CHEMISTRY EXPERIMENTS

1. pH of Samples:

Aim:
To determine the pH of the given samples using pH paper or universal
indicator. The samples whose pH has to be determined are-

1. Dilute CH3COOH
2. Dilute NaOH
3. Salt NaCl
4. Dilute NaHCO3
5. Water
6. Lemon juice

Materials required:

1. Six test tubes

2. Test tube stand
3. Dilute acid CH3COOH
4. Dilute base NaOH
5. Salt NaCl (preparation: dissolve 1 gram salt in 10 mL distilled water)
6. Water
7. Lemon juice
8. Dilute NaHCO3
9. Glass rod
10.Measuring cylinder (10 mL)
11.Standard pH colour chart
12.pH paper
13.Glass rod
14.Dropper
15.Universal indicator
Theory:

What is pH?
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration to determine the alkalinity or
acidity of a solution.

 If the pH value of a solution is less than 7 it is an acidic solution

 If the pH value of a solution is greater than 7 it is a basic solution
 If the pH value of a solution is equal to 7 it is a neutral solution

What is pH scale?
The pH scale consists of values which range from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very
alkaline). The numbers on the scale help to determine the hydrogen ion
concentration.

What is pH paper?
pH paper can help us to know if a solution is basic, acidic or neutral. When the
pH paper is dipped into a solution whose pH has to be determined, a colour
will be developed. This colour is compared with the standard pH colour chart.
Instead of pH paper, we can also use universal indicator paper or universal
indicator solution.

What is universal indicator?

A universal indicator is a mix of pH indicator solutions that are designed to
determine the pH of solutions over a wide range of values. Put a drop of
solution on the universal pH indicator paper. The colour developed on the
paper is matched with the standard pH colour chart.

pH value chart:
Procedure:

1. Wash six test tubes with distilled water and put them on test tube stand
and label them A, B, C, D, E, F.
2. Add 2ml of CH3COOH in test tube A, Add 2ml of NaOH in test tube B, Add
2ml of NaCl in test tube C, Add 2ml of NaHCO3 in test tube D, Add 2ml of
Water in test tube E, Add 2ml of Lemon juice in test tube F.
3. Take white tile, place 6 pH paper and label them A, B, C, D, E, F.
4. Use a dropper or glass rod to put the respective sample solutions on the
labelled pH paper placed on the white tile.
5. Observe the colour change.

Observation:

Sample Colour on pH paper

A Orange

B Dark blue

C Green

D Light blue

E Green

F Pink

Result and Conclusion:

Test tube Solution pH colour paper pH Nature

Sample A CH3COOH Orange 3 Weak acid

Sample B NaOH Dark blue 14 Strong base

Sample C NaCl Green 7 Neutral

Sample D NaHCO3 Light blue 9 Weak base

Sample E Water Green 7 Neutral

Sample F Lemon juice Pink 2 Weak acid

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Use freshly prepared test sample for the experiment.

 The fruit juice sample should also be fresh to get the proper pH values.
 Glass rod or dropper used for one sample should be washed thoroughly
before using it for the other samples.
2. PROPERTIES OF ACETIC ACID

Aim:
To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid)-

1. Odour (Smell)
2. Solubility in water
3. Effect on litmus
4. Reaction with sodium bicarbonate

Materials required:

1. Test tube
2. Litmus paper
3. Dropper
4. Cork fit
5. Test tube stand
6. Water
7. Beaker
8. Acetic acid
9. Sodium bicarbonate
10.Distilled water
11.Lime water (freshly prepared)

Theory:
The chemical name of acetic acid is ethanoic acid and has the chemical formula
CH3COOH. The COOH group is called the carboxylic group which is responsible
for the properties of ethanoic acid. This acid freezes at 16.6° C hence called
glacial acetic acid. It smells like vinegar and dissolves in water. It is a weak acid
as it dissociates particularly in water. It reacts with alcohol to obtain ester. It
reacts with sodium bicarbonate to give carbon dioxide gas.
Procedure:

To determine the odour:

Step 1: Take a test tube of 10 mL.

Step 2: Add 5 mL of ethanoic acid into it

Step 3: Bring the test tube near your nose and smell it by wafting.

