Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph ;
Email: [email protected]

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Research Work in
SCE 101B - Professional Course 1
Specialized Course
(Bridge Engineering)

Submitted by:
BALUYOT, ZANDRO I.
BANDAL, VINCE C.
BOCALOS, ROSEMYR C.
CONGE, ARTURO F., JR.
EVANGELISTA, KRISTINE MAXI D.
GIRAY, GWYN FREDERICK T.
MARINO, JAKESON M.

Submitted to:
RIC L. GONZAGA, MCE
CE Faculty

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SCE 101b - Professional Course 1 Specialized Course (Bridge Engineering)

3 units

Description: A specialized professional course for civil engineering students in

structural engineering designed to understand the concepts, theories,
and principles in the design process of bridge structures.

I. INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW

Builders refer to the National structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) to

ensure that buildings such as high rise condominium, bridges can with stand
tremors as high as magnitude 8. The purpose of this code is to provide minimum
requirements for the design of bridge, buildings, tower and other structures and
minimum standards and guidelines to safe guard life or limb. Property or public
welfare by regulating and controlling the design, construction, quality of materials
pertaining to the structural aspect of all building and structure within this
jurisdiction. NSCP Developed by the Association of Structural Engineers of the
Philippines (ASEP), the NSCP is cited as a “referral code” of the NBC — the
primary basis for the construction, design, use, and maintenance of all buildings in
the country. The NSCP covers only buildings, towers, and other vertical structures,
such as poles and billboards. Other “special structures,” including “single family
dwellings,” are also required to comply with the code “as a minimum whenever
applicable.”

A structure is “assumed” to be NSCP-compliant once it is issued a building

permit But even with these safety considerations the NSCP assures neither “zero-
damage” nor functionality of structures following a “severe” earthquake. Volume I
of NSCP refer to the design of building and other vertical structure while the
Volume II of NSCP refer to the design of the bridges.

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General Provision of the NSCP Volume II, Bridges.

1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OF THE

BRIDGE

1.1.1 Bridges Design Analysis

The intent of this specification is to produce integrity of design of the

bridge. Bridge structures are to be analyzed elastically which are based on
documented material characteristics and satisfy equilibrium and compatibility.
Bridge analysis is a comprehensive engineering process that involves the
examination, evaluation, and prediction of the behavior of a bridge structure under
various conditions and loads.

The goal of bridge analysis is to ensure that the design meets safety
standards, can withstand anticipated loads, and remains structurally sound
throughout its intended lifespan. The process includes the application of
mathematical and computational methods to assess the overall structural
response.

Bridge analysis is vital in civil engineering as it ensures the safety of

structures by identifying potential weaknesses and vulnerabilities. Engineers use
analysis to understand how loads, including live and environmental loads, are
distributed within the bridge, optimizing material usage and cost. Performance
evaluation through analysis assesses factors such as deflection, stress, and strain,
ensuring compliance with building codes and standards. The process aids in
predicting the long-term behavior of the bridge and mitigating risks associated
with its design.

Overall, bridge analysis is indispensable for creating safe, efficient, and

code-compliant structures with a focus on long-term durability.

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 1.1.2 Bridge Structural Integrity

Structural integrity is the ability of a component, structure or asset to

operate at optimum level under the pressure of a load, including the weight of the
asset itself." Without structural integrity buildings would collapse if subjected to
external forces. Structural integrity is important not only when something is being
built, but also throughout its life cycle. Of course, it's not just buildings that require
structural integrity - many man-made and natural constructions need structural
integrity.

Once a structure has been designed and built it needs to be maintained.

There are many processes that effect materials over time, such as wear, fatigue,
creep, to name but a few. Inspection and testing of structures to ensure they
continue to work as designed is an important part of maintaining structural
integrity.

When it comes to bridge and structural investigations, a thorough

understanding of the condition and integrity is essential. Testing and surveying
methods play a crucial role in assessing the health, safety, and durability of
bridges and structures.

Testing of materials falls into two main categories - destructive, and non-
destructive testing.

Destructive testing involves taking a finished product or sample and

testing it to destruction to see when it fails - for example, increasing the load on a
metal bar until it breaks, thus establishing the maximum load it can take.
Destructive testing is commonly used for materials characterisation and
fabrication validation, and is carried out either by following a standard or by
recreating specific environmental conditions to determine performance prior to
building.

Visual inspection is the most fundamental and widely used technique for
bridge and structural investigations. It involves a visual examination of the entire
structure to identify any signs of distress, such as cracks, corrosion, deformation,
or other visible damage. Trained inspectors conduct detailed visual inspections,
both from close proximity and from a distance, to evaluate the structure's overall
condition and determine the need for further tests or surveys.

