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IKS - Notes On Predicatghjke Logic, Quanhgdfhjtifiers, Variables, and Logical Connectives

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24 views3 pages

IKS - Notes On Predicatghjke Logic, Quanhgdfhjtifiers, Variables, and Logical Connectives

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supervision1790
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Notes on Predicate Logic, Quantifiers, Variables, and Logical Connectives

In Predicate Logic, also known as First-Order Logic, we expand upon propositional logic by
dealing with predicates and quantifiers. While propositional logic deals with simple true/false
statements, predicate logic allows us to reason about objects and their properties.

1. Predicates and Variables

● Predicates: A predicate is a function that returns a truth value (true or false) when
applied to objects.
○ Example: P(x) could mean "x is a student," where P is the predicate and x is the
variable.
● Variables: These represent objects or elements in a domain. Variables can be
quantified, meaning they range over all objects in a domain.

2. Quantifiers

Quantifiers specify how many objects in a domain satisfy a predicate.

a) Universal Quantifier ∀

● Symbol: ∀ (for all)


● Meaning: A statement with the universal quantifier ∀x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for
every possible value of x in the domain.
○ Example: ∀x (x≥0), meaning "for all x, x is non-negative."

b) Existential Quantifier ∃

● Symbol: ∃(there exists)


● Meaning: A statement with the existential quantifier ∃x P(x) is true if there is at least
one value of xxx in the domain that makes P(x) true.
○ Example: ∃x (x2=9), meaning "there exists some x such that x2 = 9."

c) Negation of Quantifiers:

● ¬∀x P(x)≡∃x ¬P(x): The negation of a universally quantified statement becomes an


existential statement.
● ¬∃x P(x)≡∀x ¬P(x): The negation of an existentially quantified statement becomes a
universal statement.

3. Logical Connectives in Predicate Logic

Just like in propositional logic, predicate logic uses connectives such as:

● Conjunction (∧): "and"


● Disjunction (∨): "or"
● Negation (¬): "not"
● Implication (→): "if...then"
● Biconditional (↔): "if and only if"

These connectives combine predicates or quantified statements to form more complex logical
expressions.

4. Domain of Discourse

The domain of discourse refers to the set of objects over which variables can range. When we
write statements involving quantifiers, the domain specifies the possible values that variables
can take.

5. Examples of Predicate Logic Expressions

● ∀x (P(x)→Q(x)): For all x, if P(x) is true, then Q(x) is true.


● ∃y (P(y)∧Q(y)): There exists some y such that both P(y) and Q(y) are true.

Solved Examples

Example 1: Negating Quantified Statements

Problem: Negate the statement ∀x (P(x)∨Q(x)).

Solution: To negate the universal quantifier, we apply the rule:

¬∀x (P(x)∨Q(x))≡∃x ¬(P(x)∨Q(x))

Next, use De Morgan's law on the inner negation:

∃x (¬P(x)∧¬Q(x))
So, the negation of ∀x (P(x)∨Q(x)) is ∃x (¬P(x)∧¬Q(x)).

Example 2: Translating Statements into Predicate Logic

Problem: Translate the following statement into predicate logic:


"All students in the class have completed the assignment."

Solution: Let:

● S(x): x is a student in the class.


● A(x): x has completed the assignment.
The statement can be written as:

∀x (S(x)→A(x))

This means "for every x, if x is a student, then x has completed the assignment."

Example 3: Verifying the Truth of a Predicate Statement

Problem: Let the domain of discourse be all integers. Verify whether the statement ∀x (x2≥0) is
true.

Solution: The statement says that for every integer x, x2≥0. Since the square of any integer
(whether positive, negative, or zero) is always non-negative, the statement is true.

Example 4: Finding Counterexamples

Problem: Prove that the statement ∀x (x2>x) is false, where the domain of discourse is all real
numbers.

Solution: To disprove a universal quantification, it suffices to find a counterexample.


Let x=1. Then, x2=1 and x=1.
Since 12=1 is not greater than 1, the statement is false.

Practice Exercises

1. Negate the following predicate logic statements:


a. ∀x (P(x)→Q(x))
b. ∃x (P(x)∧¬Q(x))
2. Translate the following English sentences into predicate logic:
a. "There exists a number that is both even and prime."
b. "Every person who exercises is healthy."
3. Verify the truth of the following predicate logic statements, assuming the domain is
the set of integers:
a. ∀x (x+1>x)
b. ∃x (x2=2)
4. Find a counterexample to the statement ∀x (x3>x), where the domain is the set of real
numbers.
5. Express the following statements in predicate logic:
a. "There is at least one student who has not submitted the assignment."
b. "All dogs are mammals, and some mammals are carnivores."

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