ME 147 Lecture 1

Introduction to System Modeling in the

Frequency Domain
Outline
• Block Diagrams
• Laplace Transform Review
• Transfer functions
• Poles and Zeros, s-plane
Block Diagrams
Block Diagrams
For the given system,

𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇
𝑓 𝑡 → 𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑀, 𝑓𝑣 , 𝐾 → 𝑆𝑌𝑆𝑇𝐸𝑀
Block Diagrams
For the given system,

𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇
𝑓 𝑡 → 𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑀, 𝑓𝑣 , 𝐾 → 𝑆𝑌𝑆𝑇𝐸𝑀
Block Diagrams
Block diagrams show the interconnection of components in a system. Block
diagrams for real-life systems are usually much more complex.

Shown below is a simplified block diagram of a vehicle.

Block Diagrams
Each block can even be expanded into much more complex subsystems
Block Diagrams
Quick exercise
Think of something in your home that requires an input and generates a useful
output. Create a very simple block diagram for that system.

Consider the components of that system. Expand the block diagram while
considering the interrelation of the input, output, and the components.
Laplace Transform Review
Laplace Transform Review
Consider the simple spring-mass-
damper system.

How do you describe the motion of

the mass with the given load?
Laplace Transform Review
• Create a free-body diagram of the
mass
• Sum forces along the direction of
motion (𝑥(𝑡) in this case)
• Express forces in terms of the
motion (𝑥(𝑡) in this case)
Laplace Transform Review
𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑀 2
+ 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Differential equation! Also called

the equation of motion.
Laplace Transform Review
𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑀 2
+ 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Differential equation! Also called

the equation of motion.

𝑀𝑥ሷ + 𝑓𝑣 𝑥ሶ + 𝐾𝑥 = 𝑓

We want to solve for 𝑥(𝑡).

Laplace Transform Review
𝑀𝑥ሷ + 𝑓𝑣 𝑥ሶ + 𝐾𝑥 = 𝑓

How do we get 𝑥(𝑡)?

• Analytical methods
• Numerical methods
• Laplace transforms
Laplace Transform Review
Laplace transforms allow us to
represent the input (force), the
output (motion), and system (other
parameters) as separate entities.

Note: 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
Laplace Transform Review
Laplace transforms allow us to
represent the input (force), the
output (motion), and system (other
parameters) as separate entities.

The relationship of these entities

also become algebraic.
Laplace Transform Review
Example 1
Find the Laplace transform of

𝑓 𝑡 = 14𝑒 −7𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Laplace Transform Review
Example 1
Find the Laplace transform of

𝑓 𝑡 = 14𝑒 −7𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Solution
Using the tables,

1 14
𝐹 𝑠 = 14 =
𝑠+7 𝑠+7
Laplace Transform Review
Example 2
Find the inverse Laplace transform
of
1
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠+3 2
Laplace Transform Review
Example 2
Find the inverse Laplace transform
of
1
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠+3 2

Solution
Using the tables,

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡𝑢(𝑡)

Laplace Transform Review
Some Laplace transform theorems.

Some are familiar (linearity,

differentiation)

The differentiation and integration

theorems will be useful later in Unit
3.
Laplace Transform Review
What if 𝐹(𝑠) is complicated and
has no direct relation to 𝑓(𝑡) in the
tables?

𝑁 𝑠 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹 𝑠 = =
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5
Laplace Transform Review
What if 𝐹(𝑠) is complicated and
has no direct relation to 𝑓(𝑡) in the
tables?

𝑁 𝑠 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹 𝑠 = =
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

If 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐷 𝑠 > 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑁 𝑠 ,

perform partial-fraction expansion.
Laplace Transform Review
What if 𝐹(𝑠) is complicated and
has no direct relation to 𝑓(𝑡) in the
tables?

𝑁 𝑠 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹 𝑠 = =
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

If 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑁 𝑠 > 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐷 𝑠 ,

divide until remainder is found, and
then perform partial-fraction
expansion
Laplace Transform Review
𝑁 𝑠 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹 𝑠 = =
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

2
𝐹 𝑠 =𝑠+1+ 2
𝑠 +𝑠+5

2
𝑓 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑠+1+ 2
𝑠 +𝑠+5
Laplace Transform Review
𝑁 𝑠 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹 𝑠 = =
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

2
𝐹 𝑠 =𝑠+1+ 2
𝑠 +𝑠+5

−1
2
𝑓 𝑡 =ℒ 𝑠+1+ 2
𝑠 +𝑠+5

𝑑𝛿 𝑡 −1
2
𝑓 𝑡 = +𝛿 𝑡 +ℒ
𝑑𝑡 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5
Laplace Transform Review
𝑑𝛿 𝑡 −1
2
𝑓 𝑡 = +𝛿 𝑡 +ℒ
𝑑𝑡 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

