7th - Social - Science - Term - I - EM - WWW - Tntextbooks.in

www.tntextbooks.
in
GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
STANDARD SEVEN
TERM - I
VOLUME - 3
SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
VII Std Science Term-1 EM Introduction Pages.indd 1 06/01/2022 01:45:45

www.tntextbooks.in
Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020, 2022
(Published under New Syllabus in

Trimester Pattern)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2019
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II
VII Std Science Term-1 EM Introduction Pages.indd 2 06/01/2022 01:45:45

www.tntextbooks.in
SOCIAL SCIENCE
TERM - I
VOLUME - 3
7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 99 06/01/2022 03:17:23

www.tntextbooks.in
CONTENTS
History
Unit Titles Page No. Month
1. Sources of Medieval India 102 June
2. Emergence of New Kingdoms in North India 110 July

Emergence of New Kingdoms in South India:
3. 122 August
Later Cholas and Pandyas
August &
4. The Delhi Sultanate 134
September
Geography
1. Interior of the Earth 145 June
2. Landforms 155 July
3. Population and Settlement 163 August
Civics
1. Equality 172 June
2. Political Parties 177 August
Economics
1. Production 186 July
E - Book Assessment
100

www.tntextbooks.in
HISTORY

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -1
Sources of
Medieval India
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with

Sources of the study of medieval India
Temples, mosques, tombs, palaces and forts as important sources
Literary and inscriptional texts
Accounts of Arab and Turkish travellers
Introduction:
Do you know the famous words of Khafi
The periods from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 Khan, a courtier of Emperor Aurangzeb?
and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified He says, ‘It is the duty of an historian to
as Early Medieval and Later Medieval periods, be faithful, to have no hope of profit, no
respectively, in Indian history. Numerous and fear of injury, to show no partiality on one
varied sources are fortunately available to the side, or animosity on the other, to know no
historians engaging in the study of Medieval difference between friend and stranger, and
India. Added to the information that can be to write nothing but with sincerity.’
gleaned from inscriptions, monuments and
coins are the accounts left by Arab, Persian and Sources
Turkish chroniclers. These accounts are rich in Sources are the supporting materials,
detail and have given first-hand information on documents or records in the form of evidence
the life of kings, though they provide very little that help to reconstruct the past.
information on the life of the common people.
The opinions of the courtiers and chroniclers Classification of Sources
are often one-sided, written in a hyperbolic
language, exaggerating the king’s achievements.
Let us now explore the various sources available Primary Sources Secondary Sources
for the study of the history of Medieval India.
102

www.tntextbooks.in
We examine the details of political,

economic and socio-cultural developments
with the aid of sources.
Primary Sources: Inscriptions, monuments
and coins, and the information available in
them.
Copper plate Inscription
Secondary Sources: Literary works, chronicles,
In stone inscriptions, the beneficence of a
travelogues, biographies and autobiographies.
donor is recorded. The major focus is upon the
Inscriptions giver. Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola
Inscriptions are writings engraved on I and the Anbil plates of Sundara Chola are
solid surfaces such as rocks, stones, temple notable examples. Uttiramerur inscriptions
walls and metals. The king’s royal decrees, in Kanchipuram district provide details of the
dedications and donations, monuments raised way in which the village administration was
in commemoration of victories in wars, those conducted.
built in memory of deceased warriors, contain Various types of lands gifted by the Chola
rich information about the concerned era. kings are known from the inscriptions and
Copper-plate grants, which were treated as copper plates. They are:
legal documents, have significant source value. land of non-brahmin
Vellanvagai
The Islamic-Persian practices and the relatively proprietors
high cost of copper plates made palm leaf and Brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmins
paper cheaper alternatives from 13th century land for the maintenance of
Shalabhoga
onwards. a school
Devadana land gifted to temples
land donated to Jaina
Pallichchandam
institutions
Monuments
Temples, palaces,
mosques, tombs, forts, minars
and minarets are called by the
collective name monuments.
Rock Inscription
Several copper-plate grants issued during
the later Chola period (10th to 13th century)
record gifts to individual priests or teachers who
were Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina, or to persons
of eminence. Both the giver and the receiver
are very elaborately described. By contrast,
most stone inscriptions differ in their content. Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu
103

www.tntextbooks.in
The Sultans of Delhi introduced a new type The forts of historical importance are Agra
of architecture. The monuments they built had Fort, Chittor Fort, Gwalior Fort and Delhi
arches, domes and minarets as the main features. Red Fort as well as the forts of Daulatabad
The inscriptions in these monuments contain (Aurangabad) and Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi).
rich information, which can be used to construct Palaces in Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur signify
history. The medieval Khajuraho monuments the greatness of the Rajput dynasty that wielded
(Madhya Pradesh) and temples in Konark enormous power from these places. Qutb Minar
(Odisha) and Dilwara (Mt.Abu, Rajastan) and Alai-Darwaza, the tombs of Iltutmish,
constitute valuable sources to understand the Balban and all the Mughal rulers are the other
religion-centered cultural evolution in northern prominent structures recognised as valuable
India. Temples in Thanjavur (Brihadeshwara), sources of information. Cities in ruin such as
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram Firozabad and Tughlaqabad in north India and
symbolise the magnificent structures the Hampi in south India remain rich repositories
Later Cholas built in Tamil Nadu. Vitala and of the history of medieval India.
Virupaksha temples at Hampi similarly speak
Coins
of the contribution of Vijayanagara rulers (15th
century). The portrait and the legend on the coins
convey the names of kings with their titles,
events, places, dates, dynasties and Royal
emblems. The composition of metals in the coins
gives us information on the economic condition
of the empire. Mention of king’s achievements
like military conquests, territorial expansion,
trade links and religious faith can also be found
in the coins.
Hampi - Vijayanagar
Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, Muhammad Ghori had stamped the figure
Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri Dargah (all in and of Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and had
around Delhi) and Charminar (Hyderabad) his name inscribed on it. This coin tells us that
are the important mosques belonging to the this early Turkish invader was in all likelihood
medieval times. liberal in religious outlook.
Copper Jitals are available for the
study of the period of the Delhi Sultans.
Charminar Lakshmi Coin of Ghori Coins of Khalji

