BASIC COMPUTER HARDWARE

Layout of motherboard:

A typical motherboard contains the CPU, memory, storage, ROM BIOS, Southbridge and
Northbridge chipsets, cooling fans, peripheral connector slots, connectors for peripheral
devices, the battery backup and the power connector.

A Printed Circuit Board (PCB) layout is the blueprint that guides the production of circuit
boards which are the backbone of any electronic device. This article explores the core
principles of PCB layout, component placement, trace routing, signal integrity, and more.
 Connectors / Jumpers / Buttons / Switches / Slots
1 DDR4 DIMM slots
CPU, CPU optional, AIO pump, water pump+, extension, M.2,
and chassis fan connectors (4-pin CPU_FAN, 4-pin CPU_OPT, 4-
2
pin AIO_PUMP, 4-pin W_PUMP+, 4-pin M.2, 5-pin EXT_FAN, 4-pin
CHA_FAN1-2 )
3 RGB header (4-pin RGB_HEADER1-2)
ATX power connectors (24-pin EATXPWR; 8-pin EATX12V_1; 4-
4
pin EATX12V_2)
5 LGA2066 CPU socket
6 MemOK! button
7 M.2 Sockets (M.2_1 (Socket 3); M.2_2 (Socket 3))
8 USB 3.1 Gen 2 front panel connector (U31G2_E3)
9 3D Mount
10 USB 3.1 Gen 1 connectors (20-1 pin U31G1_12, U31G1_34)
11 Thermal Sensor connector (2-pin T_SENSOR)
Intel® Serial ATA 6 Gb/s connectors (7-pin SATA6G_12, SATA
12
6G_34, SATA 6G_65, SATA 6G_87)
13 VROC_HW_KEY connector (4-pin VROC_KEY)
14 Clear RTC RAM jumper (2-pin CLRTC)
15 Thunderbolt header (5-pin TB_HEADER)
16 System panel connector (20-8 pin PANEL)
17 CPU Over Voltage jumper (3-pin CPU_OV)
18 USB 2.0 connector (10-1 pin USB910)
19 Power-on button
20 Q-Code LEDs
21 Serial port connector (10-1 pin COM)
22 Front panel audio connector (10-1 pin AAFP)
Asus Motherboard Components

Different Expansion Slots:

They are present on every motherboard and are small plastic slots, usually few inches long
and usually 1⁄2 inch wide. These slots are used to install various devices in PC to increase its
capabilities. Circuit board inserted to add new capabilities to PC are called expansion boards,
expansion cards, cards, add-ins, and add-ons. Usually video, network, sound, and disk
interface cards are installed in these slots. Common types of expansion slots used are

 ISA
 PCI
 AGP
 PCIe
 AMR
 CNR

They differ in the function they do and in their appearance and are illustrated as
ISA Slots

They were prevalent in older PC usually before 1997 and were 8 or 16-bit wide with no hot-
plugging even though 32-bit were introduced. Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
expansion slots are usually black and have two parts: one shorter and one longer. Later PC
had few ISA slots for backward compatibility but ISA was phased by PCI

PCI Slots

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is widely present on motherboards. They are short
(3 inches long) and white. They are 32 or 64-bit wide and have 133 MBps or 533MBps
capacity.

AGP Slots

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slots are used mainly for video card use, for a high-speed,
accelerated 3D graphics video as AGP gives a direct connection between the video circuitry
and the PC’s memory by being 32-bit wide and have above 2000MBps capacity. They are
brown and are located usually next to the PCI slots on the motherboard but shorter than the
PCI slots. They were phased out in favour of PCIe.

PCIe Slots

PCI Express (PCIe) replaced AGP and PCI as it is faster than AGP while being flexible like
PCI. They are by being 32-bit wide and have up to 16GBps capacity with option of hot-
plugging in specific types.

They are present on motherboards usually with PCI slots for backward compatibility. They
are available in seven different speed levels and designated 1X, 2X, 4X, 8X, 12X, 16X, and
32X also their size expands as per the speed level thus 1X is extremely short (less than an
inch) and for remaining; the longer the slot, the higher the speed.

A shorter (or lower-speed) card can be put in a longer (or higher-speed) slot the converse, is
not true.

AMR Slots

Audio / Modem Riser (AMR) is expansion slot for a riser card found on the motherboards of
some Pentium III and Pentium 4 PC. It was designed by Intel to interface with chipsets and
provide analog functionality, such as sound cards and modems, on an expansion card. They
are 46-pin slots which is being phased by CNR and Advanced Communications Riser (ACR)

CNR Slots

Communications and Networking Riser (CNR) is a slot found on certain PC motherboards

and used for specialized networking, audio, and telephony equipment. A motherboard
manufacturer can choose to provide audio, networking, or modem functionality in any
combination on a CNR card. CNR slots were once commonly found on Pentium 4-class
motherboards, but have since been phased out in favour of on-board or embedded
components. They are 60-pin slots. Advantages of CNR over AMR include networking
support, Plug and Play compatibility and no need to lose a competing PCI slot unless the
CNR slot is in use.

Bandwidth Table Range

PCI 133 MB/s

AGP 8X 2,100 MB/s

PCI Express 1x 400 MB/s

PCI Express 4x 1600 MB/s

PCI Express 8x 3200 MB/s

PCI Express 16x 6400 MB/s

Functions of Chipsets:

Definition of a chipset
A chipset is a collection of electronic components on a motherboard that manages the flow of
data between the CPU, GPU, RAM, storage, and peripherals. It acts as the traffic controller of
the motherboard, facilitating communication between all connected components. Experts
often refer to it as the “glue” of the motherboard.