Partial-fraction expansion must

2
be done to separate 𝑠2 +𝑠+5 into a
sum of terms. We then find the
inverse Laplace transform of each
term.
Laplace Transform Review
Case 1. Roots of the denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are real and distinct
Case 2. Roots of the denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are real and repeated
Case 3. Roots of the denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are complex or imaginary
Laplace Transform Review
Case 1. Roots of the denominator
of 𝐹(𝑠) are real and distinct

Example 3

2
𝐹 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

𝑓 𝑡 = 2 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Laplace Transform Review
Case 2. Roots of the denominator
of 𝐹(𝑠) are real and repeated

Example 4

2
𝐹 𝑠 = 2
𝑠+1 𝑠+2

𝑓 𝑡 = 2 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡

𝑢 𝑡 may be omitted
Laplace Transform Review
Case 3. Roots of the denominator
of 𝐹(𝑠) are complex or imaginary

Example 5

3
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)

3 3 −𝑡 1
𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒 cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡
5 5 2
Laplace Transform Review
3 3 −𝑡 1
𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒 cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡
5 5 2

Recall the phase magnitude form

𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑀 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)

Where
𝑀= 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
−1
𝐵
𝜙 = tan
𝐴
Laplace Transform Review
𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑀 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑀 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
−1
𝐵
𝜙 = tan
𝐴

3 −𝑡
3 3
𝑓 𝑡 = +𝑒 − cos 2𝑡 − sin 2𝑡
5 5 10

3
𝐴=−
5
3
𝐵=−
10
Laplace Transform Review
𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑀 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 2 2
3 3 3 5
𝑀 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 𝑀= − + − =
𝐵 5 10 10
𝜙 = tan −1
3
𝐴 − 10
𝜙 = tan−1 = 26.57°
3
−
3 3 3 5
𝑓 𝑡 = +𝑒 −𝑡 − cos 2𝑡 − sin 2𝑡
5 5 10 3 3 5 −𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = + 𝑒 cos(2𝑡 + 26.57°)
5 10
3
𝐴=− Is this correct?
5
3
𝐵=−
10
Laplace Transform Review
𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑀 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 2 2
3 3 3 5
𝑀 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 𝑀= − + − =
𝐵 5 10 10
𝜙 = tan −1
𝐴
3
− 10
−1
3 3 3 𝜙 = tan = 26.57° + 180° = 206.57°
𝑓 𝑡 = +𝑒 −𝑡 − cos 2𝑡 − sin 2𝑡 3
5 5 10 −
5

3 3 3 5 −𝑡
𝐴=− 𝑓 𝑡 = + 𝑒 cos(2𝑡 + 206.57°)
5 5 10
3
𝐵=−
10
Transfer Function
Transfer Function
For a general nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation
𝑑𝑛 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑚 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑟 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑚
+ 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑚−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑐(𝑡) is the output, 𝑟(𝑡) is the input, and the 𝑎𝑖 ’s and 𝑏𝑖 ’s represent the
system.

If we take the Laplace transform of both sides,

𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐(𝑡)
= 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 𝑅 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟(𝑡)

If we assume zero initial conditions, factor out 𝐶(𝑠) and 𝑅 𝑠 , and rearrange terms,
Transfer Function
𝐶 𝑠 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
=𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

We call the ratio 𝐺(𝑠) the transfer function. It relates the output 𝐶(𝑠) to the input
𝑅(𝑠).
Transfer Function
Consider once again the spring mass
damper system. The equation of motion
is
𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)

Where
𝑋 𝑠 → 𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇
𝐹 𝑠 → 𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇
1
2 → 𝑆𝑌𝑆𝑇𝐸𝑀
𝑀𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
Transfer Function
Rearranging terms,

𝑋 𝑠 1
=𝐺 𝑠 =
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
Transfer Function
Example 6
If 𝑀 = 1, 𝑓𝑣 = 4, 𝐾 = 7, what is the
transfer function? Assuming zero initial
conditions and that 𝐹(𝑠) is a unit step
input, what is 𝑥(𝑡)?
Transfer Function
Example 6
If 𝑀 = 1, 𝑓𝑣 = 4, 𝐾 = 7, what is the
transfer function? Assuming zero initial
conditions and that 𝐹(𝑠) is a unit step
input, what is 𝑥(𝑡)?

