Chapter 1

Physics and Measurements

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§ Objectives of Physics:

• To find the limited number of fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena.
• To use these laws to develop theories that can predict the results of future experiments.
• Express the laws in the language of mathematics, because mathematics provides the bridge
between theory and experiment.

§ Theory and Experiments

• Should complement each other
• When a discrepancy occurs, theory may be modified, or new theories formulated.
• A theory may apply to limited conditions.
Example: Newtonian Mechanics is confined to objects traveling slowly with respect
to the speed of light.

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• Measurements:

• Used to describe natural phenomena.

• Each measurement is associated with a physical quantity.
• Need defined standards.
• Characteristics of standards for measurements.
• Readily accessible.
• Possess some property that can be measured reliably.
• Must yield the same results when used by anyone anywhere.
• Cannot change with time.
• Standards of Fundamental Quantities.
• Standardized systems.
• Agreed upon by some authority, usually a governmental body.
• SI – Systéme International (Main system used in this text).
• Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee.
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The Fundamental and derived Quantities
• To describe natural phenomena, we must make measurements of various aspects of nature. Each
measurement is associated with a physical quantity, such as the length of an object. The laws of physics are
expressed as mathematical relationships among physical quantities.

•Quantities in physics are divided to :​

1. Fundamental (Base) Quantities:
​The quantities that can’t be derived from other quantities .

2. Derived Quantities:
Quantities that are derived from base quantities.
• In mechanics, the three fundamental quantities are:

1- Length 2- Mass 3- Time

• All other quantities in mechanics are derived and can be expressed in terms of these three.
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 Measurement
• Measuring things
• We measure each physical quantity in its own units.
• The unit is a unique name we assign to measures a
certain quantity.

In 1960, an international committee established a set of

standards for the fundamental quantities of science. It is
called the SI (Système International), and its fundamental
units of length, mass, and time are the meter, kilogram,
and second, respectively. Other standards for SI
fundamental units established by the committee are
those for temperature (the kelvin), electric current (the
ampere), luminous intensity (the candela), and the
amount of substance (the mole).

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Length
• We can identify length as the distance between two points in space.
• The legal standard of length in France became the meter (m).
• The meter defined as the distance traveled by light in vacuum during
a time interval of 1/299 792 458 second.

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Mass
• The mass of an object is related to the amount of material that is
present in the object, or to how much that object resists changes in
its motion.

• The SI fundamental unit of mass, the kilogram (kg), is defined as the

mass of a specific platinum–iridium alloy cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France.

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Time
• The fundamental unit of a second (s).
• One second is defined as 9 192 631 770 times the period of vibration
of radiation from the cesium-133 atom.

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Derived Quantities
• Most other variables are derived quantities.
• Derived quantities can be expressed as a mathematical combination of
fundamental quantities.

• Examples:
1. Area: a product of two lengths: �2
2. Volume: a product of three lengths: �3
3. Speed: a ratio of a length to a time interval: � = �/�
4. Acceleration: a ratio of a speed to a time interval:� = �/� = �/�2
5. Density: the density of any substance is defined as its mass per unit volume:
�/� = �/�3 .

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 Prefixes for Powers of Ten
The expression of a very large or small quantities in physics as a power of 10

1 �� = 1 × 10−3 � 1 �� = 1 × 10−3 � 1 �� = 1 × 103 � 1 �� = 1 × 103 �

3560000000 � = 3.56 × 109 � = 3.56 �� 0.000000492 � = 0.492 × 10−6 � = 0.492 �� = 0.492 �����������

2.35 × 10−9 � = 2.35 �� = 2.35 ����������

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Prefixes for Powers of Ten
Example 1:
Convert the following expressions into prefixes form:

1- 4500 g
4500 � = 4.5 × 103 � = 4.5 ��
2- 0.000005 s.