104

www.tntextbooks.in
Silver Tanka introduced by Iltutmish, Ala- Rajput king’s valour. For pre-Islamic periods,
ud-din Khalji’s gold coins, Muhammad-bin- the only exception was Kalhana’s Rajtarangini
Tughluq’s copper token currency are indicative (11th century).
of coinage as well as the economic prosperity or Books, Biographies and Autobiographies
otherwise of the country of the time.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, patronised by Sultan
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty, wrote
A jital contained 3.6 grains of
Tabakat-i-Nasiri. The compendium deals with
silver. Forty-eight jitals were
the period from the conquest of Muhammad
equal to 1 silver tanka.
Ghori to A.D. (CE) 1260. The compendium
was named after his patron. In the 13th century,
Hasan Nizami, a migrant from Ghazni wrote.
Taj-ul-Ma’asir towards the end of Iltutmish’s
rule. It provides information about Qutb-ud-
din Aibak and is considered the first official
Religious Literature history of the Delhi Sultanate. Zia-ud-din
Barani, a courtier of Muhammad Tughluq,
Devotional movement in South India and
wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, in which he dealt
later in North resulted in the development
with the history of Delhi Sultanate from Ghiyas-
of bhakti or devotional literature. The
ud-din Balban to the early years of the reign of
Chola period was known as the period of
Firoz Shah Tughluq. Ferishta’s Tarikh-i-Frishta
devotional literature and works such as
(16th century) deals with the history of the rise
Kamba Ramayanam, Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam,
of the Mughal power in India.
Nalayira Divyaprabhandham, composed by
12 Azhwars and compiled by Nathamuni, Tabakat is an Arabic word meaning
Devaram composed by Appar, Sambandar 'generations or centuries'.
and Sundarar and compiled by Nambiyandar Tuzk is a Persian word meaning
Nambi, Manikkavasakar’s Thiruvasagam, all 'autobiography'.
were scripted during the Chola times. Jayadeva’s Tarikh or Tahquiq are Arabic words
Gita Govindam (12th century) was a follow-up meaning 'history'.
of the Bhakti Movement in South India. Kabir
Das, a 15th century mystic poet, also had an In the 16th century, emperor Babur’s
influence on the Bhakti Movement in India. Babur Nama and Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari and
Secular Literature Akbar Nama provided detailed information
about these two emperors. In the 17th century,
Madura Vijayam and Amuktamalyatha
Jahangir wrote his memoir, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri,
were poems composed by Gangadevi and
throwing a lot of light on the period. Apart from
Krishnadevaraya respectively that help us
autobiographies of emperors, Tabakat-i-Akbari,
gain insight into the events and individuals
authored by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, is
associated with the Vijayanagara Empire.
considered reliable than the exaggerated account
Chand Bardai’s Prithiviraj Raso portrays the
105

www.tntextbooks.in
of Abul Fazal. Similarly, Badauni’s outstanding people and the countries he visited. According
work, Tarikh-i-Badauni (Badauni's History), to him, Egypt was rich then, because of the
was published in 1595. This work spans three whole of the Indian trade with the West passed
volumes. The volume on Akbar’s reign is a frank through it. Ibn Battuta tells us of caste in India
and critical account of Akbar's administration, and the practice of sati. We learn from him
particularly of his religious policy. that Indian merchants were carrying on a brisk
Travellers and Travelogues trade in foreign ports and Indian ships in the
seas. He describes the city of Delhi a vast and
Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited
magnificent city. Those were the days when
when the Pandya kingdom was becoming
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq transferred his
the leading Tamil power in the 13th century.
capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in
Marco Polo was twice in Kayal, which was a
the south, converting this city into a desert.
port city (presently in Thoothukudi district of
Tamilnadu). It was full of ships from Arabia
and China. Marco Polo tells us that he himself
came by a ship from China. According to Marco
Polo, thousands of horses were imported into
southern India by sea from Arabia and Persia.
Al-Beruni (11th century) accompanied
Mahmud of Ghazni in one of his campaigns, and
stayed in India for 10 years. The most accurate
account of Mahmud’s Somnath expedition is
that of Alberuni. As learned man and a scholar,
he travelled all over India trying to understand
India and her people. He learnt Sanskrit and Ibn Battuta
studied the philosophy of India. In his book In the South, Vijayanagar had many foreign
Tahquiq-i-Hind, Alberuni discussed the Indian visitors who left behind their detailed accounts of
conditions, systems of knowledge, social norms the state. An Italian named Nicolo Conti came in
and religion. 1420. Abdur-Razzaq came from Heart (the court
Ibn Battuta (14th century), an Arab-born of Great Khan in Central Asia) in 1443. Domingo
Morocco scholar, travelled from Morocco Paes, a Portuguese traveller, visited the city in
right across North Africa to Egypt and then to 1522. All of them recorded their observations,
Central Asia and India. His travelogue (Rihla which are very useful for us today to know the
[The Travels]) contains rich details about the glory of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Summary
The period from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified as Early
Medieval and Later Medieval periods in Indian history.
Sources are classified as primary and secondary sources.
106