The chipset determines compatibility between components. If any processors or memory

cards don’t communicate with the chipset, they can’t send or receive information from the
motherboard.

Evolution of chipsets
In the past, there were smaller, individualized chips for each component. This setup was
confusing and inefficient. Over time, chip functionality consolidated into two main chipsets:
the faster northbridge (connecting directly to the CPU and memory) and the slower
southbridge.
As technology advanced, some functions were absorbed by the CPU itself. Today’s
integrated chipsets live on the motherboard and allow components to communicate with each
other through the motherboard from a centralized location. The remaining components that
need their own communication bridge to the motherboard use smaller and more efficient
chipsets
How to identify your PC’s chipset
To identify your PC’s chipset:
Look at the motherboard name: The chipset is typically the letter and number combination
following the brand name (e.g., AMD Ryzen X300, where “X300” is the chipset).
Use Device Manager:
Type “Device Manager” into the Windows search bar
Expand “System Devices”
Look for brands like ALI, AMD, Intel, NVIDIA, VIA, or SIS
The chipset should be listed with a letter and number combination
Use system information tools: Third-party software like CPU-Z or Speccy can provide
detailed information about your system, including the chipset model.

Important features of Chipset

Key Features of a Chipset:

Feature Description

Data Transfer Manages the flow of data between components

Peripheral Connectivity Provides connections for various devices like USB, SATA, etc.

Overclocking Support May allow users to boost performance by increasing clock speeds

Specifications of processor:

The cpu in a computer is brain that does all the processing. It is the most important
component that determines the performance of your computer. It is installed in a socket
on the motherboard and can be spotted easily if you look at it.

CPUs also have a heat sink and fan installed right over them, since they produce the
most amount of heat out of all components.

Most computer cpus are manufactured by either Intel or AMD. The mainstream Intel
Core family of processors includes the i3, i5, i7, and i9 chips, while AMD Ryzen includes
the Ryzen 3/5/7/9.

All cpus are not alike in terms of performance and the most expensive ones are more
powerful. Intel i3/Ryzen 3 series cpus are the entry level and low budget ones whereas
the intel i9/ryzen 9 series are for high performance workstation computers.

Besides the name and number there are many core features or specifications of cpus
that determine the performance. When choosing a CPU, it's important to take note of
every little detail in the specs and make sure that the other components in your build are
compatible with it.

CPU Specifications and Features

In this article we shall take a look at some of important features of a cpu that affect its
performance and also affect the choice of other components like motherboard, ram, psu,
cooler, graphics card etc.

 Core Count
 Hyper-Threading support
 Base Clock Speed
 Max Turbo Speed
 Overclocking Support
 L Cache Size (L1, L2, L3)
 Memory Support and Channels
 TDP Rating
 Generation and Micro-architecture
 Socket Type
 Chipset Compatibility
 Integrated Graphics

1. Core Count
Most modern cpus have multiple cores anywhere from 4,6,8 to upto 32 and 64. Each
core is like a cpu within a cpu that can execute programs. Having multiple cores allows
the cpu to run multiple programs simultaneously thereby making it faster.

The more cores a processor has, the faster it can handle multiple processes, which is
important for multitasking or for heavy workloads that can take advantage of multiple
cores.

Processes like video-editing/transcoding and applications like games use multiple cores
to run tasks in parallel and see massive performance gains with more cores. If you are
planning to get a gaming pc or laptop then look for a laptop with atleast 6 cores. For
professional video editing jobs an 8 core cpu would be ideal whereas for building a work-
station look for a 12/16 core cpu. For most home users with basic requirements like
document editing, web browsing, video viewing etc, a modern 4-core processor will be
sufficient. Here are some cpu models with their core and thread counts.

Intel:

Platfor
CPU Core (Threads) m

i5-7400 4/4 Desktop

i5-1135G7, i7-1165G7 4/8 Laptop

i5-10600K, i5-
11600KF 6/12 Desktop

i7-11700, i9-11900K 8/16 Desktop

i9-10900K 10/20 Desktop

 i9-10980XE 18/36 Desktop

AMD:
Core Platfor
CPU (Threads) m

R3-3200G 4/4 Laptop

R5-5500U 6/12 Laptop

R7-5800H, R9-5900HX 8/16 Laptop

R5-4600G, R5-3600, R5- Deskto

5600G 6/12 p

R7-5800X, R7-5700G, R7- Deskto

5700X 8/16 p

Deskto
R9-5950X 16/32 p

Multicore cpus often use naming conventions like quad-core (4 cores), hexa-core (6-
core), octa-core (8 cores), deca-core (10 cores). Check out the cpu hierarchy list at
tomshardware to see a performance comparison of popular cpu models.

2. Hyper-threading support
Hyper-Threading feature when present on a cpu allows each core on the cpu to act
somewhat as 2 cores. In other words, a 4 core cpu with hyperthreading support will
appear to have 4 x 2 = 8 cores. Now this does not exactly double the performance but it
does add some advantage.

So a 4 core cpu with hyperthreading will be faster than a 4 core cpu without
hyperthreading.
However a 4 core cpu with hyperthreading will be slower than a 8 core cpu without
hyperthreading.