0.000005 � = 5 × 10−6 � = 5 ��

3- 6000000 m.
6000000 � = 6 × 106 � = 6 ��

4- 0.000000000000001 s.
0.000000000000001 � = 1 × 10−15 � = 1 �� = 1 �����������

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Prefixes for Powers of Ten

Length (m)

Mass (Kg)

Time (s)

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Conversion of Units:
• When units are not consistent, you may need to convert to appropriate ones.
• See Appendix A for an extensive list of conversion factors.
• Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can cancel each other out.
• Always include units for every quantity, you can carry the units through the entire
• calculation.
• Multiply original value by a ratio equal to one.
Example:

* Note the value inside the parentheses is equal to 1, since 1 inch is defined as 2.54 cm.

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Conversion of Units
• Sometimes it is necessary to convert units from one measurement system to another or convert
within a system (for example, from kilometers to meters).
• we multiply the original measurement by a conversion factor (a ratio of units that is equal to
unity(=1)).
• For example,

1 ��� 60 � 60 � 1 ��� 60 � 1 ���

1 ��� = 60 � → = → =1 1 ��� = 60 � → = = 1, =1
1 ��� 1 ��� 1 ��� 60 � 60 � 60 �

Example 2:
Convert 2 min into second.

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Conversion of Units
• Example 3:
1- Convert 10 km into m.
1000 �
10 �� = 10 �� (1) = 10 �� = 10 × 1000 � = 10000 � = 1 × 104 �
1 ��
2- Convert 10 m into km.
1 �� 10
10 � = 10 �(1) = 10 � = �� = 0.01 �� = 1 × 10−2 ��
1000 � 1000
3- Convert 1 nm into m.
1 × 10−9 �
1 �� = 1��(1) = 1 �� = 1 × 10−9 �
1 ��
4. Convert 4000 g into kg.
1 �� 4000
4000 � = 4000 � (1) = 4000 � = �� = 4 ��
1000 � 1000

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 Conversion of Units
Example 4:
On an interstate highway in a rural region of Wyoming, a car is traveling at a speed of 38.0 m/s. Is
the driver exceeding the speed limit of 75.0 Km/h?

Answer:
1 �� 60 � 60 ���
(38 �/�) = 136.8 ��/ℎ
1000 � 1 ��� 1ℎ

The driver is indeed exceeding the speed limit.

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Conversion of Units
Example 5:
A motorcycle is traveling at a speed of 120 Km/h. What is the speed of motorcycle in m/s?
Answer:
1000 � 1ℎ 1 ���
120 ��/ℎ = 120 ��/ℎ × × × = 33.33 �/�
1 �� 60 ��� 60 �

Example 6:
A solid piece of lead has a mass of 23.94 g and a volume of 2.10 ��3 . From these data,
calculate the density of lead in SI units (kilograms per cubic meter).
Answer:
3
� 23.94 � 3 3
1 �� 100 ��
�= = = 11.4 �/�� = 11.4 �/�� × ×
� 2.1 ��3 1000 � 1�

3
1 �� 106 ��3 3 3 3
� = 11.4 �/�� × × = 11400 ��/� = 11.4 × 10 ��/�
1000 � 1 �3

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Conversion of Units

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Conversion of Units

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 Dimensional Analysis
In physics, the word dimension denotes the physical nature of a quantity. The distance between
two points, for example, can be measured in feet, meters, which are all different units for
expressing the dimension of length.
The symbols we use to specify the dimensions of length, mass, and time are L, M, and T, respectively.
We shall often use brackets [ ] to denote the dimensions of a physical quantity.
Example:

1- The dimensions of speed are written [�] = �/�.

2- The dimensions of area A are [�] = �2

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Dimensional Analysis

• Dimensional Analysis necessary either to derive a math expression, or

equation or to check its correctness.
• Quantities can be added/subtracted only if they have the same
dimensions.
• Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can be treated as
algebraic quantities: Add, subtract, multiply, divide.
• The terms of both sides of an equation must have the same
dimensions.