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 Non-destructive testing methods are employed to evaluate the structural
integrity of bridges and structures without causing any damage. Some commonly
used NDT techniques include:

 Ultrasonic Testing (UT): UT utilises high-frequency sound waves to detect

defects or irregularities within the structure. It can detect hidden cracks,
voids, or delamination’s and assess the thickness of materials.
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): GPR uses electromagnetic waves to
create a subsurface profile of the structure. It helps identify voids, buried
utilities, reinforcement layout, and potential defects in concrete or asphalt
layers.
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT): MPT is primarily used for ferromagnetic
materials to detect surface and near-surface defects, such as cracks or
discontinuities. It involves the application of a magnetic field and the use of
iron particles that gather around areas with defects.
 Concrete Condition Testing: Concrete condition testing involves various
methods to assess the quality and durability of concrete used in bridges
and structures. These tests may include measuring compressive strength,
evaluating chloride ion penetration, conducting carbonation tests, or
assessing the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) potential. By analysing the
condition of concrete, engineers can determine its integrity and identify any
deterioration or potential issues that may affect the structure’s overall
stability.
 Radiographic Testing (RT): RT employs X-rays or gamma rays to examine
the internal structure of a material. It is effective in detecting hidden flaws,
such as cracks or inclusions, and assessing the integrity of welds and joints.

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 1.2 WATERWAYS

1.2.1. General

In Bridge Engineering, waterways refer to bodies of water such as rivers,

streams, lakes, and canals that a bridge crosses over. The provisions related to
waterways address several key aspects to ensure the safety, stability, and
functionality of bridges over or near bodies of water.

DO No. 166 of 2016

To promote safety of life and property in the course of navigation, all

concerned offices of this department are hereby directed to comply with the
provisions of Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) Memorandum Circular No. 01-14
dated 16 of April 2014: Navigational Clearance for Road Bridges and other
structures over navigable inland waters, as follows:

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A. The construction, establishment, alteration or modification of all road bridges
and other structures over navigable waters such as bays, rivers, and lakes
have to be referred to the PCG for issuance of appropriate clearance
confirming that the structure would not be hazardous to navigation in order to
ensure safe passage of all vessels and watercraft.

B. The location, site preparation, and completion of the construction,

establishment, alteration and modification of structures shall not destroy,
affect or cause damage to any marine environment such as coral reefs,
mangrove areas and the likes.

C. Vertical clearance provided in the design/construction for road bridges and

other structures over navigable inland waters shall be computed as follows to
allow safe passage of vessels or watercraft and other sea going vessel
approved by the concerned PCG District Commander.

Vertical Clearance = HWL + HV + K

Where in: HWL - is the highest water level recorded within the area of
responsibility

HV - height of vessel

K - is a constant 1 meter allowance

Selecting favorable stream crossings should be considered in the

preliminary route determination to minimize construction, maintenance, and
replacement costs. Where relief bridges are needed to maintain the natural flow
distribution and reduce backwater, caution must be exercised in proportioning the
size and in locating such structures to avoid undue scour or changes in the course
of the main river channel.

Backwater occurs when the flow of a river or stream is obstructed, causing

water levels to rise upstream of the obstruction. Relief bridges help reduce
backwater effects by allowing excess water to flow around or over the bridge
structure, which can alleviate pressure on the upstream section and help prevent
flooding and erosion.

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 Bridge waterways are sized to pass a design flood of a magnitude and
frequency consistent with the type or class of highway. In the selection of the
waterway opening, consideration should be given to the amount of upstream
pounding, the passage of debris and possible scour of the bridge foundations.
Where floods exceed the design flood have occurred, or when super floods would
cause extensive damage to adjoining property or the loss of costly structure, a
larger waterway opening may be warranted.

1.2.2 Hydraulic Studies

a. Maps, stream cross sections, aerial photographs

b. Complete data on existing bridges, including dates of construction and

performance during past floods.

c. Available high water marks with dates of occurrence.

d. Information on ice, debris, and channel stability

e. Factors affecting water stages such as high water from other streams,
reservoirs, flood control projects, and tides.

Hydraulic Design: This involves designing the bridge’s substructure to

handle water flow and prevent scour around the foundations. This study is
essential to determine the appropriate design for piers and abutments to minimize
the risk of erosion and flooding.

Flood Analysis: The code includes the provision for analyzing flood
conditions to ensure that the bridge can withstand extreme water levels and
debris flow without being compromised. This includes determining the bridge’s
elevation relative to expected flood levels.

Hydrologic Analysis:

a. Flood data such as historical floods and maximum floods of record

b. Flood-frequency curve for site

c. Distribution of flow and velocities at site for flood discharges to be

considered in design of structure.

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 d. Stage-discharge curve for site.

Floating debris during floods damaging bridges

1.3 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY OPENINGS

1. Culvert Location - A culvert should ideally be located in the existing channel

bed to minimize costs associated with structural excavation and channel work.
However, this is not always possible. Some streambeds are sinuous and
cannot accommodate a straight culvert. In other situations, a stream channel
may have to be relocated to avoid the installation of an inordinately long
culvert.

