from fire box passes through flue tube to combustion chamber.
• From there hot gases pass through horizontal tubes, during which it transfers heat to the
surrounding water.
• Water is already heated by fire box.
• Water gets converted into steam & gets accumulated at top of shell.
• Hot gases after reaching smoke box are discharged to atmosphere through chimney
• Steam is taken out through steam stop valve.
Babcock & Wilcox boiler

• Horizontal, externally fired, water tube boiler.

• Water tube boilers are exclusively used, if pressure above 10 bar and capacity in excess
of 7000kg of steam per hour is required.
• Consist of cylindrical longitudinal drum mounted at top.
• Connections are made with uptake & down take headers from each end of drum.
• Headers are joined to each other by no. of inclined tubes (15 0).
• A feed valve (feed water inlet) is provided to fill the drum and inclined tubes with water.
The level of water is indicated by water level indicator.
• Mud collector is provided at bottom of down take header.
• Furnace is arranged below uptake header.
• Fuel is supplied to grate through fire door.
• Hot gases are forced to move upwards & downwards b/w the tubes by baffle plates
provided.
• This provides maximum heating of water tubes.
• Cold water from drum flows into down take header, gets heated & become warm water.
• Warm water moves upwards to uptake header due to its low density, from where it goes
back to drum
• This cycle repeats & finally water in drum becomes steam.
• The steam get collected in the steam space, then flows to the superheater tube through
anti-priming pipe.
• Designed for stationary or marine purpose.
Lamont boiler

• It is a high pressure, water tube boiler.

• Water circulation is maintained by centrifugal pump {forced circulation}.
• Lamont boiler generates approximately 45 to 50 tones of superheated steam at a
pressure of 130 bar and at a temperature of 5000C.
• Small diameter tubes are used , so high heat transfer rate is maintained.
• Multiple tubes circuit gives flexibility for suitable location of heat transfer equipments.
• The main disadvantage of lamont boiler is salt and sediment deposition in inner surface
of the tube and which causes to reduction in heat transfer and dangerous overheating of
boiler parts due to high thermal resistance of salts.

Working:-
 • Step:1 The feed water passes through the economiser to drum from which it is drawn
to circulation pump.
• Step:2 Pump delivers the feed water to the evaporating tubes.

• Step:3 After evaporation a mixture of steam and water will flow to the drum.

• Step:4 Steam will separated in the drum and then drawn to the super heater
and it is supplied to prime mover.

Loeffler boiler

 Modern high pressure water tube boiler, using forced circulation principle.
Advantages:-
 Evaporate water soley by means of superheated steam.
 Hot gases from the furnace is supplied only to economiser and superheater.
 Loeffler having a generating capacity of 100 tones/ hr and operating pressure at 140 bar
at a tempertaure of 5000C.
 It can carry higher salt concentrations than any other type.
 More compact than indirectly heated or natural circulation type.
 Fit for using at land or sea transport power generation.

Working:-

 Step:1- The high pressure feed water pump draws water through economiser and
deliver it to evaporating drum.
 Step:2- The steam circulating pump draws saturated steam from
evaporating drum and passes through radiant and convective super heaters to
raise the temp. of steam to a required temperature.

 Step:3 From the convective super heater, 1/3 of saturated steam is

passes to the prime mover, remaining 2/3 of steam is passing through the
water in the evaporating drum in order to evaporate feed water.

Benson boiler

• High pressure, drum less, water tube boiler

• Forced circulation
• Introduction of Benson boiler is mainly due to the disadvantage of formation and
attachment of bubbles in the inner surface of the tubes which causes to high thermal
resistance and reduces the heat flow.
 • Designed to withstand critical pressure
• Entire process of heating, steam generation & super heating is done in single tube.
• Comparatively smaller floor area
• Steam generation is quick.
Working:-
• Feed water is supplied to economizer & gets heated by flue gases going out.
• Heated feed water receives heat by radiation & partly gets evaporated in radiant
evaporator.
• Water steam mixture is converted into steam in convective evaporator section
• Steam is superheated in super-heater.
• Economizer, evaporator, super-heater are arranged in path of flue gases.
• Air for combustion is preheated by flue gases by indirect contact heat transfer
Advantages:-
 Smaller floor space is required
 Total weight is 20% less than other boilers (since no drums).
 Started very quickly.
 Furnace walls of the boiler are more efficiently protected by using smaller diameter
pipes.
 Transfer of parts are very easy(since no drums).
 Explosion hazards are not severe, since it consist of small tubes of little storage
capacity.