UNIT- 3rd NETWORKING CONSEPTS -

Computer Networking?
Computer networking is like having a group of friends who all have phones and can call or text each other. In
computer networking, instead of phones, we have computers and instead of phone lines, we use cables, Wi-Fi, or
other methods to connect them.

A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware, personal computers, and
other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a computer network.

Computer Networks Do?

1. Computer Networks help in operating virtually
2. Computer Networks integrate on a large scale
3. Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change
4. Computer Networks help in providing data security

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called nodes) and connections (called
links). The links connect the devices to each other. The rules for how these connections send information are called
communication protocols.

Network Devices
NIC (Network Interface Card):
NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network adapter or NIC (network interface card), is
computer hardware that enables computers to communicate via a network.

Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of unwanted noise, regenerates it, and
retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side of an obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater
distances without degradation. In the majority of twisted pair Ethernet networks, Repeaters are necessary for cable
lengths longer than 100 meters in some systems. Repeaters are based on physics.

Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic Ethernet devices to give the illusion of a
formation of a single network segment.

Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received the transmission. Bridges, on the
other hand, learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports rather than copying messages to all
ports as hubs do.

Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports that are participating in the
communication, rather than all of the ports that are connected.
Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables to find the optimal way to forward
data packets between networks.

Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators,
impedance-matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators.

NETWORKS Links
Wired: Communication done in a wired medium. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A
wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.

Wireless: Wireless means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared
waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices. For data or voice communication, a wireless
network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.

Communication Protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules that all devices follow when they share information. Some common
protocols are TCP/IP, IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN, and cellular standards. TCP/IP is a model that organizes how
communication works in modern networks. It has four functional layers for these communication links:

Network Access Layer: This layer controls how data is physically transferred, including how hardware sends data
through wires or fibers.

Internet Layer: This layer packages data into understandable packets and ensures it can be sent and received.
Transport Layer: This layer keeps the communication between devices steady and reliable.
Application Layer: This layer allows high-level applications to access the network to start data transfer.

Goals of Computer Networking

Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other peripherals

Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place

Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)

Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)

Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail, video conferencing, and online
shopping)

Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)

Social Networking.

NETWORK Architecture
P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are referred to as peers.
The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network are computer systems that are connected to each other over the Internet.
Without the use of a central server, files can be shared directly between systems on the network.

Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server in a client-server
architecture (client/server). The client asks for services from the server, which the server provides. Servers are high-
performance computers or processes that manage disc drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic
(network servers)
Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model uses a combination of client-server and peer-to-peer architecture. Eg: Torrent.

Types of Computer Networks

Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects computers/devices within the range
of an individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a person’s range typically within a range
of 10 meters (33 feet) it is called a Personal Area Network. A Personal Area Network typically involves a
computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other entertainment
devices like speakers, video game consoles, etc.
Wireless PAN –

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth
and ultrawideband, etc.

Wired PAN –
Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firewire or USB (Universal Serial Bus).

Advantages and disadvantages of PAN –

These are some of the Advantages of PAN :
 1. PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
2. It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
3. It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
4. It is easy and portable.
5. Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN:
1. Low network coverage area/range.
2. Limited to relatively low data rates.
3. Devices are not compatible with each other.
4. Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK -

A Local area network (LAN) is a network that is used to link devices in a single office, building, or campus of
up to a short distance. LAN is restricted in size. In LAN networks internet speed is from 10 Mbps to 100
Mbps (But now much higher speeds can be achieved). The most common topologies used in LAN networks
are bus, ring, and star.

What Equipment is needed to set up a LAN?

Router:- This is the central device that is used to connect the LAN to the internet.
Modem:- This it required only if connecting to the internet.
Switch (optional for larger networks):- Used to expands the number of devices that can be connected to
the LAN.
Ethernet Cables:- It is used to connect devices to the router or switch.
Network Interface Cards (NICs):- It is required for each devices that is connect to the LAN through
Ethernet.
Wireless Access Point (if wireless connectivity is needed):- Allows wireless devices to connect to the LAN.