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 Hydrological Analysis - According to American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) requires a thorough hydrological
analysis to determine the appropriate location of culverts. The culvert must be
placed where it can most effectively convey water from natural streams or
stormwater flows without altering natural water patterns.

Flood Frequency Considerations - AASHTO recommends culvert

placement where water flow can be managed even during design flood events
(typically 25-year or 50-year flood scenarios, depending on the road classification).

Site Investigation - The location is selected based on geotechnical

surveys to ensure the culvert is on stable ground, minimizing the risk of erosion,
soil instability, or other environmental factors that could affect the bridge or road
structure.

2. Culvert Length - Important dimensions and features of the culvert will

become evident when the desired roadway cross section is measured or
established. The dimensions are obtained by superimposing the estimated
culvert barrel on the roadway cross section and the streambed profile. This
superposition establishes the inlet and outlet invert elevations. These
elevations and the resulting culvert length are approximate since the final
culvert barrel size must still be determined.

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 Roadway Width and Embankment Slopes - According to AASHTO
LRFD, the culvert length is primarily influenced by the width of the roadway and
the slope of the embankments on either side. The length must account for the full
width of the road surface and ensure proper support at the embankment ends to
prevent erosion.

Cover Depth - AASHTO specifies a minimum cover depth over the culvert
based on the structural load considerations. Culverts should be long enough to
provide adequate protection and structural support for both vehicular loads and
embankment stability.

Design Criteria - The length also depends on design factors such as live
load (vehicle loads), dead load (weight of soil and road surface), and hydraulic
performance requirements.

3. Waterway Openings - The installation of a culvert to convey surface water

through a highway embankment significantly constricts the flood plain. To
predict the consequences of this alteration, accurate preconstruction
waterway data must be collected. These data include crosssectional
information, stream slope, the hydraulic resistance of the stream channel and
floodplain, any condition affecting the downstream water surface elevation,
and the storage capacity upstream of the culvert.

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 Hydraulic Capacity - AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
provide methods for determining the appropriate size of waterway openings to
ensure they can handle the design discharge (maximum expected water flow rate).
This is crucial for preventing water from overtopping the bridge or causing
damage to the structure.

Shape and Size of Openings - AASHTO provides guidance on selecting

the shape (circular, box, arch, etc.) of the culvert to maximize flow efficiency while
meeting structural requirements. The shape and size are chosen based on
hydraulic analysis, expected flow, and maintenance needs.

Scour and Erosion Control - The specifications emphasize the

importance of managing water velocity at the culvert outlet to prevent downstream
scour and erosion, which could undermine the structural integrity of both the
culvert and the bridge.

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 1.4 ROADWAY DRAINAGE

Roadway drainage is a critical aspect of the National Structural Code of the

Philippines (NSCP) Volume 2, which deals with infrastructure design and
construction. Effective roadway drainage systems are essential for maintaining
the structural integrity and safety of roads. They are designed to manage and
direct surface water runoff, prevent erosion, and mitigate flooding risks that could
impact road surfaces and underlying structures. Proper drainage ensures that
water does not pool on roadways, which can lead to hazardous driving conditions,
and it also protects the road foundation from deterioration caused by water
infiltration. The guidelines and standards outlined in NSCP Vol 2 for roadway
drainage include considerations for the design and placement of drainage
components such as culverts, ditches, and stormwater management systems to
achieve efficient water control and enhance road longevity.

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 The transverse drainage of the roadway should be provided by a suitable
crown in the roadway surface and longitudinal drainage by camber or gradient.
Water flowing downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and not
permitted to run onto the bridge. Short, cortinuous span bridges, particularly
overpasses, may be built without inlets and the water from the bridge roadway
carried downslope by open or closed chutes near the end of the bridges.
Longitudinal drainage on long bridges should be provided by scuppers or inlets
which should be of sufficient size and number to drain the gutters adequately.
Downspouts, where required, should be made of rigid corrosion-resistant material
not less than 100 mm in least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.
The details of deck drains should be such as to prevent the discharge of drainage
water against any portion of the structure or on moving traffic below, and to
prevent erosion at the outlet of the downspout. Deck drains may be connected to
conduits leading to storm water outfalls at ground level. Overhanging portions of
concrete decks should be provided with a drip bead or notch.

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 1.5 RAILROAD OVERPASSES

Overpass is a segment of road or railway built to pass over another part of

the road or railway network. This differs from bridge because a bridge crosses a
body of water while an overpass crosses another road.

1.5.1 Clearances

Structures designed to overpass a railroad shall be in accordance with

standards established and used by the affected railroad in its normal practice,
These overpass structures shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local
laws.

Regulations, codes and standards should, as a minimum, meet the

specifications and design standards of the American Railway Engineering
Association, the Association of American Railroads, and AASHTO.

