1.

Fundamentals of System:

• Definition: A system is a group of interrelated elements that function together as a

unit to achieve a common objective.

• Components of a System:

o Input: Data or instructions fed into the system (e.g., user queries).

o Process: The transformation of input data into output (e.g., computation).

o Output: The result of processing (e.g., information displayed to the user).

o Control: Mechanisms that guide the system's operation (e.g., rules and
procedures).

o Feedback: Information about the system's performance used for adjustment

(e.g., user feedback).

• Types of Systems:

o Physical Systems: Tangible entities such as machines and hardware.

o Abstract Systems: Intangible entities like software, processes, or

frameworks.

2. Important Terms Related to Systems:

• Subsystem: A smaller, self-contained system within a larger one. Each subsystem

performs a specific role but contributes to the overall system function.

o Example: In an e-commerce system, the payment processing module is a

subsystem.

• Interface: Points of interaction between subsystems or external systems, which

allow data or information to flow.

o Example: The API between a front-end application and the back-end server.

• Environment: Everything outside the system that influences or is influenced by the

system. It can include external factors like regulations or customer preferences.

• Boundary: The dividing line between a system and its environment. It defines what
is inside the system and what is external to it.
 • Feedback Loop: A mechanism where the system's output is fed back into the input
to adjust and improve the system.

3. Classification of Systems:

• Open Systems: Continuously interact with the environment, taking inputs and
producing outputs.

o Example: A company’s inventory management system interacts with

suppliers and customers.

• Closed Systems: Operate independently with no external interaction.

o Example: An encryption software that processes data without external data

inputs.

• Deterministic Systems: These systems have predictable outputs for any given
input.

o Example: A calculator or a basic computer program.

• Probabilistic Systems: The output is based on probability or chance, with no

guaranteed outcome.

o Example: Stock market prediction software that uses probabilistic

algorithms.

4. Real-Life Business Subsystems:

• Subsystems in a Business: Subsystems in a business are categorized into different

functional areas, which work together to ensure overall business efficiency:

o Finance Subsystem: Manages money-related activities such as accounting,

budgeting, and investments.

o Human Resources Subsystem: Handles employee-related tasks like

recruitment, payroll, and performance evaluation.

o Marketing Subsystem: Focuses on customer relationships, promotion, and

sales strategies.

o Operations Subsystem: Deals with production, logistics, and supply chain

management.
5. Real-Time Systems:

• Definition: Systems designed to process data and deliver outputs almost instantly
or within strict time constraints.

• Characteristics:

o Immediate Response: Immediate processing and response to inputs.

o High Reliability: Must perform without failure to ensure safety or

functionality.

o Examples: Flight control systems, automated financial trading platforms,

medical diagnostic equipment.

• Types of Real-Time Systems:

o Hard Real-Time Systems: Require strict timing guarantees (e.g.,

pacemakers).

o Soft Real-Time Systems: Performance is desirable but not critical (e.g.,

video streaming platforms).

6. Distributed Systems:

• Definition: A system spread across multiple physical locations or networks but

appears as a single system to the user.

• Key Features:

o Resource Sharing: Multiple computers share resources (e.g., files,

applications) across the network.

o Scalability: Can grow and add more resources as needed without major
changes to the system.

o Fault Tolerance: The system can continue to operate even if one part fails.

o Example: Cloud computing platforms like AWS or Google Cloud.

• Advantages:

o Increased reliability.
 o Improved performance by spreading workload.

o Better collaboration across different geographic locations.

7. Development of a Successful System:

• Key Steps:

o Planning: Understanding the problem, scope, and objectives of the system.

o Analysis: Determining system requirements and identifying possible

solutions.

o Design: Creating detailed models, blueprints, and system architecture.

o Implementation: Building the system using code, hardware, or other

components.

o Testing: Ensuring the system works as intended and meets user

expectations.

o Maintenance: Ongoing updates and fixes to keep the system operational

and efficient.

• Success Factors:

o Meeting the user’s needs.

o Timely delivery.

o Staying within budget.

o Flexibility for future enhancements.

8. Various Approaches for the Development of Information Systems:

• Waterfall Model: Sequential design process where each phase must be completed
before the next begins. It’s simple but inflexible for changing requirements.

o Pros: Clear structure, good for well-defined projects.

o Cons: Not adaptable to change; issues found late in the project are costly to
fix.
 • Agile Methodology: An iterative, collaborative approach focusing on flexibility and
customer feedback. Multiple cycles of development allow for continuous
improvements.

o Pros: Adaptable, customer-centric, reduces risk.

o Cons: Requires more communication and flexibility in scope.

• Spiral Model: Combines elements of both iterative development and risk analysis.
Development is done in spirals, revisiting earlier stages as needed.

o Pros: Risk management is a priority; better for large, complex projects.

o Cons: Requires expert risk analysis.

9. Structured Analysis and Design Approach:

• Structured Analysis: Focuses on breaking down a system into smaller,

understandable components or modules. Typically represented using:

o Data Flow Diagrams (DFD): Visualize how data moves through the system.

o Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD): Show the relationships between data

entities in a system.

• Structured Design: Focuses on designing the structure of the system, ensuring

modularity and coherence. Involves hierarchy charts and pseudocode for organizing
system functionality.

• Advantages:

o Easier to understand, especially for large systems.

o Promotes modular development, making maintenance easier.

10. Prototype:

• Definition: A preliminary model of the system that is developed quickly to

understand its functionality.

• Uses of Prototyping:

o Provides early user feedback.

 o Helps identify user requirements and potential improvements.

o Reduces risks by catching errors early.

• Types of Prototypes:

o Throwaway Prototyping: Developed to test ideas but discarded later.

o Evolutionary Prototyping: Refined iteratively into the final system.

11. Joint Application Development (JAD):

• Definition: A structured process where system developers and business

stakeholders come together to discuss system requirements and design.

• Key Benefits:

o Faster consensus on system features and requirements.

o Reduces misunderstanding between users and developers.

• Techniques Involved:

o Workshops.

o Brainstorming sessions.

o Documentation of all discussions and decisions.

• Goal: To create a system that better meets the needs of the users by incorporating
their input from the start.