Solution
𝑋 𝑠 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑋 𝑠 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = 2 → 𝑇𝐹
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7
Transfer Function
Example 6
1
If 𝑀 = 1, 𝑓𝑣 = 4, 𝐾 = 7, what is the 𝑋(𝑠) = 2 𝐹(𝑠)
transfer function? Assuming zero initial 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7
1 1
conditions and that 𝐹(𝑠) is a unit step 𝑋(𝑠) = 2
input, what is 𝑥(𝑡)? 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7 𝑠

1 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
Solution 2 = + 2
𝑠(𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7) 𝑠 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7
𝑋 𝑠 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝐴 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾 =
𝑋 𝑠 1 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7)
𝐺 𝑠 = = 2 → 𝑇𝐹 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑠 2 + 4𝐴 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 7𝐴
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7 =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7)
Transfer Function
Example 6 1 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑠 2 + 4𝐴 + 𝐶 𝑠 + 7𝐴
2
=
If 𝑀 = 1, 𝑓𝑣 = 4, 𝐾 = 7, what is the 𝑠(𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7) 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7)
transfer function? Assuming zero initial
conditions and that 𝐹(𝑠) is a unit step 𝐴+𝐵 =0
input, what is 𝑥(𝑡)? 4𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
7𝐴 = 1
Solution
𝑋 𝑠 1 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝐴=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾 7
1
𝑋 𝑠 1 𝐵=−
𝐺 𝑠 = = 2 → 𝑇𝐹 7
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7 4
𝐶=−
7
Transfer Function
Example 6 1
𝐴=
If 𝑀 = 1, 𝑓𝑣 = 4, 𝐾 = 7, what is the 7
1
transfer function? Assuming zero initial 𝐵=−
7
conditions and that 𝐹(𝑠) is a unit step 4
input, what is 𝑥(𝑡)? 𝐶=−
7

Solution 1 1 4
1 − 𝑠+ −
𝑋 𝑠 1 7 7 7
𝐺 𝑠 = = 2
= +
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑠(𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7) 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7
𝑋 𝑠 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = 2 → 𝑇𝐹
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7
Transfer Function
Example 6
1 1 4
1 −7 𝑠 + −7
7
𝑋 𝑠 = 2 = +
𝑠(𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7) 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7
1 1 1 𝑠 4 1
𝑋 𝑠 = − 2 −
7 𝑠 7 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 7 7 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 7
1 1 1 𝑠 4 1
𝑋 𝑠 = − 2 −
7 𝑠 7 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 4 + 3 7 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4 + 3
1 1 1 𝑠 4 1
𝑋 𝑠 = − 2 −
7 𝑠 7 𝑠+2 2+ 3 7 𝑠+2 2+ 3 2

1 1 −2𝑡 4 −2𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑒 cos( 3𝑡) − 𝑒 cos( 3𝑡)
7 7 7
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Consider the transfer function
𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

The poles of a transfer functions are (1) the values of the Laplace transform
variable s that cause the transfer function to become infinite, or (2) any roots of the
denominator of the transfer function that are common to the roots of the numerator.

The zeros of a transfer function are (1) the values of the Laplace transform variable
s that cause the transfer function to become zero, or (2) any roots of the numerator
of the transfer function that are common to the roots of the denominator.
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Consider the transfer function
𝐶 𝑠 𝑠+2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 5
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Consider the transfer function
𝐶 𝑠 𝑠+2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 5
It is easy to see that a system pole exists at 𝑠 = −5 and a system zero exists at
𝑠 = −2
If we let 𝑅 𝑠 = 1/𝑠 (unit step input), then

𝑠+2
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 5)
We can then see an input pole at 𝑠 = 0

These poles and zeros may be plotted on a complex s-plane

Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Complex s-plane 𝑗𝜔
• System pole at 𝑠 = −5
• System zero at 𝑠 = −2
• Input pole at 𝑠 = 0

𝜎
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Complex s-plane 𝑗𝜔
• System pole at 𝑠 = −5
• System zero at 𝑠 = −2
• Input pole at 𝑠 = 0

X X 𝜎
−5 −2 0
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
𝑠+2
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 5)
Finding the output transform,
2/5 3/5
𝐶 𝑠 = +
𝑠 𝑠+5
Finding the output time response,
2 3 −3𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = + 𝑒
5 5
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Interesting conclusions:
1. A pole of the input function generates
the form of the forced response (that
is, the pole at the origin generated a
step function at the output)
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Interesting conclusions:
2. A pole of the transfer function
generates the form of the natural
response (that is, the pole at s = −5
generated 𝑒 −5𝑡 )
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Interesting conclusions:
3. A pole on the real axis generates an
exponential response of the form
𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 where −𝛼 is the pole location on
the real axis. Thus, the farther to the
left a pole is on the negative real axis,
the faster the exponential transient
response will decay to zero (again,
the pole at 𝑠 = −5 generated 𝑒 −5𝑡 )
Poles, Zeros, and the s-domain
Interesting conclusions:
4. The zeros and poles generate the
amplitudes for both the forces and
natural responses.