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1.5.2 Blast Protection

Steam locomotives emit gases and particles that can potentially damage
metal and concrete surfaces on the bridge. Metal likely to be damaged by
locomotive gases, and all concrete surfaces less than 6.0 m above the tracks. To
mitigate this risk, specific protective measures are required.

Blast Plates: These are metal plates designed to shield vulnerable parts of
the bridge from damage caused by the locomotive's exhaust gases. The purpose
of these plates is to protect the metal components and concrete surfaces from the
corrosive or abrasive effects of these gases.

Placement of Blast Plates: The blast plates must be positioned carefully

to maximize their effectiveness. They should be installed to account for the
direction in which the exhaust gases are directed by the locomotive.

Positioning Relative to Tracks: The plates should be centered on a line

that is normal (perpendicular) to the plane of the two rails, specifically at the
centerline of the tracks. This means the plates are placed in alignment with the
middle of the tracks to ensure they adequately shield the areas most exposed to
the locomotive's exhaust.

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 Consideration of Track Elevation: The installation of these plates also
takes into account whether the tracks are level or superelevated (tilted).
Superelevation is used to counteract the centrifugal force on curves, and the
orientation of the blast plates must consider this to ensure optimal protection.

The plates shall be not less than 1.20 m wide and shall be cast-iron, a
corrosion and blast resisting alloy, or asbestos-board shields;

so supported that they may be readily replaced. The thickness of plates and other
parts in direct contact with locomotive blast shall be not less than 19 mm for cast
iron, 10 mm for alloy, 13 mm for plain asbestos-board, and 11 mm for corrugated
asbestos-board. Bolts shall be not less than 16 mm in diameter. Pockets which
may hold locomotive gases shall be avoided as far as practical. All fastenings
shall be galvanized or made of corrosion resistant material.

1.6 SUPER ELEVATION

Super elevation is a method of infrastructure construction used in roadway

curves where the outer edge of the pavement is raised above the inner edge. An
aspect of the vertical alignment or “profile” of a road viewed in cross-section, it’s
an important safety element in the design criteria of any road with curves.

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 The design of a superelevated road must be exacting. Its construction
requires an investment of heavy equipment, extensive materials, and a sizable
labor force. But if it’s done correctly, most people barely even notice it’s there.

Super elevation is more commonly known as “cant” or “banking,” as in the

banked track of a racing speedway.

In accordance with the National Structural Code of the Philippine (NSCP),

C102-05, Volume II, 2nd Edition pg. 6, 1997, “ The superelevation of the floor
surface of a bridge on a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with the
standard practice of the commission for the highway construction except that the
superelevation shall not exceed 0.10meter per meter width of roadway.

How Does It Keep Roads Safer?

When a motorist drives through a curve, the roadway is often tilted or

banked at an angle, making it easier to navigate the curve at a safe speed without
skidding or tipping. This is superelevation at work.

Superelevation helps motorists maintain both safety and optimal speeds on

curved roads. Without superelevation, many vehicles would slide or skid through

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curves — or even tip and roll over — especially in wet or icy conditions, or at high
speeds. It also allows traffic to maintain some speed on curves, preventing
excessive slowdowns every time the road bends.

How Does Superelevation Work?

Superelevation works with several interacting forces of physics to help

drivers maintain speed and stay safely on the road through a curve. A complex
combination of centrifugal and centripetal force, friction, inertia, weight, and
velocity or speed all interplay to determine the need for superelevation on a road
or highway.

Forces that act upon Superelevation

That feeling of driving into a curve and being pulled to one side? That’s
centripetal force, the sideways force acting on an object that causes it to move in
a circle. If you tie the end of a string to a tennis ball and start whirling it around
you, you’re creating centripetal force.

On the road, centripetal force pulls moving vehicles toward the inside edge
of pavement as they move through a curve. It can feel like sliding or tipping, or
both. It’s the opposite of centrifugal force, which pulls you away from the center
and toward the outside edge (and also pushes you into your seat) as your vehicle
rounds a curve.

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 A superelevated curve in a roadway balances these two forces, in
combination with several others that act in various directions.

According to Newton’s Law of Inertia, any object moving in a straight line

will keep moving in the same direction (a straight line) unless it’s affected by an
unbalanced force, or something that changes the direction of its motion. In this
case, that “something” is a curve — or, more precisely, a driver’s decision to turn
the steering wheel and change the vehicle’s course.

But you need traction, or friction, to modify inertia and change direction
safely. Friction in this case is the resistance created between your car’s rubber
tires and the road surface. Its action is to inhibit motion, slowing the car down by
keeping it in constant contact with the road (which also helps prevent it from
sliding or skidding).

A vehicle’s weight can affect its traction. Heavier vehicles generally press
the tires into the road surface with greater pressure, resulting in better traction
than lighter vehicles.

Speed or velocity is also a factor, one that can combine with moisture to
counteract friction on the road. This counteraction is especially pronounced on
elevated highway bridges, as it is on most types of bridges, where cold air can
turn the moisture into ice.