Devices:- Device you want to connect like Laptop, Computers, smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and other
devices.
MAN Computer Networking
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer network that spans over a metropolitan area,
typically a city. It provides high-speed data communication services such as video, audio, and data transfer
between multiple LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks). The main purpose of a
MAN is to connect different LANs in a city to share resources and exchange data, as well as to provide
internet access to users.

Advantages of MAN
1. MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
2. The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
3. It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
4. MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
5. MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to monitor
and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN

1. The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
2. This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
3. It provides less fault tolerance.
4. The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

WIDE AREA NETWORK -

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network that covers a large geographical area
consisting of two or more LANs or MANs. These networks are established with leased telecommunication
circuits, in which two sides which are connected have routers that connect the LAN of both sides together
in a network to facilitate communication.
Advantages of WAN
1. It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data quickly
and cheaply.
2. The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by WAN.
3. The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.
4. WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to exchange
data and do business at global level.

Disadvantages of WAN
1. Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
2. The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
3. Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
4. The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high number of
connected system within the network.
Network Topology?
The structure of the network and how each component is connected to the others are defined by the
network topology.
Different types of network topology are mentioned below:
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology

Bus Topology
Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a bus topology network. Linear Bus
topology is defined as having exactly two terminals.

Advantages
Installation is simple
Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less cabling
Disadvantages
Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults
A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication

Ring Topology
The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to another, with the final one
being connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction. Each ring incorporates a repeater.
Advantages
Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one direction
There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication between nodes
Easy installation & Reconfiguration
Simplified Faulty connections
Disadvantages
In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes
All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another.

Star Topology
Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central controller, which is
commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no direct connection between the devices. Traffic between the
devices is not allowed in this topology. As an exchange, the controller is used.

Advantages

1. When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network interruptions

2. It’s simple to set up and configure
3. Identifying and isolating faults is simple
4. Less Expensive than mesh
5. Easy to install & configure
Disadvantages

1. Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they fail

2. Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than linear bus topologies
3. More cable is required compared to a bus or ring
4. Too much dependency on Hub.

Mesh Topology
Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point connectivity to every other device. The term
“dedicated” refers to the fact that the link exclusively transports data between the two devices it links. To
connect n devices, a fully connected mesh network contains n *(n-1)/2 physical channels.

Advantages

1. Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This topology can handle a lot of traffic.
2. Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available. As a result, data transit is
unaffected.
3. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
4. Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages
1. The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are necessary.
2. The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can accommodate.
3. It is difficult to install and reconfigure.

Tree Topology
The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like those in a star, are connected to a
central hub that manages network traffic. It has a root node, which is connected to all other nodes,
producing a hierarchy. Hierarchical topology is another name for it. The number of Star networks is
connected via Bus in Tree Topology.
Advantages

1. Network expansion is both possible and simple.

2. We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are easier to manage and maintain.
3. Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
Disadvantages

1. Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its basic structure, and if it fails, the
entire network is handicapped.
2. Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and segments are added.

Elementary Terminology of Networks –

Node: Any device connected to a network, such as a computer, printer, or router.
Protocol: A set of rules and standards that define how devices on a network communicate
with each other.
IP Address: A unique numerical identifier assigned to each device on a network, used to
identify and communicate with other devices.
Router: A networking device that connects multiple networks together and forwards data
packets between them.
Switch: A networking device that connects devices on a network and forwards data packets
between them.
Firewall: A security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic, based on a set of predefined security rules.
DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates domain names (such as
www.example.com) into IP addresses, allowing devices to locate and connect to websites
and other network resources.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A protocol that automatically assigns IP

addresses and network configuration settings to devices on a network.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of protocols used to
communicate over the internet and other networks.
These are just a few basic networking terms, but understanding them is essential to
building a strong foundation in computer networking.
Some basic Protocols are:
IP : Internet Protocol.
FTP : File Transfer Protocol.
SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.

Email Protocols-
Email protocols are a collection of protocols that are used to send and receive emails
properly. The email protocols provide the ability for the client to transmit the mail to or
from the intended mail server.
Types of Email Protocols:
1. SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to send mails over the internet. SMTP is
an application layer and connection-oriented protocol. SMTP is efficient and reliable
for sending emails.
2. POP3 - Post Office Protocol is used to retrieve email for a single client. POP3 version
is the current version of POP used.
3. IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol is used to retrieve mails for multiple clients.
There are several IMAP versions: IMAP, IMAP2, IMAP3, IMAP4, etc. IMAP is an
application layer protocol.
 VOIP Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) –
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is transforming the way we communicate by
enabling voice calls over the Internet instead of traditional phone lines. This innovative
technology converts your voice into digital data packets, which are transmitted via
broadband connections. VoIP not only offers significant cost savings on both domestic
calls and international calls but also provides a suite of advanced features such as call
forwarding, voicemail-to-email, and video conferencing.