www.tntextbooks.in
Inscriptions on stones, rocks and temple walls and copper-plate grants with royal orders and
events in the courts, which have evidentiary value are dealt with.
Temples, palaces, mosques, tombs, forts, minars and minarets, collectively known as monuments,
belonging to early Medieval and Mughal periods, are highlighted.
The coins of Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji and copper coins of the later Islamic rulers are
discussed.
Devotional literature belonging to the era of Bhakthi Movement is provided.
Books, biographies and autobiographies that provide information about the political, social and
economic conditions of the medieval times are detailed.
Travallers’ accounts mostly by the visiting Arab and Persian scholars are given in the end.
Glossary
a person who writes accounts of important
chronicler வரலாற்றுப் பதிவாளர்
historical events
animosity hostility, antagonism விர�ோதம், பகைமை
a book or illustrated account of the places visited
travelogue பயணக்குறிப்புகள்
and experiences encountered by a traveller
commemoration in remembrance of நினைவாக
elaborately in detail விரிவாக
minarets a tall tower, typically part of a mosque தூபிகள்
the places, buildings where materials are stored or
repositories களஞ்சியங்கள்
kept
portraits pictures , images in drawing or painting உருவப்படங்கள்
a collection of detailed information about a
compendium த�ொகுப்பு
particular subject , especially in a book
substantiate to prove with evidence சான்றுகளுடன் நிரூபித்தல்
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer 2. _____________ was the land gifted to

1. ____________ are the temples.
writings engraved on a) Vellanvagai b) Shalabhoga
solid surfaces such as c) Brahmadeya d) Devadana
rocks, stones, temple 3. _____________period was known as the
walls and metals. period of devotional literature.
a) Chronicles b) Travelogues a) Chola b) Pandya
c) Coins d) Inscriptions c) Rajput d) Vijayanagara
107

www.tntextbooks.in
4. _________ provides information about 4. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller,

the first Sultan of Delhi. visited the Chola Empire in 1522.
a) Ain-i-Akbari b) Taj-ul-Ma’asir V
Match the statement with the
c) Tuzk-i-Jahangiri d) Tarikh-i-Frishta reason
5. _____________ , an Arab-born Morocco Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
scholar, travelled from Morocco to India. 1) Assertion(A): Muhammad Ghori’s gold
a) Marco Polo b) Al Beruni coins carried the figure of Goddess
Lakshmi.
c) Domingo Paes d) Ibn Battuta
Reason(R): The Turkish invader was
II Fill in the Blanks liberal in his religious outlook.
1. ___________ inscriptions provide details a) R is the correct explanation of A.
about administration in a Brahmadeya b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
village.
c) A is wrong and R is correct.
2. ___________ had stamped the figure of
d) A and R are wrong.
Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and
had his name inscribed on it. 2) Find out the wrong pair
3. 3.6 grains of silver amounted to a) Madura Vijayam - Gangadevi
a ___________. b) Abul Fazal - Ain-i-Akbari
4. ______________ was patronised by Sultan c) Ibn Battuta - Tahquiq-i-Hind
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty. d) Amuktamalyatha - Krishnadevaraya
5. An Italian traveller _____________ visited 3) Find out the odd one
Vijayanagar Empire in 1420. a) Inscriptions b) Travelogues
III Match the following c) Monuments d) Coins
1. Khajuraho - Odisha
VI Answer the following in one or two
sentences
2. Konark - Hampi
1. Who compiled Nalayira Divyaprabhandham?
3. Dilwara - Madhya Pradesh
2. What does the word Tuzk mean?
4. Virupaksha - Rajasthan
3. Name Jahangir’s memoir.
IV State true or false 4. Name the two different types of sources for
the study of history.
1. Pallichchandam was the land donated to
Jaina institution. 5. List out the important mosques and forts
constructed during the medieval times.
2. The composition of metal coins gives us
information on the political condition of 6. Mention the important foreign travellers who
the empire. visited India during the medieval period.
3. The high cost of copper made palm leaf and VII Answer the following in detail
paper cheaper alternatives for recording 1. Describe the different types of coins
royal orders and events in royal courts. introduced by the rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
108

www.tntextbooks.in
VIII Answer Grid

1. _____________ was a courtier of Emperor 2. Tiruvalangadu copper plates belong to
Aurangazeb. _________.
Ans: Ans:
3. ______ was the land for the maintenance 4. ______________ compiled Periyapuranam.
of the school.
Ans:
Ans:
5. ______ is an Arabic word meaning history. 6. Muhammed bin Tughluq transferred his capital
from Delhi to ________ in the south.
Ans:
Ans:
IX HOTs
1. The composition of metals in coins is indicative of the economic prosperity of the empire –
Substantiate.
X Student Activity
1. Prepare an album collecting pictures of palaces, tombs, mosques and forts of Medieval India.
XI Life skill
1. Find out from the libraries in your town or village and prepare a report about the primary and
secondary sources available there.
References
1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New Delhi:Penguin Group, 2014.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. K.A. Neelankanta Shastri, Cholas. Madras: University of Madras (Reprint).
4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Axis Books Private Ltd, 2013.
ICT CORNER
Sources of Medieval India
PROCEDURE :
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Click “India ” Option and then select any period (Ex. Medieval)
Step 3: Select any dynasty and then select any Kingdom (Ex. Sultanate)
Step 4: Explore the coins with pictorial descriptions.
Sources of Medieval India URL:

https://www.mintageworld.com/ (or) scan the QR Code
109

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -2
Emergence of
New Kingdoms in
North India
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge about the kingdoms of Rajputs and their

counterparts in North India
To assess the contributions of Rajputs and Palas to Indian culture
To know about the early military expeditions of Arabs and Turks
Introduction: of Sind (A.D. (CE)712) rather than in A.D.