If you’re moving at a low speed in dry conditions, maintaining traction while

navigating a curve likely isn’t much of a problem. However, the faster you go, the
more friction you’ll need to offset the degree of velocity you’ve built up while you
were headed in a straight line.

And on a wet or icy road, for example, you won’t be able to gain much
traction at all, which is why your vehicle may keep sliding straight forward instead
of changing directions when you turn the wheel.

This is also why drivers need to slow down before changing direction on a
flat surface: Centrifugal force can pull a car outward, off the road, on a curve. But
superelevation changes that equation.

On a flat surface, the only thing acting against inertia if you’re driving
straight is the friction provided by your tires. A banked curve, however, uses

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centripetal force to redirect some of that velocity toward the center and allow you
to navigate the turn safely.

What Happens Without Superelevation?

Superelevation is a crucial element in roadway design. Without it, curves

have to be taken much more slowly for safety. Otherwise, skidding can occur as
friction fails to compensate for continued forward motion and centrifugal force on a
curve.

Of course, the driver’s attention and knowledge about how much to

decelerate are also important. This is why freeway ramps and winding mountain
roads are equipped with guardrails and carry signs warning of curves ahead, often

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with suggested maximum speeds. There’s even a warning sign that shows a truck
tipping to the side on two wheels because it’s going too fast.

If you’re moving too fast on an unbanked curve to the left, you can run off a
two-lane road. If, on the other hand, you come to an unbanked curve to the right,
momentum can send you into the median or across the center line into oncoming
traffic. Or if you’re in the slow lane on a multi-lane road (depending on the number
of lanes), it can push you into the path of traffic in the faster lane.

Large vehicles, as mentioned, are especially vulnerable to rollover crashes

because of their high center of gravity. If they try to negotiate an unbanked curve
at too great a speed, they are vulnerable to flipping onto their sides.

Another consequence of inadequate superelevation can be road damage

caused by poorly distributed load, with the result being higher costs to maintain
curved sections of roadways.

Factors That Affect the Need for Superelevation

How and where superelevation is used can vary based on several factors,
many of which involve how fast vehicles are likely to be moving.

For instance, with too great an angle of superelevation, slower-moving

vehicles might slide down the slope of a curve on a wet or icy road. For vehicles
moving too fast on such roads, by contrast, hydroplaning may occur. Where snow
and ice are factors, a maximum superelevation of 8 percent may be called for.

The type of pavement is also worth considering. Rougher roads, where

vehicles would likely be moving more slowly, would employ less superelevation.
The amount of traffic (such as in urban areas, where speeds are likely to be lower)
is also a factor, along with the terrain.

The size of the vehicle involved is another factor to consider. Trucks, RVs,
heavy construction vehicles and others with high centers of gravity are more likely
to tip or roll over on curves that don’t have adequate superelevation.

Definitions of Superelevation and Related Terms

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 As in any design situation involving multiple physical forces and
construction elements, visual representations such as blueprints are helpful. To
accompany the drawings, it’s also a good idea to define and understand the
relevant terms.

Superelevation is defined as “the rotation of the pavement on the

approach to and through a horizontal curve.” Other terms include:

 Axis of rotation — The lengthwise axis around which a roadway is rotated

to change horizontal alignment and create the desired superelevation.

 Camber or cross slope — A lateral slope across a traveled way

that drains water away from the pavement down to the edges, often into ditches
or drains.

 Crown — The highest point on a road’s surface. A centerline crown is a

slightly elevated point at the center of the road from which water sheds in both
directions.

 Curve radius (also known as curvature) — Radius is measured by

envisioning a full circular curve, then measuring the distance from the center of
the circle to its outer edge. The smaller the radius, the more centripetal force is
invoked.

 Full superelevation — The point in a curve when the entire segment of

roadway is subject to superelevation, usually at the curve’s apex.

 Maximum superelevation rate — The highest percentage of angle

allowed to prevent the danger of vehicles overturning. Expressed in formulas as
e max.

 Minimum superelevation — The lowest percentage of angle allowable for

road drainage purposes, especially on a large-radius horizontal curve. Typically
2% to 4%.

 Runoff length (also known as superelevation runoff length) — The

distance required to transition the outside lane of a roadway from a flat cross
slope to full superelevation. Usually runs from the end of the tangent runout to
the full superelevation section.

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 Side friction (also known as lateral friction) — The resistance between
the surface of the road and a vehicle’s rubber tires, which inhibits motion and
slows vehicles down.

 Slope — A measurement of steepness, level of incline, or upward or

downward slant, as in pavement slope.

 Spiral runoff – A section of highway that transitions the angle and width
between a section of tangent runout and a section of full superelevation, making
it easier for drivers to navigate the change in curvature and angle.

 Superelevation rate — The degree of banking imposed on a horizontal

curve to safely counterbalance the centrifugal force of a vehicle on the curve.