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Dimensional Analysis
• Example 7:
Given the equation: � = 1/2 ��2 , where � represents the position, a acceleration, and t an instant
of time. Check dimensions on each side.
Answer: There are no
dimensions for the
From L.H.S., the dimension of the position is: [�] = �
constant.
�
The dimension of the acceleration is: [�] = 2
�
The dimension of time squared is: [�2 ] = �2
�
The dimension of the R.H.S. is: [�� ] = 2 ∙ �2 = �
2
�
→ [�] = [��2 ] → � = �

Since the left hand side is equal to the right hand side the equation is dimensionally correct.

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Dimensional Analysis

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 Dimensional Analysis
Example 8:
Show the expression: � = � � , where � represents speed, � acceleration, and t is an instant of time, is
dimensionally correct.

Answer:
�
From L.H.S., the dimension of the speed is: [�] =
�
�
The dimension of the acceleration is: [�] = 2
�
The dimension of time is: [�] = �
� �
The dimension of the R.H.S. is: [� �] = 2 ∙ � =
� �

Therefore, the expression � = �� is dimensionally correct, because we have the same dimesions on both sides.

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Dimensional Analysis
Example 9:
If the expression: � = �� �� , where � represents acceleration, � speed, and r is the radius of the circle, is
deimensionally correct. Determine the values of n and m, and determine the type of acceleration.
Answer:
�
From L.H.S., the dimension of the acceleration is: [�] = 2
�
� �
� � �
The dimension of the speed is: [�] = → [�� ] = = �
� � �
� �
The radius represents a length, the dimension of the radius is: [�] = � → [� ] = �
� �+�
� �
The R.H.S. becomes: [�� �� ] = �� ∙ � = �
� �
� �
� ��+�
L.H.S=R.H.S. : [�] = [� � ] → 2 = �
� �
Equate the exponents of L and T we get: → � = 2, � + � = 1 → � = 1 − � = 1 − 2 =− 1
�2
The acceleration expression become: −1
�=� � = 2
�
The acceleration represents a centripetal acceleration, an acceleration of a particle moving with
uniform speed v in a circle of radius r. 25
 Dimensional Analysis
Example 10:
Given the equation: � = �� , where � represents the force, m the mass, and a acceleration of a particle.
What is the dimensions and SI unit of the force F.
Answer:
The dimension of the mass is: [�] = �
�
The dimension of the acceleration is: [�] = 2
�
�
Thus, the dimension of the force F become: → [�] = [��] = �
�2

The SI unit of force become: �� ∙ � �2 .

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 Dimensional Analysis
Example 11:
Given the equation: � = 1/2 ��2 , where � represents the energy (kinetic energy), m the mass, and
v a speed of a particle. What is the dimensions and SI unit of the energy E.
Answer:

The dimension of the mass is: [�] = �

�2
2
The dimension of the speed squared is: [� ] = �2

2
�2
Thus, the dimension of energy become: → [�] = [� � ] = � 2
�

The SI unit of energy become: �� ∙ �2 �2 .

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 Dimensional Analysis
Example 12:
Given the equation: � = �/� , where p represents power, � the energy, and t is an instant of time. What is
the dimensions and SI unit of the power p.
Answer:
�2
The dimension of energy is: [�] = � 2
�

The dimension of time is: [�] = �

�2 1 �2
Thus, the dimension of power become: → [�] = [�/�] = � 2 ∙ = � 3
� � �

The SI unit of power become: �� ∙ �2 �3

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 Dimensional Analysis
Example 13:
Given the equation: � = �/� , where � represents density, � the mass, and V is the volume. What is the
dimensions and SI unit of the density �.

Answer:

The dimension of the mass is: [�] = �

The dimension of the volume is: [�] = �3

�
Thus, the dimension of the density become: [�] = [�/�] = 3
�

The SI unit of density become: �� �3

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