1)Describe the syntax and semantics of propositional logic with an example.

ropositional logic, also known as propositional calculus, is a branch of logic that deals with sentences
or propositions that can either be true or false. It uses symbols to represent these propositions and
combines them using logical connectives such as "and" (∧∧∧), "or" (∨∨∨), "not" (¬¬¬), "implies"
(⇒⇒⇒), and "if and only if" (⇔⇔⇔).
2) Define inference system and explain operations performed by knowledge-based
agents.
Inference System:
An inference system is a component of a knowledge-based agent that derives new
information or sentences from the existing knowledge base using logical reasoning. It applies
predefined logical rules to the knowledge base (KB) to deduce new facts or relationships
about the world. These new facts help the agent update its internal representation of the
environment, enabling intelligent decision-making and action.
The inference system works by generating conclusions from known information, making the
agent capable of reasoning about the world and predicting outcomes effectively.

Operations Performed by Knowledge-Based Agents:

Knowledge-based agents perform two primary operations—TELL and ASK—to show
intelligent behavior. These operations are crucial for maintaining and reasoning over the
knowledge base:
1. TELL:
o This operation allows the agent to update its knowledge base with new
information (or percepts) gathered from the environment.
o For example, if an agent observes a change in the world, it TELLs this
information to the KB in the form of a logical sentence.
o The updated KB serves as the basis for future reasoning and decision-making.
2. ASK:
o This operation enables the agent to query the knowledge base for the best
action to take in the current situation.
o The agent uses logical inference to deduce what action should be performed to
achieve its goals or respond to changes.
 o For instance, if the agent needs to decide a path to its destination, it will ASK
the KB for a recommended route.

How These Operations Work in a Knowledge-Based Agent:

Each time the agent interacts with the environment, it performs the following sequence of
steps:
1. Perceive and Update:
o The agent observes (or perceives) something in the environment and generates
a logical representation of that percept using Make-Percept-Sentence.
o It then TELLs this percept to the KB, updating it with the new knowledge.
2. Query for Action:
o The agent formulates a logical query using Make-Action-Query to ASK the
KB what action it should take based on the current knowledge.
o The inference system uses reasoning to deduce the best possible action.
3. Record Action Taken:
o Once the action is chosen, the agent executes it and TELLs the KB what
action it performed using Make-Action-Sentence.
o This ensures the KB stays consistent and up-to-date.
For example, an automated taxi agent may:
• Perceive traffic conditions (TELL).
• Ask for the best route (ASK).
• Update its KB after taking the suggested route (TELL).

Purpose of an Inference System:

1. Reasoning: Helps the agent deduce new information from known facts.
2. Action Planning: Assists in selecting actions that achieve the agent's goals.
3. Adaptation: Updates the KB with new observations to adapt to changes in the
environment.
3) Explain Heuristic function in detail.
Heuristic Function:
A heuristic function is a strategy used in informed search algorithms to guide the search
process toward the goal more efficiently by providing an estimate of the cost or distance to
the goal from a given state. It helps the search algorithm make decisions about which node or
state to expand next by assigning a value that reflects the potential of a given state. The goal
of a heuristic is to improve the efficiency of the search by prioritizing the most promising
nodes, avoiding exhaustive exploration of less promising paths.
Key Characteristics of a Heuristic Function:
• State-Based: The heuristic function operates on the current state of the problem and
provides an estimate of the cost or distance from this state to the goal state.
• Admissibility: A heuristic is admissible if it never overestimates the true cost of
reaching the goal from a given state. This guarantees that the search will find an
optimal solution.
• Efficiency: A good heuristic reduces the number of states the algorithm needs to
explore, thus making the search process faster.
Example of Heuristic Functions:
For problems like the 8-puzzle, where the goal is to arrange tiles in a specific order, two
common heuristic functions are:
1. h1 (Misplaced Tiles):
o This heuristic counts the number of tiles that are out of place relative to their
goal positions.
o Admissible: Since each misplaced tile must be moved at least once, the
heuristic provides a lower bound on the actual solution cost.
o Example: If all tiles are misplaced in the start state, h1 = 8.
2. h2 (Manhattan Distance):
o This heuristic calculates the sum of the horizontal and vertical distances each
tile needs to move to reach its goal position, often referred to as the city block
distance.
o Admissible: Since no tile can move diagonally, this heuristic is guaranteed to
never overestimate the solution cost.
o Example: If tiles are displaced by 3 horizontal and 2 vertical steps, the
heuristic adds these distances for all tiles.
Learning Heuristics from Experience:
While traditional heuristics are designed manually, agents can also learn heuristics from
experience, especially in complex or unknown environments. Here's how this works:
 • Example: 8-Puzzle: Each solution to an 8-puzzle problem provides an example of
how the agent can transition from one state to another. The agent can learn a heuristic
by examining these examples and using techniques like machine learning (e.g.,
decision trees, neural networks) to predict the cost from any given state to the goal.
• The average solution cost for a randomly generated 8-puzzle instance is about 22
steps.
• The branching factor is about 3. (When the empty tile is in the middle, four moves
are
possible; when it is in a corner, two; and when it is along an edge, three.)
• This means that an exhaustive tree search to depth 22 would look at about 322≈
3.1×1010
states.
• A graph search would cut this down by a factor of about 170,000 because only 9!/2
=181,
440 distinct states are reachable.
• Feature-Based Learning: Instead of using raw state descriptions, learning algorithms
use features that are relevant to predicting the cost. For example, features could
include the number of misplaced tiles or the number of adjacent tiles that are in
incorrect positions. These features are then combined (often linearly) to predict the
heuristic function:
o h(n) = c1 * x1(n) + c2 * x2(n), where x1(n) and x2(n) are features and c1, c2
are constants adjusted through learning.
Advantages of Heuristic Functions:
1. Improved Efficiency: By narrowing down the search to more promising paths,
heuristics help algorithms avoid exploring irrelevant or redundant states.
2. Scalability: Heuristics enable search algorithms to handle more complex problems by
guiding the search intelligently, making them more scalable for larger search spaces.
3. Optimality: When used in algorithms like A* search, admissible heuristics guarantee
finding the optimal solution.