8 core/8 thread > 4 core/8thread > 4 core/4 thread

Note that Hyper-Threading is specific to Intel and the AMD equivalent is Simultaneous
Multi-Threading (SMT) which does something similar. A more generic term is multi-
threading.
While the core count represents the number of physical cores in a CPU, the number of
threads represents the number of virtual cores a processor can simulate. So for
example, an Intel i5-10400 processor has 6 physical cores and 12 threads.

Intel CPUs use 'hyper-threading' and AMD CPUs use 'simultaneous multi-threading' or
SMT to achieve this, with both technologies essentially being the same.

As mentioned earlier, more cores and threads equal better efficiency and multitasking as
the processor is better able to execute more tasks simultaneously.

Not all cpu models have hyper threading support. To check whether a cpu has threading
support, check its specs online. To check on a machine use tools like cpu-z and hwinfo
or Windows Task Manager. They can detect and report the number of cpu cores and
threads.

With hyperthreading support available, Windows Task Manager will show "Logical
Processors" twice the number of cores.

Note that starting with the 12th gen intel has started making cpus with a hybrid
core/thread architecture. There are 2 types of cores, namely Performance cores (P-core)
and Efficient Core (E-core) and only the performance cores are hyper-threading, while
the efficient cores are not.

Performance
Core Efficient Core
Performanc Efficient Threa Turbo/Base Turb/Base
CPU e Cores Cores ds Freq Freq

i7-
12700K 8 4 20 4.9/3.6 3.8/2.7

i9-
12900K 8 8 24 5.1/3.2 3.9/2.4

i7-
12700K
F 8 8 20 4.9/3.6 3.8/2.7

As you can see, the number of threads (logical processors) is equal to twice the number
of P-cores added with the number of E-cores.
The P-cores also have higher turbo and base clock frequencies compared to E-cores.

As of 7000 series AMD does not have any cpus with such hybrid structure.
3. Clock Speed
A processor is driven by a digital clock that runs at a certain frequency measured in Hz.
A cpu can perform some task with every clock cycle, so higher the clock speed the more
instruction the cpu can execute.

For example, a 3.1 GHz base clock processor can potentially perform 3.1 tasks each
second. By task we mean program instructions.

The higher the clock speed, the more tasks the processor can complete, and the faster
your computer will generally run.

To check the clock frequency of your cpu you can use tools like cpu-z or hwinfo. Here
are some examples.

CPU-Z CPU Details Asus TUF A17 FA706QM-HX008TS

The above is a AMD Ryzen 7 5800H cpu that has a base clock speed of 3.2Ghz and
boost level of 4.4Ghz.

Generation Matters
It's important to note that it's not always best to compare clocks speeds of processors of
different generations or manufacturers.

For example, an older quad-core processor like the 7th gen Intel Core i5-7500 running at
3.4 GHz will be outperformed by the 10th gen 6-core Intel Core i5-10500 running at
3.1GHz.

More on this later.

4. Max Turbo Frequency

Both AMD and Intel allow CPUs to operate above their typical (base) clock frequencies
for a temporary performance boost when needed. AMD calls it Boost Clock (Turbo Core)
while Intel calls it Max Turbo Frequency (Turbo Boost).
When the cpu is running heavy programs or applications it automatically increases its
frequency upwards to do more processing in the same amount of time. This is also
called "algorithmic overclocking".

You might be wondering, why doesn't the cpu run at highest possible clock frequency all
the time to deliver the fastest performance. Most regular applications like document
editors, web browsers don't actually need very high cpu speed so the cpu runs at a
lower base clock. Running at lower clock freq, the cpu consumes less power and
generates less heat which is necessary for compact devices like laptops.

You can check the base/boost clock frequency of your cpu using tools like HwInfo.
Check the screenshot below.
HwInfo CPU Details
The fields CPU HFM(Base) and CPU Turbo Max report the base and boost clocks
respectively. The TDP levels have also been shown which we shall discuss a bit later.

When a heavy application puts load on the cpu, it boosts itself by increasing clock. Since
higher clock freq needs more power, a cpu must be supplied with enough power and
cooling so that it can operate in safe temperature range. If adequate power is not
available or if the cooling system fails to dissipate the heat, the cpu will not boost and
throttle back to base frequency or whatever level below the boost freq. where it can
stabilise.

Here are some popular cpus with their base and Turbo/Boost clocks.

Base Clock Turbo Frequency/Boost Clock Platfor

CPU (Ghz) (Ghz) m

AMD Ryzen 5 Deskto

3600 3.6 4.2 p

AMD Ryzen 7
5800H 3.2 4.4 Laptop

i5-1135G7 2.4 4.2 Laptop

Deskto
i5-11600KF 3.9 4.9 p

Deskto
i5-10600K 4.1 4.8 p

The clock boost is maintained only as long as the heavy application is running and the
system maintains safe power supply and thermals. Once the application exits or the
temperatures exceed a certain threshold, cpu reverts back to its lower clock.

Note that desktop cpus have much higher base clock frequency compared to laptop
cpus. This is because desktops have full power supply and better cooling and therefore
can sustain high cpu clocks without any issues. Laptops on the other hand have weaker
cooling due to compact size and limited power when running on battery, which cannot
support very high clock frequencies for long.

To know the boost clock frequency of your cpu, use the model name/number and check
the specifications online.
5. Overclocking support
Overclocking is the process of increasing the boost clock speed of a cpu beyond the
limits set or specified by the manufacturer. This is basically done to make your cpu run
even faster than the boost clock speed. There are various reasons to do so, but for most
regular users overclocking is not an important and they should stay away from it.