 Tangent runout — The distance needed to change from a normal crown

section of road to a point where the adverse cross slope is removed and the
outside lane is level.

Superelevation Formula: Calculating for Roads

When designing and building roadways, it’s imperative to calculate the

correct values for each aspect of the design. Of course, numerous formulas are
involved in this process, including those for minimum/ maximum superelevation,
the maximum design speed for safety, and necessary superelevation transition
length.

Here we depict the formulas for full superelevation and basic rate
of superelevation. Definitive details and formulas calculating for superelevation
can be found in the manual “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets” — commonly known as “The Green Book” — by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, or AASHTO.

To calculate the formula for full superelevation, you’ll need to know

the radius of the curve and the velocity or speed a vehicle is likely to be traveling.
Also know the breadth of the road (how wide it is), and the rate of
acceleration (which is a constant at 9.8 meters/second2).

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 To determine the superelevation, multiply the breadth by the speed of the
vehicle squared, then multiply the acceleration rate by the radius of the curve.
Divide the first number by the second to get the full superelevation.

Alternatively, the sum of the rate of superelevation and the friction factor is
equal to the rate of velocity (or speed) squared, divided by the total you get from
multiplying gravity’s rate of acceleration by the radius of the curve.

Formulas:

Formula for Rate of Superelevation:

�2
�+�=
�. �

e = Rate of superelevation

f = Factor of lateral or side friction

V = Velocity/ speed of vehicle

R = Radius of Curve

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8meters/second)

Formula for Full Superelevation:

��2
ℎ=
�. �

h = Full superelevation at apex of curve

B = Breadth (width) of roadway

V = Velocity/ speed of vehicle

R = Radius of Curve

g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8meters/second)

1.7 FLOOR SURFACES

The floor surface of a bridge is a critical component for ensuring the safe
and efficient passage of vehicles and pedestrians. It typically consists of the deck,

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which can be made from a variety of materials, including concrete, steel, or wood.
The choice of surface material depends on factors like load capacity,
environmental conditions, and maintenance requirements.

Materials:

 Concrete: Offers durability and resistance to weather but can crack due to
freeze-thaw cycles.

 Steel: Lightweight and strong but requires regular maintenance to prevent

corrosion.

 Asphalt: Often used as a top layer over concrete or steel, providing a

smoother ride and noise reduction. Surface Characteristics:

Surface Characteristics:

 Skid Resistance: The texture of the surface should provide adequate

friction to prevent vehicle skidding, especially in wet conditions.

 Drainage: Proper slope and surface design are necessary to ensure water
drains effectively, preventing pooling and damage.

 Expansion Joints: These are installed to accommodate temperature-

related expansion and contraction, reducing stress on the bridge structure.

Maintenance:

Regular inspections are required to address wear and tear caused by traffic,
weather, and environmental factors. Repairs may include resurfacing, sealing
cracks, or reinforcing weak areas. A well-maintained floor surface ensures the
safety and longevity of the bridge, supporting heavy loads and withstanding
environmental pressures.

1.8 UTILITIES

`
 Bridges are not only structures for crossing physical obstacles but also
serve as critical conduits for various utilities. These utilities enhance the
functionality and efficiency of urban and rural infrastructure.

1. Drainage Systems, Bridges often incorporate drainage systems to

manage stormwater and prevent flooding. Pipes and channels embedded
in or beneath the bridge structure direct water away from the roadway and
adjacent areas, protecting the bridge and surrounding environment from
water damage.

2. Power Lines, Bridges can carry power lines, facilitating the transmission of
electricity across obstacles without the need for additional towers or
ground-based infrastructure. This arrangement is particularly useful in
areas where extending power lines over land would be impractical or
environmentally disruptive.

3. Communication Lines, Telecommunication cables, including fiber optics

and telephone lines, are sometimes routed through bridges. This
integration ensures uninterrupted communication services and reduces
the need for separate support structures, lowering both costs and
environmental impact.

4. Water and Sewer Lines In some cases, bridges house water and sewer
lines, ensuring that essential services are maintained across bodies of
water or other obstacles. This setup helps in efficiently managing the
distribution of water and waste without disrupting surface activities.

II. PRESENTATION OF TABLES/FORMULAS/CHART/ DIAGRAMS/

PICTURES, ETC.

`
 Bridges Design Analysis

Waterways

`
 Floating debris during floods damaging bridges

Flood Data

Culvert Location

`
 Culvert Length

Waterway Openings

Roadway drainage

`
 Bridge Downspouts

Deck Drains

Railroad Overpass

`
 Structures designed to overpass a railroad

American Railway Engineering Association, the Association of American

Railroads, and AASHTO.

Blast Protection

`
 Cast-iron, Corrosion and Blast Resisting Alloy, or Asbestos-Board Shields

Superelevation

`
III. SAMPLE PROBLEMS (CE PROBLEMS)

1. Design the superelevation for a highway bridge curve where the radius of the
curve is 150 meters, the design speed is 80 km/h, and the maximum
allowable superelevation is 7%. Assume the road has a straight gradient.