4) Greedy Best-First Search Algorithm

Overview:
Greedy Best-First Search is an informed search strategy that always expands the node
closest to the goal according to a heuristic function h(n)h(n)h(n). The algorithm
prioritizes nodes with the lowest heuristic value, hoping to reach the solution quickly.
However, it does not guarantee finding the optimal path.
• Evaluation Function: f(n)=h(n)f(n) = h(n)f(n)=h(n), where h(n)h(n)h(n) is the
estimated cost to the goal from node nnn.
• Advantages: Fast in many cases, as it focuses on progressing toward the goal.
• Disadvantages: Not optimal and may overlook better paths because it ignores the cost
of reaching the current node.

Algorithm Steps:
1. Initialization:
o Add the starting node to the priority queue (fringe) with its heuristic value
h(n)h(n)h(n).
o Maintain an empty set of explored nodes.
2. Expand Node:
o Remove the node with the smallest h(n)h(n)h(n) from the priority queue.
o If the node is the goal, terminate the search.
3. Generate Successors:
o Expand the current node, generate its successors, and compute their heuristic
values h(n)h(n)h(n).
4. Add to Priority Queue:
o Add successors to the priority queue if they are not already explored or in the
queue.
5. Repeat:
o Repeat steps 2–4 until the goal is reached or the queue is empty (indicating
failure).

Example:
Let's consider finding a path from A to G in the following graph:
Graph Representation:

Nodes: A, B, C, D, E, F, G
Edges and heuristic values (h):
Node h(n) (Heuristic to G)

A 6

B 4

C 5

D 2

E 3

F 1

G 0

Edges (Cost is not considered in Greedy Best-First Search):

• A → B, A → C
• B → D, B → E
• C→F
• D→G
• E→G
• F→G
Key Notes:
1. Heuristic-Driven:
o The algorithm selects nodes solely based on h(n)h(n)h(n), ignoring the actual
path cost (e.g., distance or cost already traveled).
2. Efficiency:
o Greedy Best-First Search is faster than uninformed strategies because it
focuses on nodes closer to the goal.
3. Non-Optimality:
o It may find a suboptimal path. For instance, in the example, the path
A→C→F→GA → C → F → GA→C→F→G might have been shorter, but the
algorithm ignored it.
4. Practical Use:
 o Suitable for problems where finding a solution quickly is more important than
finding the optimal solution (e.g., pathfinding in games or navigation
systems).

5) Describe the step-by-step execution of the A* algorithm using a graph-based example

with at least five nodes
 6) Demonstrate reasoning patterns in propositional logic, such as modus
ponens and modus tollens, with examples
Reasoning Patterns in Propositional Logic
Reasoning patterns in propositional logic involve systematically applying inference rules to
determine the truth of specific statements based on a set of premises or a knowledge base (KB).
Two fundamental reasoning patterns are Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens. Here’s an
explanation and examples for each:
Observations
• Soundness: Both rules are sound; they lead to conclusions that are logically valid based
on the premises.
• Usage: These rules are essential in theorem proving, decision-making systems, and
knowledge representation.
(7,8)Wumpus World Problem: Overview
The Wumpus World is a classic problem in artificial intelligence (AI) that tests logical
reasoning and decision-making under uncertainty. It represents a simple yet challenging
environment where an agent must navigate, infer knowledge, and take actions to achieve its
goal.