For overclocking to work both your cpu and motherboard have to support it. It is worth
nothing that overclocking in general is done only on desktops. With most laptops
manufacturers lock the cpu to work in a certain range and the motherboard or bios will
have no option to change the frequencies.

However now there are high end cpus for laptops that support overclocking, like the i9-
12900HK. However it should be noted that overclocking support has to be provided but
he laptop's motherboard and bios as well to make it work, which ofcourse depends on
the oem manufacturer.

Here is a list of some cpus that support overclocking.

 i9-9900K
 i9-12900KS
 i9-12900K
 i7-12700K
 i7-12700KF
 i9-10980XE
All AMD Ryzen processors support overclocking, while Intel usually reserves that feature
for their higher-end processors. Intel Core processor models that end with a 'K' or 'X' can
usually be overclocked, e.g., the i5-10600K and i9-12900HK (laptop cpu).

If you plan on overclocking your CPU, you'll need to have a sufficient cooling solution as
an overclocked chip will use more power and therefore generate more heat.

6. L Caches (L1, L2, L3)

Most modern CPUs have 3 Levels ('L') of caches to store data needed while executing
program instructions. These are named L1, L2, and L3, with the capacity increasing with
each level. If the data the processor needs can't be found in the L1 cache, it 'seeks' this
data from the L2 cache and then the L3 cache.

In terms of size the L1 cache is the smallest and L3 is the largest. Whereas in terms of
speed the L1 cache is the fastest and L3 is the slowest.

Because these caches are built into the processor itself, they are the fastest memory a
processor can access data from, starting with the L1 cache.

While each cpu core has its own dedicated L1 and L2 cache, the L3 cache is common
and shared by each of the cores. This shared L3 cache is also called "Intel® Smart
Cache" on intel cpus and just L3 on amd cpus.
Use free tools like cpu-z to check the cpu cache.

CPU-Z Acer Swift 3 -SF314-59-524M

Level 3 = 8MB, L2 = 1.25MB/core x 4 cores = 5MB, L1 = 80KB/core x 4 = 320KB

The bottom right corner reports the L1, L2, L3 caches. The L1 and L2 caches are per
core hence they are multiplied by the number of cores (4 in this case) to get the total
size. The L3 cache is shared. The L1 cache has separate segments for Instruction and
Data.

The L-caches allow the cpu to quickly store instructions and data while executing
programs which speeds up the over-all execution process. Without the L cache the cpu
would have to continuously read/write the ram memory which is many orders slower
than L caches.

With larger cache the cpu has to access the ram memory less often, thereby speeding
up performance.

A typical L1 cache can be up to 256 KB, while an L2 cache can typically range anywhere
from 256KB to 8MB of capacity. Whereas the L3 cache can 32MB or even higher on
some cpus.
 L3 Cache L2 L1
CPU (MB) Cache(MB) Cache

Ryzen 7
5800H 16 4

i7-11800H 24

i7-12700K 25 12

i9-12900K 30 14

i7-12700KF 25 12

Ryzen 5
3600 32 3 384KB

Ryzen 5
5500U 8 3

i5-1135G7 8 5 320

The cache size is not an important consideration for most regular users, since they won't
notice any difference in the performance of a small cache vs a large cache cpu.
However in scenarios like gaming the L3 cache makes a huge difference in the system
performance, specially the 1% Low FPS for instance. If you are choosing a cpu for
gaming then look for a cpu with larger L3 cache size.

For instance the R7-5800H and i7-11800H are similar cpus (8 cores/ 16 threads) from
amd and intel with similar core/thread counts, but their L3 cache sizes are different. The
11800H has 24MB L3 cache which is 50% more compared to 5800H which has 16MB.
This makes 11800H a better choice for gaming.

7. Memory Support
Any cpu supports only specific types of ram modules upto a certain size and speed.
Modern systems are equipped with either DDR4 or DDR5 ram modules with DDR5
being the newer technology standard that supports higher bandwidth at lower speed.

Most cpus will support DDR4 memory whereas only few latest cpus support DDR5 as of
2022. Also each cpu can support only upto a certain amount of maximum ram, like
128GB or 64GB.
Memory Speed
The memory speed, measured in MT/s, determines the speed of data transfer between
the cpu and ram. Higher numbers mean faster.

RAM, that is rated at 3200 MT/s, means that it can potentially performs 3200 million data
transfers per second.

Modern cpus from both intel and amd can support upto 3200 MT/s (JEDEC standard)
transfer speed when using DDR4 memory, and upto 4800 MT/s (JEDEC standard)
transfer speed when using DDR5 memory.

Common DDR4 memory speeds include 3200, 3600, 2400, 2133 MT/s etc.

Here are some cpus along with their memory specs.

Maximum memory
CPU Supported memory type supported

Ryzen 7
5800X DDR4-3200

Ryzen 7
5800H DDR4-3200 / LPDDR4-4266

i7-11800H DDR4-3200

Ryzen 5
5500U DDR4-3200/LPDDR4-4266

i7-12700K DDR4-3200 / DDR5-4800 128

i9-12900K DDR4-3200 / DDR5-4800 128

i7-12700KF DDR4-3200 / DDR5-4800 128

i9- DDR4-3200 / DDR5-4800 / LPDDR5-5200 /

12900HK LPDDR4x-4267 64

i5-1135G7 DDR4-3200 / LPDDR4x-4267 64

Even though cpus state the max memory speed at something like DDR4-3200 MT/s,
they will often be able to run ram at the higher speeds with xmp overclocking. But this is
topic for pc building enthusiasts only who like to take performance to extreme levels.
Most regular users need not worry about ram speeds as most cpus have the best
options inbuilt.