Solution:
1000� 1ℎ
 Convert Design Speed to m/s: � = ( 80 ��/ℎ � 1��
� 3600� ) = 22.22 �/�

 Calculate the Required Superelevation: Use the formula for superelevation:

Substitute the values:

�2
�=
�. �

22.222
�= = 0.5
9.81�150

 Thus, the required superelevation is 0.50 or 50%. However, the maximum

allowable superelevation is 7%, so the design needs to ensure the
superelevation is within this limit or adjust the design speed or radius
accordingly.

2. A highway bridge curve has a radius of 120 meters and is designed for a
speed of 60 km/h. The existing cross-slope of the bridge is 2%. Determine if
this cross-slope needs adjustment and calculate the required superelevation.

Solution:
1000� 1ℎ
 Convert Design Speed to m/s: � = ( 60 ��/ℎ � 1��
� 3600� ) = 16.67 �/�

 Calculate the Required Superelevation:

�2
�=
�. �

Substitute the values:

16.672
�= = 0.28
9.81�120

`
 So, the required superelevation is 0.28 or 28%.

 Check if Existing Cross-Slope is Adequate: Since the existing cross-slope

is 2%, which is much less than the required superelevation of 28%, the
design will need a significant increase in the cross-slope to meet the
requirements.

3. A multi-lane bridge curve needs to be designed for a speed of 90 km/h with a

radius of 200 meters. The road has two lanes in each direction. Determine the
required superelevation and consider how the superelevation should be
distributed among the lanes.

Solution:
1000� 1ℎ
 Convert Design Speed to m/s: � = ( 90 ��/ℎ � 1��
� 3600� ) = 25 �/�

 Calculate the Required Superelevation:

�2
�=
�. �

Substitute the values:

252
�= = 0.32
9.81�200

The required superelevation is 0.32 or 32%.

 Distribution Among Lanes: For a multi-lane road, the superelevation is

typically applied uniformly across all lanes, but the cross-slope might be
adjusted based on lane width and traffic volume. Ensure that the
superelevation is consistent across all lanes to maintain safety and
comfort.

4. A bridge with a curve radius of 250 meters and a design speed of 100 km/h
needs to be adjusted to accommodate an existing cross-slope of 4%.
Calculate the required superelevation and determine if the existing cross-
slope is sufficient.

Solution:

`
 1000� 1ℎ
 Convert Design Speed to m/s: � = ( 100 ��/ℎ � 1��
� 3600� ) = 27.78 �/�

 Calculate the Required Superelevation:

�2
�=
�. �

Substitute the values:

27.782
�= = 0.31
9.81�250

The required superelevation is 0.31 or 31%.

 Check Existing Cross-Slope: The existing cross-slope is 4%, which is

significantly less than the required superelevation. Therefore, the cross-
slope needs to be increased to meet the design requirements for safety.

IV. TEST YOURSELF

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Rosemyr C. Bocalos

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 1

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL
INTEGRITY OF THE BRIDGE

1. Builders refer to ____________ to ensure that buildings such as high rise

condominium, bridges can with stand tremors as high as magnitude 8?

2.The intent of this specification is to produce integrity of design of the bridge?

3. It is vital in civil engineering as it ensures the safety of structures by identifying

potential weaknesses and vulnerabilities?

4. The ability of a component, structure or asset to operate at optimum level under

the pressure of a load, including the weight of the asset itself?

5. Play crucial role in assessing the health, safety, and durability of bridges and
structures?

6. This methods are employed to evaluate the structural integrity of bridges and
structures without causing any damage?

7. It involves taking a finished product or sample and testing it to destruction to

see when it fails?

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Jakeson M. Marino

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 2

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : WATERWAYS

1. What does DO No. 166 of 2016 address in relation to bridge engineering and
waterways?

2. What is required before constructing or modifying a bridge over navigable

inland waters according to the provisions?

3. How should the design of vertical clearance for road bridges over navigable
inland waters be calculated?

4. Why is it important to consider the impact on the marine environment when

constructing structures over navigable waters?

5. What factors should be considered when selecting stream crossings for bridge
construction?

6. How should waterways be sized for bridge designs to handle flood conditions?

7. What are some key elements of hydraulic studies for bridge design?

8. What is the purpose of hydraulic design in bridge engineering?

9. How does flood analysis contribute to bridge safety?

10. What is included in hydrologic analysis for bridge design?

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Zandro I. Baluyot

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 3

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY
OPENINGS

1.) AASHTO means.

2.) Give atleast 1 shape of a culvert.

3.) Culverts should be long enough to provide adequate protection and structural
support for both vehicular loads and embankment stability.

4.) The installation of a culvert to convey surface water through a highway

embankment significantly constricts the flood plain.

5.) A culvert should ideally be located in the existing channel bed to minimize
costs associated with structural excavation and channel work.