What is the Wumpus World Problem?

The Wumpus World is a 4x4 grid environment in which the agent must explore rooms to find
gold and exit the cave safely while avoiding deadly hazards. Hazards include a Wumpus (a
mythical creature that kills the agent if encountered) and bottomless pits (traps that kill the
agent if entered).
The environment contains clues—stenches, breezes, glitters, bumps, and screams—that the
agent perceives and uses to infer safe paths, the locations of hazards, and the presence of gold.

Why is the Wumpus World Problem Important?

1. Knowledge-Based AI:
o The problem emphasizes knowledge representation and logical reasoning in
an uncertain environment.
o The agent uses a knowledge base (KB) to make informed decisions by deducing
facts based on perceptions and logical inference.
2. Reasoning Under Uncertainty:
o The agent must handle incomplete information and make decisions with partial
knowledge.
 o This aspect is crucial for real-world AI applications, like autonomous
navigation, robotics, or problem-solving in unknown environments.
3. Modeling Agent Behavior:
o It demonstrates how an AI agent can act intelligently, balance risks, and achieve
goals with minimal errors.

How Does the Wumpus World Problem Work?

1. Setup:
o The world consists of a 4x4 grid where the agent starts at (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1), facing
right.
o The gold, the Wumpus, and pits are placed randomly, except in the starting
square (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1).
2. Perceptions:
The agent uses five types of sensory information:
o Stench: Indicates the Wumpus is in the current or adjacent (not diagonal)
squares.
o Breeze: Indicates a pit is in an adjacent square.
o Glitter: Indicates the gold is in the current square.
o Bump: Indicates the agent has walked into a wall.
o Scream: Heard if the Wumpus is killed by the agent’s arrow.
3. Actions:
The agent can:
o Move Forward to the next square.
o TurnLeft or TurnRight to change direction.
o Grab to pick up gold.
o Shoot its single arrow to kill the Wumpus in a straight line.
o Climb out of the cave when at (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1).
4. Goals:
o Primary Goal: Retrieve the gold and exit the cave alive.
o Secondary Goal: Avoid hazards (pits and the Wumpus) while minimizing
penalties.
5. Challenges:
o Uncertainty: The agent must infer the locations of the Wumpus and pits based
on indirect clues.
 o Trade-offs: The agent loses points for actions, so it must act efficiently while
ensuring safety.

7)Using propositional logic, write down the rules required for an agent to avoid the Wumpus
and pits.
8. Illustrate Wumpus World problem with PEAS description in detail.
Performance Measure
• +1000+1000+1000: If the agent successfully retrieves the gold and exits the cave.
• −1000-1000−1000: If the agent is eaten by the Wumpus or falls into a pit.
• −1-1−1: For each action performed by the agent.
• −10-10−10: For using the arrow (shoot action).
• Game End:
o Agent dies (falls into pit or eaten by Wumpus).
o Agent retrieves gold and climbs out of the cave.

Environment
• Grid: A 4x4 grid where the agent starts at (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1), facing right.
• Wumpus: A single Wumpus placed randomly in the grid (not in (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1)).
• Pits: Randomly placed pits in the grid with a probability of 0.2 (not in (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1)).
• Gold: A single piece of gold randomly placed in the grid (not in (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1)).

Actions (Actuators)
• Forward: Move to the square in the current direction.
• TurnLeft: Turn 90° counterclockwise.
• TurnRight: Turn 90° clockwise.
• Grab: Pick up gold if in the same square.
• Shoot: Fire an arrow in a straight line in the current direction.
• Climb: Exit the cave from (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1).

Sensors
• Stench: Perceived in the same square as the Wumpus or adjacent (not diagonal).
• Breeze: Perceived in the same square as a pit or adjacent (not diagonal).
• Glitter: Perceived in the same square as gold.
• Bump: Perceived if the agent walks into a wall.
• Scream: Perceived anywhere in the cave when the Wumpus is killed.
Agent's Goal
• Safely navigate the grid.
• Use logical reasoning to infer the location of Wumpus and pits.
• Grab the gold and exit the cave without dying.
The agent applies logical inference to decide safe moves, detect hazards, and optimize actions
based on its performance measure.