Number of Channels
Channels as like 'lane' of data communication between the processor and memory. The
more lanes, the faster the data exchange can be. CPUs specify the number of memory
channels they have.

All modern consumer grade CPUs have a minimum of dual-channel memory, with
higher-end workstation CPUs like the AMD Threadripper and Intel Xeon supporting 4
(quad-channel) or more channels.

To take advantage of dual-channel memory, you need to install 2 RAM modules of the
same type and specifications into the DIMM slots of each channel. Information about the
dimm slot and channel arrangement is usually indicated by your motherboard manual.

8. TDP (Thermal Design Power)

TDP stands for Thermal Design Power, and measures in watts, the amount of power
that a CPU will consume under load. Knowing the tdp value is important when selecting
a psu and cpu cooler. A cpu with higher tdp value will need more power supply and more
cooling.

It's important to have a power supply that can handle the TDP a CPU is rated for, in
addition to the other components in a build like the GPU. More powerful components
consume more energy and therefore generate more heat requiring more capable coolers
(air or aio).

For example, the budget-friendly AMD Ryzen 3-3100 and Intel Core i3-10320 are both
rated for a TDP of 65 watts while the AMD Ryzen 7-3800X and Intel Core i7-10700K are
rated for 105 and 95 watts respectively.

In general cpus with more cores will have higher tdp since they need more power to
drive that many cores. Also cpus running at higher frequencies will also have higher tdp
since more power is needed for running a cpu at higher clock freq.

Here are some desktop cpus from intel and amd with their tdps compared:

Cores/ Clock Frequency TDP

CPU Threads (Base/Boost) (Watts)

R9 5900X 12/24 3.7/4.8 105

R7 5800X 8/16 3.8/4.7 105

R7 5700X 8/16 3.4/4.6 65

 R7
5700G 8/16 3.8/4.6 65

R5 5600X 6/12 3.7/4.6 65

R9 7900X 12/24 4.7/5.6 170

R7 7700X 8/16 4.5/5.4 105

i7-
12700KF (8+4)/20 3.6/4.9, 2.7/3.8 125-190

i5-
11600KF 6/12 3.9/4.9 95-125

i5-
10600K 6/12 4.1/4.8 95-125

i9-
12900K 8P+8E/24 3.2/5.2, 2.4/3.9 125-241

i5-
12600K 6P+4E/16 3.7/4.9, 2.8/3.6 125-150

Note that cpus with more cores and/or higher clock frequencies consume more power.
More-over cpus from one brand may consume more or less power compared to cpus
from another brand that have similar core count and frequencies.

Laptop cpus often have "configurable-tdp" system which allows them to run at different
power levels as needed. For instance the i7-11800H has a configurable tdp range of
35W - 45W. Means it can run at lower tdps to save power when running on battery and
use more power at 45W when running on power supply. Most of the time the tdp is
configured by adjusting the clock frequency.

Here are some laptop cpus:

Cores/ Clock Frequency TDP

CPU Threads (Base/Boost) (Watts)
 R7
5800H 8/16 3.2/4.4 35-54

R5
5500U 6/12 2.1/4 10-25

i5-
1135G7 4/8 2.4/4.2 12-28

Note that laptop cpus run at much lower power compared to desktop cpus, however they do
not lower the frequency too much. This is because laptop cpus are designed differently with a
lower power profile.

To make a cpu consume less power, the system simply lowers the clock frequency and vice-
versa. Therefore you should avoid run heavy applications on a laptop when on battery, as the
system will slow it down.

To check the power consumption and temperature of your cpu, you can use tools like Open
Hardware Monitor or HwInfo.

Acer Aspire 5 A515-45-R0HB CineBench R23 Thermals

The above data is of Ryzen 5 5500U cpu (acer aspire 5 laptop) which has a rated tdp of 10-
25W. Note, that under continuous heavy load (when all cores are busy) the system lowers the
power consumption to 20W to keep the temperatures in safe limits of 85-86 C.

With packaged devices like laptops, the manufacturer already puts in the best power supply
and cooler for the cpu, so the end user need not worry about the tdp values.
However when building a desktop pc, you need to carefully select a psu that can maintain full
power to the cpu when it is running at high tdp and also a good cooler that can cool it.

A cpu might lower its tdp (by lowering clock freq), if the cooler is not cool it enough.
Typically cpus automatically throttle their clock frequencies when they hit high temperatures
like 95-100 C.

9. Generation and Micro-Architecture

Each cpu belongs to a certain "technology generation" with each newer generation being
more powerful and efficient than the previous. The cpu model name usually indicate the
generation as a number. For example:

 i9-13900K - 13th gen (Raptor Lake)

 i9-12900K - 12th (Alder Lake) generation (note the 12 in the "12900K")
 i7-11800H - 11th gen. (Rocket Lake) (note the 11 in the 11800H)
 i5-10400 - 10th gen. (Comet Lake)
With amd, these are called series instead of generation.

 Ryzen 7 5800H - 5000 series

 Ryzen 5 3600 - 3000 series
Note that generations of different brands are not equivalent. For example the 11th gen intel
cpus compete with 5000 series AMD cpus.

Each next generation features more efficient architecture, smaller and higher number of
transistors, more power efficient design, support for newer technologies etc.

A modern-day CPU is made up of billions of transistors. The manufacturing process which is

measured in nm (nanometers) refers to the semiconductor fabrication technology used to
manufacture a CPU.