Advantages of VoIP-
1. Some VoIP services offer features and services that are not available with a
traditional phone, or are available but only for an additional fee.
2. Paying for both a broadband connection and a traditional telephone line can be
avoided.
3. Smoother connection than an analog signal can be provided.
Disadvantages of VoIP-
1. Some VoIP services don’t work during power outages and the service provider may
not offer backup power.
2. Not all VoIP services connect directly to emergency services through emergency
service numbers.
3. VoIP providers may or may not offer directory assistance.

WEBSITE - A website is a collection of many web pages, and web pages are
digital files that are written using HTML(HyperText Markup Language). To make
your website available to every person in the world, it must be stored or hosted
on a computer connected to the Internet round a clock. Such computers are
known as a Web Server.
Components of a Website:
We know that a website is a collection of a webpages hosted on a web-server.
These are the components for making a website.
Webhost: Hosting is the location where the website is physically located. Group
of webpages (linked webpages) licensed to be called a website only when the
webpage is hosted on the webserver
Address: Address of a website also known as the URL of a website.
Homepage: Home page is a very common and important part of a webpage.
Design: It is the final and overall look and feel of the website that has a result of
proper use and integration elements like navigation menus, graphics, layout,
navigation menus etc.
Content: Every web pages contained on the website together make up the
content of the website.
The Navigation Structure: The navigation structure of a website is the order of
the pages, the collection of what links to what. Usually, it is held together by at
least one navigation menu.

WEB-SERVER - Web Server: Web server is a program which processes the

network requests of the users and serves them with files that create web pages.
This exchange takes place using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Basically, web servers are computers used to store HTTP files which makes a
website and when a client requests a certain website, it delivers the requested
website to the client.
How to Host a Website:
1. Decide on Your Website Type.
2. Choose a Web Hosting Provider.
3. Select a Web Hosting Plan.
4. Get and Register a Unique Domain Name for Your Website.
5. Create or Upload Your Website.
Web Browser?
The web browser is an application software to explore www (World Wide Web).
It provides an interface between the server and the client and it requests to the
server for web documents and services.
Web Browser Work?

What is a Session?
A session is used to save information on the server momentarily so that it may be utilized
across various pages of the website. It is the overall amount of time spent on an activity.
The user session begins when the user logs in to a specific network application and ends
when the user logs out of the program or shuts down the machine.
Session values are far more secure since they are saved in binary or encrypted form and can
only be decoded on the server. When the user shuts down the machine or logs out of the
program, the session values are automatically deleted. We must save the values in the
database to keep them forever.
What is a Cookie?
A cookie is a small text file that is saved on the user’s computer. The maximum file size for a
cookie is 4KB. It is also known as an HTTP cookie, a web cookie, or an internet cookie. When
a user first visits a website, the site sends data packets to the user’s computer in the form
of a cookie.
The information stored in cookies is not safe since it is kept on the client side in a text
format that anybody can see. We can activate or disable cookies based on our needs.

Difference between Session and Cookies-

Cookies Session

Cookies are client-side files on a

local computer that hold user Sessions are server-side files that contain user data.
information.

Cookies end on the lifetime set by When the user quits the browser or logs out of the
the user. programmed, the session is over.

It can only store a certain amount

It can hold an indefinite quantity of data.
of info.

We can keep as much data as we like within a

The browser’s cookies have a session, however there is a maximum memory
maximum capacity of 4 KB. restriction of 128 MB that a script may consume at
one time.

Because cookies are kept on the

To begin the session, we must use the session
local computer, we don’t need to
start() method.
run a function to start them.

Cookies are not secured. Session are more secured compare than cookies.

Cookies stored data in text file. Session save data in encrypted form.

Cookies stored on a limited data. Session stored a unlimited data.