To check the solubility in water:

Step 1: Take a test tube of 20 mL.

Step 2: Add 2 mL of ethanoic acid to it

Step 3: Pour 10-15 mL of distilled water and mix it.

To determine the effect on litmus:

Step 1: Take a clean dropper

Step 2: Take a blue litmus paper

Step 3: Pour 2-3 drops of ethanoic acid on the litmus paper.

Reaction with sodium bicarbonate:

Step 1: Take a test tube of 5 mL.

Step 2: Add a pinch of sodium bicarbonate to it

Step 3: Pour 1 mL of dilute ethanoic acid into the test tube.

Step 4: To the mouth of the test tube fix a cork with a bent delivery tube

Step 5: The other end of the delivery tube is required to be dipped in lime
water.

Observation and results:

Properties Observation

Determination of odour Pungent/vinegar smell

Checking its solubility in water Dissolves in water

Determining the effect on Blue litmus paper turns red

litmus

Reaction with sodium A colourless gas is produced which turns the lime
bicarbonate water milky

Results:

1. Ethanoic acid or acetic acid or glacial acetic acid smells like vinegar.
2. Glacial acetic acid is water-soluble.
3. Ethanoic acid turns blue litmus paper red.
4. When acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate, carbon dioxide gas is
liberated.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Handle the solution with care.

 Add a small amount of sodium bicarbonate.
 Do not inhale the vapours of the chemicals.
 Lime water should be freshly prepared.
3.PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

What are Acids and Bases?

Acids are chemical substances which are characterized by a sour taste in an
aqueous medium. They have the tendency to turn blue litmus red. On the
other hand, bases are chemical substances which are characterized by a bitter
taste and are slippery to touch. Some bases are soluble in water, while others
are not.

Water soluble bases are known as alkalis. They have the tendency to turn red
litmus blue. Acids and bases react with a wide range of chemical compounds to
form salts.

Physical Properties of Acids and Bases

The physical properties of acids and bases are listed in the table below.

Properties Acids Bases

Mineral acids are colourless liquids but Bases are colourless except for
Colour the hydroxides of iron and
sometimes sulphuric acid becomes
yellow due to impurities. Some organic copper.
 acids are white-coloured solids.

Examples: benzoic acid

Taste Sour Bitter

Touch – Slippery

Some bases are soluble in

Solubility Soluble in water
water. They are called alkalis.

Physical Properties of Acid

 The word “acid” comes from the Latin word ‘acere’ which means sour.
This distinguishable property helps identify acids from other compounds
such as salt and bases. Many acids can be hazardous if ingested and
shouldn’t be tasted.
 Once the acid binds to the base, it becomes a neutral substance. Often
this reaction can lead to water and salt. This is often seen when strong
acids react with strong bases.
 Acids in an aqueous solution produce hydrogen ions which are
responsible for the conductivity of the solution. The acid that conducts
electricity strongly is a strong acid, and the acid that conducts electricity
weakly is a weak acid.

Chemical Properties of Acid and Bases

1. Reactions of Acids and Bases with Metals

When a metal reacts with an acid, it generally displaces hydrogen from the acids.
This leads to the evolution of hydrogen gas. The metals combine with the remaining
part of acids to form a salt. For example, the reaction of sulphuric acid with zinc.

𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2

Alkalis (bases that are soluble in water) react with metals to produce salt and
hydrogen gas. For example, reaction of zinc with sodium hydroxide.

2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝑍𝑛 → 𝑁𝑎2𝑍𝑛𝑂2 + 𝐻2
2. The Reaction of Metal Carbonates/Metal Bicarbonates with
Acids
Metal carbonates/metal bicarbonates react with acids to produce salt, carbon dioxide
and water. For example the reaction of sodium carbonate/sodium bicarbonate with
hydrochloric acid.

𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2

3. The Reaction of Metal Oxide with Acids

Metal oxides react with acids to produce salt and water. For example reaction of
copper oxide and dilute hydrochloric acid.

𝐶𝑢𝑂 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2

4. The Reaction of Non-metal Oxide with Bases

Non-metal oxides react with bases to produce salt and water. For example the
reaction of carbon dioxide and lime water (calcium hydroxide)

𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎 (𝑂𝐻)2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2𝑂

5. The Reaction between Acids and Bases

Acids react with bases to produce salt and water. The reaction between acids and
bases to give salts is known as neutralization reactions. For example the reaction of
sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid.

𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2𝑂

Neutralization of Acid and Base

The reaction between an acid and a base invariably gives salt and water and is
called neutralization. In a neutralization reaction, one H+ ion of acid is neutralized by
one OH– ion of the base. When all the H+ ions in the acidic solution are neutralized by
the same number of OH– ions of the basic solution, it is called complete
neutralization. The relative amounts of acid and base required for complete
neutralization depend upon the total number of H+ and OH– ions produced by the
respective acid and base.
Comparative Study of Properties of Acids and Bases
A comparative study of properties of acids and bases is given below in table.

H2SO4 absorbs water from skin tissues.

Corrosive action on skin: All acids and HNO3 reacts with skin proteins to form a
some alkalies show corrosive action on pulp like mass. NaOH and KOH are called
skin as they form painful blisters when caustic soda and caustic potash,
they come in contact with the skin. respectively due to their causticizing action
on the skin.

Reactions taking place between acids and

bases: All acids react with alkalis (metal
hydroxides) to form salt and water. The 2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O
reaction of an acid with a base to form salt
and water as the products is called Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
neutralization.
4.REACTIVITY SERIES

Aim:

1. Observing the action of zinc, iron, copper and aluminium metals for the
following salt solutions.
a. Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)
b. Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
c. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4)
d. Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3)
2. Arranging the metals Zinc, Copper, Iron, and Aluminium in the
decreasing order of reactivity based on the results obtained from the
above.

Materials required:

1. Aluminium foil
2. Zinc granules
3. Copper turnings
4. Iron filings
5. Copper sulphate solution
6. Aluminium sulphate solution
7. Zinc sulphate solution
8. Four 50ml beakers
9. Test tube
10.Test tube stand

Theory:

What is reactivity series?

Different metals have different reactivities with chemical reagents. The metals
form positive ions by losing electrons more readily. A more reactive metal
displaces a less reactive metal from salt solution. Such reactions are
called displacement reactions. Consider an example, if a small amount of zinc is
dipped in copper sulphate solution, zinc is displaced from copper sulphate. The
blue colour of copper sulphate fades and colourless zinc sulphate solution is
obtained. Therefore, zinc is more reactive than copper.

 Aluminium has the ability to displace zinc, iron, copper from their
respective salt solutions and therefore is more reactive than them.
Reactions:

2Al(s) + 3ZnSO4(aq) –→ Al2(SO4)3 + 3Zn(s)

2Al(s) + 3FeSO4(aq) –→ Al2(SO4)3 + 3Fe(s)

2Al(s) + 3CuSO4(aq) –→ Al2(SO4)3 + 3Cu(s)

 Zinc has the ability to displace iron, copper from their respective salt
solutions and therefore is more reactive than them.
Reactions:

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) –→ ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

Zn(s) + FeSO4(aq) –→ ZnSO4 (aq) + Fe(s)

Zn(s) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) –→ no reaction

Zn(s) + ZnSO4(aq) –→ no reaction

 Iron has the ability to displace copper from its salt solution and
therefore is more reactive when compared to Cu.
Reactions:

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) –→ FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

Fe(s) + FeSO4(aq) –→ no reaction

Fe(s) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) –→ no reaction

Fe(s) + ZnSO4(aq) –→ no reaction

No reaction occurs when any of the metals from zinc, iron, aluminium, and
copper are placed in aqueous solution of Al2(SO4)3.

Therefore, from the above, we can conclude the reactivity of elements in the
following order –
  Aluminium is more reactive than zinc.
 Zinc is more reactive than Fe.
 Fe is more reactive than Cu.
Hence, Aluminium is the most reactive and Copper being the least reactive
metal.