(CE)1200. But the resistance shown by the
There are plenty of stories that speak of the valour
kings of Kanauj, especially of Yasovarman (A.D.
and chivalry of Rajputs. Rajput states formed
(CE)736) and later by the Rajput chiefs and
a collective entity that was called Rajputana.
kings who held Kanauj and most of northern
Chittor was prominent and had become the
India until the middle of the 10th century made
rallying point for all Rajput clans. It was small
it impossible.
compared to Malwa and Gujarat. Yet the Rajputs
ruled over these states. In commemoration
of the victory of Rana of Chittor over Malwa,
the Jaya Stambha, the tower of victory, was
built in Chittor. The Pratiharas and the Palas
had established their powerful kingdoms in
western India and in eastern India respectively.
By the 9th century, the Pratihara dynasty had
progressed to such an extent that it called itself
the sovereigns of Rajasthan and Kanauj. The
decline of Pratihara kingdom led to the rise of
Palas in Bengal and Chauhans in north-western
India. India’s Islamic period might have begun
in the immediate context of Arabs’ conquest Jaya Stambha
110

www.tntextbooks.in
Origin of the Rajputs Chandelas of Bundelkhand were prominent.

The word ‘Rajput’ is derived from the Tomaras were ruling in the Haryana region. But
Sanskrit word Rajputra, which means ‘scion of they were overthrown by the Chauhans in the
the royal blood’. After the death of Harsha in 12th century.
A.D. (CE) 647, various Rajput clans established
Thirty-six royal Rajput clans were listed
kingdoms in different parts of northern and
by the Oriental scholar James Tod in A.D. (CE)
central India. The Rajputs trace their pedigree far
1829. Among them four claimed a special status:
back into the past. Their three principal houses
are the Suryavanshi or the Race of the Sun, the the Pratiharas, the Chauhans, the Chalukyas
Chandravanshi or the Race of the Moon and the (different from the Deccan Chalukyas), known
Agnikula or the Race of Fire God. Among those as Solankis, and the Paramaras of Pawars. All
who claimed descent from solar and lunar lines, the four clans were of the Agnikula origin.
NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

N
W E
S
TOMARAS
DELHI
CHAUHANS Kanauj
KAMARUPA
PRATIHARAS
Nalanda
CHANDELAS
PARAMARAS
SOLANKIS PALAS
RASHTRAKUTAS
CHOLAS
Not to Scale
111

www.tntextbooks.in
Pratiharas centuries. Taking advantage of these internecine

The Pratiharas or Gurjara Pratiharas, one quarrels, many local kings succeeded in making
of the four prominent clans of the Rajputs, ruled themselves independent.
from Gurjaratra (in Jodhpur). In the 6th century Palas
A.D. (CE), Harichandra laid the foundation
Dharmapala (A.D. (CE) 770 - 810)
of the Gurjara dynasty. Nagabhatta I was the
first and prominent ruler of Pratiharas. In the Gopala, who founded the Pala dynasty,
8th century, he ruled over Broach and Jodhpur did not have royal antecedents. He was elected
and extended his dominion upto Gwalior. by the people for his superior capabilities.
He repulsed the invasion of the Arabs of Sind During his reign from 750 to 770, Gopala laid
from the east and checked their expansion. He the foundations for the future greatness of
was succeeded by Vatsaraja, who desired to this dynasty in Bengal. Dharmapala, his son,
dominate the whole of North India. His attempt made the Pala kingdom a powerful force in
to control over Kanauj brought him into conflict northern Indian politics. He led a successful
with the Pala ruler Dharmapala. campaign against Kanauj. He was a great
patron of Buddhism. He founded Vikramashila
There was a prolonged tripartite struggle Monastery, which became a great centre of
between the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, Buddhist learning.
the Rashtrakutas of Deccan and the Palas
of Bengal, as each one of them wanted to
establish their supremacy over the fertile
region of Kanauj. In the process, all the three
powers were weakened.
Vatsaraja’s successors Nagabhatta-II and

Rambhadra did not do anything impressively.
Vikramashila Monastery
Mihirabhoja or Bhoja, son of Rambhadra,
within a few years of his accession, succeeded Dharmapala was succeeded by his son,
in consolidating the power of the Pratiharas. As Devapala, who extended Pala control eastwards
a strong ruler, Bhoja was able to maintain peace into Kamarupa (Assam). Devapala was also a
in his kingdom. The Arab menace was firmly great patron of Buddhism. He gifted five villages
tackled by him. After Bhoja, the Pratihara to Buddhists. He also constructed many temples
Empire continued its full glory for nearly a along with monasteries in Magadha. According
century. to the historian R.C. Majumdar, ‘The reigns of
Dharmapala and Devapala constitute the most
Having successfully resisted the Arabs, the
brilliant chapter in the history of Bengal.’
Pratiharas turned their attention towards the
east and by the end of millennium, they ruled After Devapala, five rulers ruled the
over a large part of Rajasthan and Malwa. They region insignificantly. The kingdom attained
also held Kanauj for some time. The Rajputs unprecedented glory when Mahipala ascended
fought each other endlessly in the 11th and 12th the throne in 988.
112