The measurement in nanometers, e.g., 7nm, does not refer to the actual size of the transistors
but is more of a fabrication process technical term. Additionally, Intel's 10nm process
transistor density is reportedly similar to AMD’s 7nm process.

Smaller more energy-efficient transistors mean more can fit in the same space, resulting in
more powerful energy-efficient CPUs. While this spec can give you an idea of how advanced
a chip is, it’s not an accurate measure of performance. More important specs to consider
would be clock speed and core count.

The micro-architecture is the layout structure of electronic components on the processor chip
die. Every newer architecture is supposed to be better and efficient than its predecessors.

Each generation of cpus may be based on a new different architecture or the same
architecture as the previous generation. Both AMD and Intel use their own proprietary micro-
architectures in different generations of their cpus.
For example the latest 5000 series AMD processors are based on Zen3 architecture whereas
the 6000 series mobile cpus are based on the Zen3+ architecture.

On Intel side the 10th gen Core series processors are based on "Comet Lake" micro-
architecture. The 8th generation intel core cpus were based on "Coffee Lake".

Usually its a better idea to go with newer generation cpus. But at the same time, older
generations cpus might be available at cheaper prices, which may offer a better performance
to price ratio sometimes.

The choice of generation can also hugely impact the choice of other components when
building a pc. For example the 7000 series ryzen cpus work with only DDR5 ram, so you
need a DDR5 capable motherboard and DDR5 ram sticks which are more expensive than
DDR4 equivalents.

10. Socket Type

A CPU socket is a physical interface on a motherboard in which a processor is installed.
AMD and Intel processors use their own specific socket types and cpus from one brand will
not fit into a socket of made for the other brand. So basically its the cpu socket that
determines whether a motherboard is made for intel cpu or amd cpu.
The socket type determines the number of pins used and their physical configuration, so it's
important to make sure your motherboard and processor are compatible.

Some cpu models may use the same socket type but might not be compatible with the same
motherboard due to requirement of a different chipset. More on this later.

Having a backward-compatible socket is useful if you plan to continue using your old cpu but
might upgrade later on. AMD has the best backward compatibility with their AM4 socket that
supports a lot of older processors, while Intel sockets support only selected cpu generations
until a new one is needed, while means changing the motherboard.

Intel sockets
 LGA 1151 v1 (6th / 7th gen)
 LGA 1151 v2 (8th / 9th gen)
 LGA 1200 (10th/11th gen)
 LGA 1700 (12th/13th gen)
 LGA 2066 (workstation CPUs)
On intel side the latest LGA 1200 socket is not compatible with 9th gen and below cpus.
Similarly LGA 1700 is not compatible with 11th gen and lower cpus
AMD sockets
 AM4 (Ryzen and Athlon) - Ryzen 1000 / 2000 / 3000 / 4000 series cpus
 AM5 - Ryzen 7000 series
 TR4 (Threadripper)
The current AMD AM4 socket is backward compatible with older AMD processors.

11. Chipset
The chipset is a special IC chip on the motherboard that handles data flow between the cpu
and other components of your computer. It determines how fast your computer's components
communicate with the cpu and each other. The chipset also determines support for
overclocking your CPU, the speed of your RAM, and other things like number of USB ports
and speed of each.

The chipset is not a specification of the cpu however the chipsets support of any cpu are very
specific and which ones you pair together determines the performance power of your
computer.

For example a newer chipset will feature PCIE 4.0 which is twice faster than older chipsets
with PCIE 3.0. Also a newer chipset will feature support for USB 3.2 Gen 2 ports whereas
older chipsets support only upto 3.1 Gen 1.

A chipset is already pre-installed on motherboards and you cannot choose one separately.
You have to look for the particular motherboard that has the chipset you want.

A PC's components communicate with each other using PCIe lanes, and more lanes equal
faster data transfer. A PCIe lane can be thought of as the physical wires on a motherboard
that connect components and let them talk to each other using a certain protocol.

A more budget-friendly chipset like AMD's B450 comes with 36 PCIe 3.0 Lanes, whereas
the more advanced and expensive chipset, X570 comes with 44 PCIe 4.0 Lanes.

Each chipset is usually designed for a specific socket model. However one socket can work
with different chipsets.

Common Intel Chipsets:

 Z790 - Raptor Lake chipsets (700 series) - LGA 1700
 H610 / B660 / H670 / Q670 / Z690 / W680 - Alder Lake chipsets (600 series) - LGA
1700 (12th/13th gen)
 H510 / B560 / H570 / Q570 / Z590 / W580 - Rocket Lake chipsets (500 series) -
LGA 1200 (10th/11th gen)
 H410 / B460 / H470 / Q470 / Z490 / W480 - Comet Lake chipsets (400 series) -
LGA 1200
A full list of chipsets is available on intel's website at this links.
AMD Chipsets:
 A320 / A520 - AM4 Socket
 B350 / B450 / B550 - AM4 Socket
 X370 / X470 / X570 - AM4 Socket
 B650 / B650E - AM5 Socket
  X670 / X670E - AM5 Socket
 TRX40 - Socket sTRX4
AMD provides full details of socket and chipset compatibility on their website. Check this
link.

12. Integrated Graphics

Many CPUs come with integrated graphics on the chip itself, meaning you don't need a
dedicated GPU to drive your monitor. While an integrated graphics solution is a solid option
for casual users, other users add a discrete graphics card to their system for more powerful
graphics performance.