The below table gives you an understanding of the colours exhibited by the
metals and their salts:

Compound name Formula Colour

Aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3 Colourless

Copper sulphate CuSO4 Blue

Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 Colourless

Ferrous sulphate FeSO4 Light green

Copper Cu Reddish brown

Aluminium Al White

Zinc Zn Silver white

Iron Fe Blackish grey

Experimental Setup:
Procedure:

1. Wash four beakers with distilled water, dry them and label them A, B, C,
D.
2. Prepare 50 mL solution with 5% concentration by volume of ferrous
sulphate, aluminium sulphate, copper sulphate, zinc sulphate.
3. Pour ZnSO4 in beaker A, FeSO4 in beaker B, CuSO4 in beaker C, and add
Al2(SO4)3 in beaker D.
 4. Wash four test tubes with distilled water and dry them.
5. Put them in a test tube stand and label them as A, B, C and D as shown in
the figure above.
6. Take 10 mL of the saturated ferrous sulphate (FeSO4), copper sulphate
(CuSO4), zinc sulphate (ZnSO4), and aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3 ) in the
test tube as shown in the figure.
7. Take metal strips of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn).
Clean them with sandpaper before using them in the experiment.
8. Now dip one of the four metal strips in all the four test tubes and
observe if any colour change occurs in all four test tubes.
9. Continue step 8 with other metal strips by dipping in fresh aqueous
solutions of metals and see the displacement reaction.

Observation:
Metal Dipped Observation
in

Al ZnSO4 No change in the solution. Zinc metal which is greyish accumulates on

Aluminium metal.

Al CuSO4 Blue solution becomes colourless. Copper metal which appears

reddish brown gets accumulated.

Al Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Al FeSO4 Green solution becomes colourless. Iron metal which appears greyish
black gets accumulated.

Fe ZnSO4 No reaction.
Fe CuSO4 Solution becomes light green. Copper metal which appears reddish
brown gets accumulated.

Fe Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Fe FeSO4 No reaction.

Zn ZnSO4 No reaction.

Zn CuSO4 Blue solution turns colourless. Reddish brown coppers accumulates on

zinc metal.

Zn Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Zn FeSO4 Light green solution turns colourless. Greyish black iron accumulates
on zinc metal.

Cu ZnSO4 No reaction.

Cu CuSO4 No reaction.

Cu Al2(SO4)3 No reaction.

Cu FeSO4 No reaction.
Result and Conclusion:
Metals Inference

Aluminium Aluminium displaces zinc, copper, and iron from their solutions. Aluminium
is the most reactive metal.

Zinc Zinc displaces copper, and iron from their solutions. Zinc is more reactive
than Cu and Fe metal.

Iron Iron displaces copper from its solution. Therefore, copper is less reactive
than iron.

Copper Copper does not displace any metal therefore it is the least reactive.

The decreasing order of reactivity of metals is as follows:

Al

Zn

Fe

Cu

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Use cleanly washed and dried apparatus for the experiment.

 Clean the metals before dipping them in the solution. You can clean it
with sandpaper.
 Use small quantities of aluminium sulphate, iron sulphate, copper
sulphate and copper sulphate solutions for the experiment.
 Handle the chemicals with care and do not allow them to come in
contact with your skin.
 Make sure you wash the test tubes after every observation.
5.CLEANING ACTION OF SOAP

Aim:
The aim of this experiment – Study the comparative cleaning capacity of a
sample of soap in soft and hard water.

Materials required:

1. Test tube (2)

2. Measuring cylinder
3. Test tube stand

Theory:
Soap is the potassium or sodium salt of long chain carboxylic acid. The basic
structure consists of a long hydrophobic hydrocarbon end and a hydrophilic
anionic end. The hydrophobic end is the tail whereas the hydrophilic end is the
head. Emulsion in water is formed when the ionic end of the soap molecule is
towards the water and the non-ionic end of the soap molecule is towards oil.

What is soft water?

The water which has no salt in it is called soft water. When soap is used in soft
water it generates foam which is a cleansing property and removes dirt
particles from clothes. Therefore, this water is suitable for washing.

What is hard water?

The water which has dissolved salts such as calcium or magnesium in it is called
hard water. When soap is used in soft water it does not generate foam.
Therefore, this water is unsuitable for washing.

Experimental Setup:

Procedure 1:

1. Take a test tube and mark it as X.

2. Add 10 mL of soft water in it.
3. Take another test tube and mark it Y.
 4. Add 10 mL of hard water in the test tube Y.
5. Add a few drops of soap solution in both the test tubes.
6. Shake the test tubes X and Y strongly for an equal amount of time.
7. Place both the test tubes on the test tube stand.
8. Observe and record the results.