www.tntextbooks.in
Mahipala I (988 - 1038) fought in 1191. However, he was defeated and

killed in the second battle of Tarain in 1192.
Mahipala I was the most powerful ruler of
the Pala dynasty. He is called the founder of the Contribution of Rajputs to Art and
second Pala dynasty. The decline of Pratiharas Architecture
gave the Palas an opportunity to take a leading Art
role in north Indian affairs. But he could not
Rajput courts were centres of culture where
extend his domain beyond Banaras because of
literature, music, dance, paintings, fine arts and
the impressive campaigns of the Chola king from
sculpture flourished. A specific style of Rajput
the South, Rajendra Chola. Mahipala restored
painting—often focusing on religious themes
the old glory of the Palas. He constructed and
emerged at Rajput courts. Their style of painting
repaired a large number of religious buildings
is called ‘Rajasthani’. The Rajasthani style
at Banaras, Sarnath and Nalanda.
of painting can be seen at Bikaner, Jodhpur,
The Pala dynasty declined soon after the Mewar, Jaisalmer (all in Rajasthan).
death of Mahipala and gave way to the Sena
dynasty.
The Chauhans
The Chauhans ruled between A.D. (CE)
956 and 1192 over the eastern parts of the
present-day Rajasthan, establishing their capital
at Sakambari. This Rajput dynasty was founded
by Simharaji, who was popularly known as the
founder of the city of Ajmer.
Rajasthani Painting
The Chauhans were the feudatories of
the Pratiharas and staunchly stood by them to
Architecture
check the Arab invasions. The last of Chauhan The Rajputs were great builders. Some
kings, Prithiviraj Chauhan, was considered of the important examples of the Rajput
the greatest of all Chauhan rulers. He defeated buildings are the strong fortresses of
Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain Chittorgarh. Ranathambhor and Kumbahlgarh
There is a long epic poem Prithvirajraso, composed by the bard Chand Bardai, a few
centuries later. The story goes like this: The daughter of the King of Kanauj was to marry.
A suyamwara (the bride choosing the bridegroom of her choice) was held to enable her
to choose her husband. But she was in love with Prithiviraj and desired to marry him.
Prithiviraj was the enemy of her father. In order to insult him, the King of Kanauj had not only denied
him an invitation but had placed a statue of Prithiviraj as door keeper at the entrance to his court. To
the shock of everyone assembled, the princess rejected the princes present and garlanded the statue
of Prithiviraj, indicating her choice. Prithiviraj, who had been hiding in the vicinity, jumped in and
rode away with the princess in a horse. Later both of them were married.
113

www.tntextbooks.in
Udaipur Lake Palace Jaipur Amber Fort Gwalior Palace
(all in Rajasthan), Mandu, Gwalior, Chanderi fine sculptures. These temples are dedicated to
and Asirgarh (all in Madhya Pradesh). Jain Tirthankaras and Hindu deities like Shiva
and Vishnu.
The examples of domestic architecture
of the Rajputs are the palaces of Mansingh at
Gwalior, the buildings at Amber (Jaipur) and
lake palaces at Udaipur. Many of the Rajput
cities and palaces stand among the hills in forts
or by the side of beautiful artificial lakes. The
castle of Jodhpur in Rajasthan is perched upon
a lofty rock overlooking the town.
The temples the Rajput rulers built have

won the admiration of art critics. The temples
in Khajuraho, the Sun temple in Konark, the
Dhilwara Jain temple constructed in Mount
Abu and Khandarya temple at Madhya Pradesh
are illustrious examples of their architecture.
The Khajuraho in Bundelkhand has 30

temples. The shikharas of the Khajuraho temples
are most elegant. The exterior and interior
parts of the temples are adorned with very Kajuraho
The Raksha Bandan (Rakhi) tradition is attributed to Rajputs. Raksha (protection) Bandhan (to
tie) is a festival that celebrates brotherhood and love. It is believed that if a woman ties a rakhi
around the wrists of male members, it means they are treating them like brothers. Such men are
placed under an obligation to protect them.
Rabindranath Tagore started a mass Raksha Bandhan festival during the Partition of Bengal
(1905), in which he encouraged Hindu and Muslim women to tie a rakhi on men from the other
community and make them their brothers. The exercise was designed to counter British efforts to
create a divide between Hindus and Muslims.
114