Integrated graphics can also be helpful when troubleshooting a discrete graphics card as you
can still display an image on your monitor even if your discrete GPU is malfunctioning.

Intel offers "HD Graphics", "UHD Graphics", and "Iris" series of integrated gpus in most of
their desktop and laptop CPUs. While AMD offers Radeon Vega graphics.

To check the details of integrated gpu on your system use the tool called gpu-z
 GPU-Z Acer Swift 3 sf314-59-524m

The above screenshot is from a system with i5-1135G7 cpu which has Intel Iris Xe integrated
gpu.

For those who are doing advanced photo/video editing or high-end gaming, it's best to have a
dedicated graphics card. The best thing is that you can start with a cpu with integrated gpu
and add a dedicated graphics card from Nvidia or AMD later on when needed.

With Intel, all cpus except those with an "F" suffix have integrated gpu. Whereas with AMD
only those cpus that have a 'G' suffix have an integrated gpu (5600G, 5700G).

Basically intel has more cpus with integrated gpu support for desktop platform.
Choosing the right specs
If you are building a pc for gaming, its best to go with a 6core/12thread cpu at minimum and
a 8core/16thread cpu would be excellent. Additionally you would want to choose a cpu that
has PCIE 4.0 support and pair it with a pcie 4.0 supporting chipset. Also look at the L3 cache
sizes and look for large size like 16MB-24MB.

If you are building a pc for regular tasks like document editing, content writing, blogging,
web browsing, video viewing look for a cpu with 4core/8threads with integrated gpu.
Integrated gpu is used in video decoding (when watching youtube) and webpage rendering
(when browsing with google chrome) so make sure that your cpu has it. When it comes to
gpu , the Intel iGPUs like Iris Xe perform a lot better than AMD igpus like radeon vega.

If you building a pc for professional tasks like video editing, we highly recommend getting a
cpu with 8 core/16 threads since video encoding/transcoding programs utilise multiple cores
to speed up processing and deliver results faster. If you are building a video editing
workstation pc for high level video editing at 4K resolution then we recommend getting a 12
core/24 thread or higher cpu for optimal performance. Note that you would also need
adequate amount of ram memory to ensure high performance out of the cpu.

Features of DDR2SDRAM:

DDR2 SDRAM is a 4n prefetch architecture (internally the memory operates at half the
interface frequency) with two data transfers per clock cycle. DDR2 SDRAM can use a single-
ended or differential strobe, DQS or DQSn, which is associated with a group of data pins,
and DQ for read and write operations. The DQS, DQSn, and DQ are bidirectional ports.
Address ports are shared for read and write operations.
DDR2 SDRAM includes additional features such as increased bandwidth due to higher clock
speeds, improved signal integrity on DIMMs with on-die terminations, and lower supply
voltages to reduce power.
2 DDR2-SDRAM Features

 Power Supply: DDRM_VDD, DDRM_VDDL, DDRM_VDDQ = 1.8 V ±0.1 V

 Double Data Rate Architecture: Two Data Transfers per Clock Cycle
 CAS Latency: 3
 Burst Length: 8
 Bi-Directional, Differential Data Strobes (DQS and DQSN) are Transmitted/Received with
Data
 Edge-Aligned with Read Data and Center-Aligned with Write Data
 DLL Aligns DQ and DQS Transitions with Clock
 Differential Clock Inputs (CLK and CLKN)
 Data Masks (DM) for Write Data
 Commands Entered on Each Positive CLK Edge, Data and Data Mask are Referenced to
Both Edges of DQS
 Auto-Refresh and Self-Refresh Modes
 Precharged Power-Down and Active Power-Down
 Write Data Mask
 Write Latency = Read Latency - 1 (WL = RL - 1)
 Interface: SSTL_18
Features of DDR3SDRAM

DDR3 SDRAM can conserve system power, increase system performance, achieve better
maximum throughput, and improve signal integrity with fly-by topology and dynamic on-die
termination. Read and write operations to the DDR3 SDRAM are burst oriented.

DDR3 SDRAM is the third generation of SDRAM. DDR3 SDRAM is internally configured
as an eight-bank DRAM and uses an 8n prefetch architecture to achieve high-speed
operation. The 8n prefetch architecture is combined with an interface that transfers two data
words per clock cycle at the I/O pins. A single read or write operation for DDR3 SDRAM
consists of a single 8n-bit wide, one-clock-cycle data transfer at the internal DRAM core and
eight corresponding n-bit wide, one-half clock cycle data transfers at the I/O pins. DDR3
SDRAMs are available as components and modules, such as DIMMs, SODIMMs, RDIMMs,
and LRDIMMs.
DDR3 SDRAM can conserve system power, increase system performance, achieve better
maximum throughput, and improve signal integrity with fly-by topology and dynamic on-die
termination.
Read and write operations to the DDR3 SDRAM are burst oriented. Operation begins with
the registration of an active command, which is followed by a read or write command. The
address bits registered coincident with the active command select the bank and row to be
activated (BA0 to BA2 select the bank; A0 to A15 select the row). The address bits registered
coincident with the read or write command select the starting column location for the burst
operation, determine if the auto precharge command is to be issued (via A10), and select
burst chop (BC) of 4 or burst length (BL) of 8 mode at runtime (via A12), if enabled in the
mode register. Before normal operation, the DDR3 SDRAM must be powered up and
initialized in a predefined manner.
Differential strobes DQS and DQSn are mandated for DDR3 SDRAM and are associated
with a group of data pins, as is DQ for read and write operations. DQS, DQSn, and DQ ports
are bidirectional. Address ports are shared for read and write operations.
Note: The DDR3 SDRAM high-performance controller II supports local interfaces running at
full-rate, half-rate, and quarter-rate.
For more information, refer to the respective DDR, DDR2, and DDR3 SDRAM data sheets.
For more information about parameterizing the DDR2 and DDR3 SDRAM IP, refer to
the Implementing and Parameterizing Memory IP chapter.