Observation and results:

Test tube Observation

X Forms lather

Y White precipitate is formed

Results:

 The test tube which is marked X forms foam when mixed with soap
solution.
 The test tube which is marked Y does not form foam but forms a white
precipitate when mixed with soap solution.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Make sufficient amount of soap solution so that the same solution is

used for soft water as well as hard water.
 Add equal amount of soap solution to both the test tubes.
 Take equal concentration test tubes.
 Mix the soap solution added to the test tubes in a similar pattern and for
equal period of time.

Procedure 2:

1. Take a test tube and mark it as P.

2. Add 10 mL of soft water in it.
3. Add one drop of cooking oil.
4. Take a test tube and mark it as Q.
 5. Add 10 mL of hard water in it.
6. Add one drop of cooking oil.
7. Add a few drops of soap solution to P and Q.
8. Shake the test tubes P and Q strongly for an equal amount of time.
9. Place both the test tubes on the test tube stand.
10.Observe and record the results.

Observation and results:

Test tube Observation

P Oil emulsifies

Q No emulsification

Results:

 The test tube which is marked P emulsifies due to the presence of soap
solution.
 The test tube which is marked Q does not emulsify due to the presence
of soap solution.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Make a sufficient amount of soap solution so that the same solution is

used for soft water as well as hard water.
 Add an equal amount of soap solution to both the test tubes.
 Take equal concentration test tubes.
 Mix the soap solution added to the test tubes in a similar pattern and for
an equal period of time.
 Use the same cooking oil in both the test tubes.
6.TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

Aim
Performing and observing the actions of-

1. Water on quicklime
2. Heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
3. Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution
4. Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solution
On the following reactions-

1. Combination reaction
2. Decomposition reaction
3. Displacement reaction
4. Double displacement reaction

Experiment 3(A) – Combination

Materials Required

1. Quick lime (Calcium oxide)

 2. Borosil beaker
3. Glass rod
4. Distilled water
5. Dropper
6. Test tube
7. Litmus paper strips

Theory
When calcium oxide is mixed in water it dissolves and forms calcium hydroxide
(basic in nature). During this reaction, a lot of heat is liberated and therefore, it
is called an exothermic reaction. The equation is as follows:

CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat ………(1)

Due to the basic nature of calcium hydroxide, it turns red litmus paper blue in
colour. When carbon dioxide gas is passed through the calcium hydroxide the
solution turns milky white.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

In the reaction (1) slaked lime is formed by combining two products viz, quick
lime and water. Therefore, when two or more than two substances combine to
give a single product it is termed as combination reaction. The reactions
accompanied by the evolution of heat are called exothermic reactions.

Procedure

1. Wash a borosil beaker with distilled water and dry it.

2. Take a small amount of calcium oxide (quick lime) and slowly add water
to it.
3. Wash and take a clean glass rod to stir the mixture of quick lime and
water.
4. Touch the beaker carefully from outside.
5. Observe the change.
6. With the help of dropper take a few drops of the mixture from the
beaker and place it on red and blue litmus paper strips.
7. Wait and observe.
Observation
Experiment Observation

Mixture in A hissing sound is heard during the reaction when water is added to
beaker the beaker containing quick lime. Due to the evolution of heat during
the reaction the temperature increases and makes the solution hot.

Solution on Drops on the red litmus paper strip change the colour of the paper to
litmus paper blue whereas there is no colour change observed on the blue litmus
paper.

Result and Conclusion

From the above experiment we can conclude that the reaction occurred
between calcium oxide (Quick lime) and water combine to produce one single
product slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is called combination reaction as well as an
exothermic reaction.

Precautions to be taken during the Experiment

 Take a small amount of compound such as quick lime to perform the

experiment.
 Since the reaction is exothermic avoid touching the mixture directly.
 Carefully pour water into the borosil beaker containing calcium oxide
(quick lime).
 Calcium oxide causes severe burns and therefore it should be handled
with a spatula.
 Use good quality glass beaker during the experiment because if the
beaker is of poor quality then there are chances of crack on the beaker
due to the exothermic reaction.