www.tntextbooks.in
There are sixteen Hindu and Jain temples

at Osian, which is 32 miles away from Jodhpur.
The Jain temple at Mount Abu has a white
marble hall and a central dome of 11 concentric
rings and richly carved vaulted ceiling and
pillars. Palm Leaf Painting of Palas
Advent of Islam
Islam as a religious faith originated at
Mecca in Arabia. The founder of Islam was
Prophet Muhammad. The followers of Islam
are called Muslims. An Islamic state, especially
the one ruled by a single religious and political
leader, was known as ‘Caliphate’. Caliph means
a representative of the Prophet Muhammad.
Two early Caliphates were ‘Umayyads’ and the
Temple at Osian
‘Abbasids’. Both the Umayyads and the Abbasids
Contribution of Palas to Culture expanded their rule separately by their conquests
The Palas were adherents to the Mahayana and by preaching the principles of Islam.
school of Buddhism. They were generous In the 8th century India, the Arab presence
patrons of Buddhist temples and the famous appeared in the form of a Muslim army that
universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. It conquered the Sind. But their further expansion
was through their missionaries that Buddhism was made impossible by the kings of Gangetic
was established in Tibet. The celebrated plains and the Deccan. By the end of the
Buddhist monk, Atisha (981-1054), who 9th century, with the decline of the Abbasid
reformed Tibetan Buddhism, was the president Caliphate, the Arab garrisons in India and
of the Vikramashila monastery. The Palas also elsewhere threw off Caliph’s control and began
maintained cordial relations with the Hindu- to rule independently.
Buddhist state of the Shailendras of Sumatra
The Turkish governor, Alp-Tegin, was
and Java.
one among them whose capital was Ghazni
Under Pala patronage, a distinctive school (Afghanistan). His successor and son-in-law
of art arose, called Pala art or Eastern Indian Sabuktigin wanted to conquer India from
art. Pala artistic style flourished in present- the north-west. But only his son Mahmud
day states of Bihar and West Bengal, and also succeeded in this endeavour.
in present-day Bangladesh. It was chiefly
represented by bronze sculptures and palm-leaf
Mahmud of Ghazni
paintings, celebrating the Buddha and other
(A.D. (CE) 997 -1030)
divinities. The Pala bronze sculptures from this Mahmud is said to have conducted 17 raids
area played an important part in the spread of into India. At that time, North India was divided
Indian culture in Southeast Asia. into number of small kingdoms. One of them was
115

www.tntextbooks.in
Arab Conquest of Sind and its Impact

In A.D. (CE) 712, Muhammad bin Qasim who was the commander of the Umayyad kingdom
invaded Sind. Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind, and killed him in the battle. The capital
of Sind, Aror, was captured. Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan. He organised the
administration of Sind. The people of Sind were given the status of ‘protected subjects’. There was
no interference in the lives and religions of the people. But soon Qasim was recalled by the Caliph.
The Arab scholars visited Sind and studied many Indian literary works. They translated many
Sanskrit books on astronomy, philosophy, mathematics and medicine into Arabic. They learnt
the numerals 0 to 9 from India. Until then, the people in the West did not know the use of zero.
Through the Arabs, Europe gained more knowledge in mathematics. The importance of zero was
learnt by them from India. It is believed that the people in the West and the Arabs learnt the game
of chess only from the Indians.
Arrival of Turks in India

Shahi kingdom, which extended from Punjab immolated himself because he thought that this
to Kabul. The other important kingdoms were defeat was a disgrace. His successor Anandapala
Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa and fought against Mahmud but was defeated in
Bundelkhand. The initial raids were against the battle of Waihind, near Peshawar, in 1008.
the Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud
was defeated in 1001. After his defeat, Jayapala extended his rule over Punjab.
116

www.tntextbooks.in
The subsequent raids turned his attention to India. Unlike Mahmud

of Mahmud into India were of Ghazni, he wanted to extend his empire
aimed at plundering the rich by conquering India. In 1175 Muhammad
temples and cities of North captured Multan and occupied whole of it in
India. In 1011 he raided his subsequent expeditions. In 1186 he attacked
Nagarkot in Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Punjab and captured it.
Delhi. The Battle of Tarain (1191 - 1192)
Realising the grave situation in which they
were caught, the Hindu princes of North India
formed a confederacy under the command of
Prithiviraj Chauhan. Prithiviraj rose to the
occasion and defeated Muhammad in the
battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191. This was
called the first battle of Tarain. To avenge this
Ruins of Somnath Temple
defeat, Muhammad made serious preparations
In 1018 Mahmud plundered the holy city and gathered a huge army. He arrived with his
of Mathura. He also attacked Kanauj. The ruler large force in Lahore via Peshawar and Multan.
of Kanauj, Rajyapala, abandoned Kanauj and He sent a message to Prithiviraj, asking him
later died. Mahmud returned with enormous to acknowledge his supremacy and become a
riches. His next important raid took place in Muslim. But Prithiviraj rejected the proposal
Gujarat. In 1024 A.D. (CE) Mahmud marched and prepared his army to resist the invader.
from Multan across Rajaputana and defeated Many Hindu kings and chieftains also joined
the Solanki king Bhimadeva I and plundered him. In the ensuing second battle of Tarain in
1192, Muhammad thoroughly routed the army
Anhilwad. Mahmud is said to have sacked the
of Prithiviraj who was captured and killed.
famous temple of Somanath, breaking the idol.
Then he returned through the Sind desert. That The second battle of Tarain was a major
was his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in disaster for the Rajputs. Their political prestige
1030 A.D. (CE) The Ghaznavid Empire roughly suffered a serious setback. The whole Chauhan
included Persia, Trans-Oxyana, Afghanistan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.
and Punjab. The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly
established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
Muhammad of Ghor (1149 - 1206)
the history of India began. After his victory over
Muhammad of Ghor or Muhammad Prithiviraj at Tarain, Muhammad returned to
Ghori started as a vassal of Ghazni but became Ghazni to deal with the threat from the Turks
independent after the death of Mahmud. Taking and the Mongols. After the death of Muhammad
advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid in 1206, his most capable general Qutb-ud-din
Empire, Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni Aibak who had been left behind in India took
under his control. Having made his position control of Muhammad’s territories in India and
strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad declared himself as the First Sultan of Delhi.
117