Accelerated Graphics Port:

An Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a point to point channel that is used for high-speed
video output. This port is used to connect graphic cards to a computer’s motherboard. It
increases the speed at which machines can render graphics while using the system’s resources
more efficiently. The primary purpose of an AGP is to convey 3-D images much more
smoothly than is possible on a regular PC.
History
The AGP was developed by Intel in the year 1996 and was launched in Socket 7 Intel P5
Pentium and Slot 1 P6 Pentium II processors. Gradually everyone started using it. Chipsets
like VIA Apollo VP3, SiS 5591/5592, and the ALI Aladdin V were the first Socket 7
chipsets to support AGP. Early AGP boards used graphics processors built
around Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) and were simply bridged to AGP. It can
be said that the AGP is built from the PCI that PCI is the base. Bridging didn’t help the cards
benefit much from the new bus except for the increased 66 MHz bus clock and the doubled
bandwidth over PCI. Intel’s i740 was explicitly designed to exploit the new features of AGP.
In fact, it was designed to texture only from AGP memory.

AGP Version Comparison Table

The various versions of AGP are discussed here

Interfac
e Clock Speed Speed Transfer Rate

1x and
AGP 1.0 66 MHz 2x 266 MB/s and 533 MB/s

AGP 2.0 66 MHz 4x 1, 066 MB/s

AGP 3.0 66 MHz 8x 2, 133 MB/s

Characteristics of AGP

It has high quality and very fast performance.

It has a direct path to the PC’s main memory.

It connects to the CPU and operates at the speed of the processor bus.

It sends video information more quickly to the card for processing.

It uses the main memory to hold 3D images.

It provides the graphics card with two methods of directly accessing texture maps in system
memory: pipelining and sideband addressing.

The port is identified by its brown colour.

Applications of AGP

It enabled to develop new classes of applications on the PC such as 3D CAD/CAM, data

visualization and 3D user interfaces.
Direct Memory Execution of textures-The texture maps are directly accessed from the system
memory instead of pre-loading the texture data into the Graphic card’s own memory and then
accessing it. It eliminates the extra work by allowing the texture to remain in system memory
where it can be directly executed on by the graphics chip.

Creation of 3D images- The CPU must perform intensive 3D calculations. The graphics
controller processes the texture data and bitmaps. In many cases, the controller has to read
elements from 7 or 8 different textures and combine them into a single pixel on the screen.
When this calculation is performed, the pixel must be stored in the memory buffer. The
memory occupied by these textures are so large, they cannot be stored on the video card’s
buffer. With APG they are stored in the main system memory.

Advantages of AGP over PCI

AGP was introduced as a replacement for the slower Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI) interfaces. AGP provides a direct line of communication to the CPU and RAM, which
in turn allows for quicker rendering of graphics.

Differences between AGP and PCI

AGP PCI

AGP is a port PCI is a bus

AGP normally has a clock speed of 66

MHz PCI bus normally has a clock speed of 33 MHz

AGP normally has a transfer rate of 2,

133 MB/s PCI normally has a transfer rate of 132 MB/s

AGP has a non local memory and is able PCI has a local memory and relies solely on the
to access the system memory directly. memory of the video card.

AGP memory allows AGP cards to store PCI stores the texture maps in the memory of the
texture maps in system memory itself. video card itself.

AGP receives information

simultaneously which makes the PCI receives information in “groups” instead of all
graphics quicker and smoother. at once.
AGP makes pipelined or multiple PCI doesn’t make pipelined request that is it does
requests for data during a bus or not make another until the data that is currently
memory access requested has been transferred.

Limitations:

The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a technology used to improve the performance of
video card graphics. Here are some of the limitations of AGP technology:

Limited Bandwidth: The AGP interface has limited bandwidth, which can limit the
performance of high-end video cards and hinder the display of complex and demanding
graphics.

Obsolete Technology: AGP is an older technology that has been largely replaced by newer
interfaces such as PCI Express (PCIe), which provides faster and more reliable performance.

Lack of Support: As AGP technology becomes obsolete, it may become increasingly

difficult to find AGP-compatible video cards, motherboards, and other components, which
can limit the upgrade options for users.

Power Consumption: AGP video cards can consume a significant amount of power, which
can increase the overall power consumption of a computer and add to the operating costs.

Heat Generation: AGP video cards can generate a significant amount of heat, which can
affect the stability of the computer and cause problems with overheating.

In conclusion, while AGP technology was an important step in the evolution of video card
graphics, it is now limited by its bandwidth, lack of support, power consumption, and heat
generation. For these reasons, most users are better off using newer graphics interfaces, such
as PCI Express, for their video card needs.

SMPS Power Supply connectors:

What are the connectors of SMPS?

SMPS connectors: P1 - Main power connector to motherboard (20 or 24 pins). P4 - Supplies
power to the CPU (4 pins). MOLEX - Used for connecting Hard drives and Optical drives.
SATA - Used to connect SATA Hard drives or Optical drives

There are total six power outlet (Connector) on SMPS. 1.20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard
Connector. 2.