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Arturo F. Conge Jr.

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 4

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : ROADWAY DRAINAGE

1. This should be made of rigid corrosion-resistant material not less than 100
mm in least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.

2. It should be provided by a suitable crown in the roadway surface and

longitudinal drainage by camber or gradient.

3. This portions of concrete decks should be provided with a drip bead or notch.

4. This should be provided by scuppers or inlets which should be of sufficient

size and number to drain the gutters adequately.

5. It may be connected to conduits leading to storm water outfalls at ground level.

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Gwyn Frederick T. Giray

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 5

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : RAILROAD OVERPASSES

1. What is the difference between Bridge and Overpass?

2. These are metal plates designed to shield vulnerable parts of the bridge from
damage caused by the locomotive's exhaust gases.

3. Required width of the plate?

4. Thickness of plates and other parts in direct contact with locomotive blast shall
be not less than 19 mm for what material?

5. The 3 Material Option of Blast Plate

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Kristine Maxi D. Evangelista

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 6

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : SUPER ELEVATION

1. What is the main purpose of superelevation in road design?

a) To increase the road's width
b) To reduce the road's curvature
c) To raise the outer edge of the pavement on a curve
d) To level the road surface on curves

2. According to the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP), what is

the maximum superelevation allowed per meter of roadway width?
a) 0.05 meters
b) 0.07 meters
c) 0.10 meters
d) 0.15 meters

3. Which of the following terms describes the highest point on a road’s surface
where water drains to both sides?
a) Camber
b) Crown
c) Superelevation
d) Runoff

4. What is the effect of superelevation on a vehicle navigating a curve?

a) It increases the vehicle's speed on a curve
b) It reduces the vehicle’s contact with the road

`
 c) It helps counteract the centrifugal force and improve stability
d) It decreases the road's friction

5. What force pulls a vehicle towards the outside edge of a curve?

a) Centripetal force
b) Frictional force
c) Centrifugal force
d) Gravitational force

6. What is the purpose of the tangent runout in superelevation design?

a) To provide extra lanes for vehicles
b) To transition from a flat cross slope to full superelevation
c) To increase the radius of the curve
d) To create a bump in the road

7. What is typically the maximum superelevation rate used on roads where snow
and ice are common?
a) 4%
b) 6%
c) 8%
d) 10%

8. Which factor is NOT directly related to the need for superelevation?

a) Vehicle speed
b) Curve radius
c) Road surface texture
d) Vehicle color

9. What is the term for the section that transitions the angle and width between a
flat cross slope and full superelevation?
a) Camber
b) Spiral runoff
c) Crown
d) Superelevation runoff length

`
10. How does superelevation affect a vehicle's interaction with road friction?
a) It decreases the friction needed for turning
b) It increases the friction required to navigate the curve
c) It balances the friction needed by aligning the road with the vehicle's
direction
d) It eliminates the need for friction altogether

`
 Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph Email: [email protected]

SCE 101B : PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1 SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE

ENGINEERING)

Name : Vince C. Bandal

Degree : BS Civil Engineering
Academic Term : First Semester, SY 2024 – 2025
Professor : Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

TEST YOURSELF ASSESSMENT # 7

PROVISIONS OF THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
VOL II BRIDGES : FLOOR SURFACES & UTILITIES

1. What materials are commonly used for bridge surfaces?

2. How does the surface texture of a bridge affect vehicle safety?

3. What is the purpose of expansion joints in bridge surfaces?

4. How are water drainage and surface maintenance managed on a bridge?

5. Why is regular inspection important for the surface of a bridge?

6. What types of utilities are often installed in bridge structures?

7. How are water pipes protected when placed in bridges?

8. What precautions are taken for electrical lines in bridge designs?

9. How do bridges handle maintenance for integrated utilities?

10. Why is it important to include utilities in bridge planning

`
V. REFERENCES

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

https://cementconcrete.org/transportation/subsurface-drainage-system/2934/

https://pecivilexam.com › ...PDFHYDRAULIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY CULVERTS

https://transportation.ky.gov/Planning/Planning%20Studies%20and%20Reports/I-
69%20Fulton%20to%20Eddyville%20Section%20-
%205%20BRIDGES%20AND%20OVERPASSES.pdf

https://tuxdoc.com/queue/national-structural-code-of-the-nscp-volume-ii-bridges-
2nd-edition-4_pdf?queue_id=5fb66b3ae2b6f5d00a89f5d1

https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/sites/default/files/issuances/DO_166_s2016.pdf?f
bclid=IwY2xjawFG8NpleHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHenM_fDz6yX2gcLgm8uhX
YcEePvEphHXLJocbmHIYqvMYrQs68KELS4yZg_aem_lQ9vWA1z82er
oQiY15SBBg

https://www.pdsenviro.com/services/cad-schematics-hydraulic-design/

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP), C102-05, Volume II, Bridges,
2nd Edition (1997)