www.tntextbooks.in
Summary
After Harsha, new regional powers emerged. Prominent ruling dynasties among them were
Pratiharas, Palas, Chauhans and Paramaras.
Pratiharas and Palas were battling to control the northern plains. Their focus was on capturing
the city of Kanauj.
The continued conflict over the possession of Kanauj prompted the local chieftains and kings to
declare themselves independent.
The Rajputs and Palas made impressive contribution to the evolving Indian culture.
The attempts of Arabs to expand were resisted by various rulers.
Military raids of Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century followed by expeditions of Muhammad
of Ghor paved the way for the establishment of Islamic rule in India.
Glossary
scion a descendant of the notable family வாரிசு, வழித்தோன்றல்
unprecedented exceptional முன்னெப்போதுமில்லாத
internecine mutually destructive இருசாராருக்கும் நாசத்தை விளைவிக்கின்ற
portraiture the art of painting சித்தரிக்கும் கலை
elegant grand நேர்த்தியான
monastery a place where monks live மடாலயம்
confederacy a league or alliance of states கூட்டமைப்பு
Evaluation
4. What was the most important cause of the
invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni?
I. Choose the correct answer
a) To destroy idolatry
1. Who wrote Prithivirajraso? b) To plunder the wealth of India
c) To spread Islam in India
a) Kalhana
d) To establish a Muslim state in India
b) Vishakadatta
c) Rajasekara
II Fill in the blanks
d) Chand Bardai
1. _____________ was the founder of
2. Who was the first prominent ruler of
Vikramashila University.
Pratiharas?
2. Arabs conquered Sind in
a) Bhoja I b) Naga Bhatta I
________________.
c) Jayapala d) Chandradeva
3. The city of Ajmeer was founded by
3. Ghazni was a small principality in _______ ______________.
a) Mangolia b) Turkey 4. The Khandarya temple is in
c) Persia d) Afghanistan __________________________.
118

www.tntextbooks.in
III Match the following a) R is the correct explanation of A.
1. Khajuraho - Mount Abu b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
2. Sun temple - Bundelkhand c) A is correct and R is wrong.

d) A is wrong and R is correct.
3. Dilwara Temple - Konark
4. Assertion:- The second battle of Tarain
IV True or False was lost by Prithiviraj.
1. Rajputra is a Latin word. Reason:-There was disunity among the
2. King Gopala was elected by the people. Rajputs
3. The temple at Mount Abu is dedicated to
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
Lord Shiva.
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
4. Raksha Bandan is a festival of brotherhood.
c) A is correct and R is wrong.
5. Indians learnt the numerals 0 – 9 from
Arabs. d) A is wrong and R is correct.
5. Consider the following statements and
V Consider the following statements.
find out which is/are correct.
Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
1. R
aksha Bandan tradition is attributed to
1. Assertion:- The tripartite struggle was to
Rajputs.
have control over Kanauj.
2. Tagore started a mass Raksha Bandan
Reason:-Kanauj was a big city. festival during Partition of Bengal
a) R is the correct explanation of A. 3. R
aksha Bandan was to counter the
b) R is not the correct explanation of A. British attempt to create a divide
c) A is wrong and R is correct. between Hindus and Muslims.
d) A and R are wrong. a) 1 is correct.
2. Statement I. Mahipala could not extend b) 2 is correct.
his domain beyond Benaras. c) 3 is correct.
Statement II. Mahipala and Rajendra d) All the above are correct.
Chola were contemporaries. VI Answer in one or two sentences
a) I is correct. 1. Write about tripartite struggle over Kanauj.
b) II is correct. 2. Name any four Rajput clans.
c) I and II are correct. 3. Who was the founder of Pala dynasty?
d) I and II are false. 4. Mention the first two early Caliphates.
5. Name the ruler of Sind who was defeated
3. Assertion:- India’s Islamic period did not
by Qasim.
begin after Arab conquest of Sind in AD
(CE)712. VII Answer the following in detail
Reason:- Gurjara Pratiharas gave a stiff 1. What was the impact of Arab conquest of
resistance to Arabs. Sind? (point out any five)
119

www.tntextbooks.in
VIII HOTs
a. Difference between Mahmud Ghazni’s invasion and Muhammad Ghor’s invasion.
b. Find out
First battle of Tarain Second battle of Tarain
Fought in the year
Causes for the battle
Who defeated whom?
What was the result?
IX Students activity
a) Word Splash
(Students discuss what they know about the Harsha Rajputs

words given here. They use the words from Kanauj Vikramashila
what they have learnt in a narrative form) Prithiviraj Caliph
b) Time Line
Write the event for the given year in each column.
Advent of Islam in India
A.D.( C.E) 1192
A.D. ( C.E)1191
A.D. ( C.E) 1175
A.D. ( C.E) 1030
A.D. ( C.E)1001
A.D. ( C.E)712
X Map work
On the river map of India mark the territories ruled by Pratiharas, Chauhans, Palas and Paramaras.
120

www.tntextbooks.in
XI Answer Grid
1. W
ho was the Shahi ruler of Punjab 2. Rajput style of Painting is called _________
defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni? Ans:
Ans:
3. How many Rajput clans were there? 4. W
ho established the first Islamic empire in
Ans: India?
Ans:
5. Who was the first Sultan of Delhi? 6. Where is Mecca?
Ans: Ans:
XII Life skill

1. Make an album with the pictures of temples built by Rajput rulers.
References
1. Romila Thapar, Early India, New Delhi: Penguin, 2002.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India, New Delhi: Axis Books, 2013.
4. K.V Rajendra, Ancient and Medieval Indian History, New Delhi: Pacific Publication, 2010.
121

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -3
Emergence of New
Kingdoms in South India:
Later Cholas and Pandyas
Learning Objectives
To trace the origin of the later Cholas and the later Pandyas
To know about the prominent rulers of both the kingdoms
To acquaint with their administrative system
To understand the social, economic and cultural development during
their reign
I. The Later Cholas In the 9th century Vijayalaya, ruling over a

small territory lying north of the Kaveri, revived
Introduction
the Chola Dynasty. He conquered Thanjavur
The Cholas are one among the popular and and made it his capital. Later Rajendra I and his
well-known Tamil monarchs in the history of successors ruled the empire from Gangaikonda
South India. The elaborate state structure, the Cholapuram, the newly built capital.
extensive irrigation network, the vast number
Rajaraja I (A.D. (CE) 985 - 1014) was the
of temples they built, their great contributions
most powerful ruler of Chola empire and also
to art and architecture and their overseas
grew popular beyond his times. He established
exploits have given them a pre-eminent position
Chola authority over large parts of South India.
in history.
His much-acclaimed naval expeditions led to
Revival of the Chola Rule the expansion of Cholas into the West Coast and
The ancient Chola kingdom reigned Sri Lanka. He built the famous Rajarajeswaram
supreme with the Kaveri delta forming the (Brihadeshwara) Temple in Thanjavur. His son
core area of its rule and with Uraiyur (present- and successor, Rajendra Chola I (A.D. (CE)
day Tiruchirappalli) as its capital. It rose to 1014 - 1044, matched his father in his ability to
prominence during the reign of Karikala expand the empire. The Chola empire remained
but gradually declined under his successors. a powerful force in South India during his reign.
122

www.tntextbooks.in
After his accession, his striking military Kulothunga established himself firmly on the
expedition was to northern India, capturing Chola throne soon eliminating all the threats
much territory there. He proclaimed himself to the Chola Empire. He avoided unnecessary
the Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Gangai wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects.
region). The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon.
was built to commemorate his victories in North The Pandya territory also began to slip out of
India. The navy of Rajendra Chola enabled him Chola control. Kanchipuram was lost to the
to conquer the kingdom of Srivijaya (southern Telugu Cholas. The year 1279 marks the end
Sumatra). Cholas’ control over the seas of Chola dynasty when King Maravarman
facilitated a flourishing overseas trade. Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king
Rajendra Chola III and established the rule of
Decline of the Chola Empire
the Pandyas in present-day Tamil Nadu.
Rajendra Chola’s three successors were
Administration
not capable rulers. The third successor
Veerarajendra’s son Athirajendra was killed in The central administration was in the
civil unrest. With his death ended the Vijayalaya hands of king. As the head of the state, the king
line of Chola rule. enjoyed enormous powers. The king’s orders
were written down in palm leaves by his officials
or inscribed on the temple walls. The kingship
was hereditary in nature. The ruler selected his
eldest son as the heir apparent. He was known
as Yuvaraja. The Yuvarajas were appointed
as Governors in the provinces mainly for
administrative training.
The Chola rulers established a well-
organised system of administration. The
Ruins of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
empire, for administrative convenience, was
Matrimonial alliances between the divided into provinces or mandalams. Each
Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas began mandalam was sub-divided into naadus.
during the reign of Rajaraja I. His daughter Within each naadu, there were many kurrams
Kundavai was married to Chalukya prince (groups of villages). The lowest unit was the
Vimaladitya. Their son was Rajaraja gramam (village).
Narendra who married the daughter of
Local Governance
Rajendra Chola named Ammangadevi.
Their son was Kulothunga I. Local administration worked through
various bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar,
On hearing the death of Athirajendra, the Nagarattar and Nattar. With the expansion
Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya of agriculture, numerous peasant settlements
seized the Chola throne and began the rule came up on the countryside. They were known
of Chalukya-Chola dynasty as Kulothunga I. as Ur. The Urar, who were landholders acted as
123

www.tntextbooks.in
spokesmen in the Ur. Sabhaiyar in Brahman of qualified candidates from each ward were
villages also functioned in carrying out written on the palm-leaf slips and put into a
administrative, financial and judicial functions. pot. The eldest of the assembly would engage a
Nagarattar administered the settlement of boy to pull out one slip and declare his name.
traders. However, skilled artisans like masons, Various committees were decided in this way.
blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers and potters
Revenue
also lived in Nagaram. Nattar functioned as an
assembly of Nadu and decided all the disputes The revenue of the Chola state came
and issues pertaining to Nadu. mainly from the land. The land tax was known
as Kanikadan. The Chola rulers carried out
The assemblies in Ur, Sabha, Nagaram and
an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the
Nadu worked through various committees.
government’s share of the land revenue. One-
The committees took care of irrigation, roads,
third of produce was collected as land tax. It
temples, gardens, collection of revenue and
was collected mostly in kind. In addition to
conduct of religious festivals.
land tax, there were taxes on profession and
Uttiramerur Inscriptions tolls on trade.
Social Structure Based on Land

Relations
The Chola rulers gifted tax-free lands to
royal officials, Brahmins, temples (devadana
villages) and religious institutions. Land granted
to Jain institutions was called pallichchandam.
There were also of vellanvagai land and the
holders of this land were called Vellalars. Ulu-
kudi, a sub-section of Vellalar, could not own
Uttiramerur Inscriptions
land but had to cultivate Brahmadeya and
Uttiramerur presently vellanvagai lands. The holders of vellanvagai
in Kanchipuram district was land retained melvaram (major share in
a Brahmadeya village (land harvest). The ulu-kudi got kil-varam (lower
grants given to Brahmins). share). Adimai (slaves) and panicey-makkal
There is a detailed description (labourers) occupied the lowest rung of society.
of how members were elected to the committees In the intermediate section came the armed
of the village sabha in the inscriptions found men and traders.
there. One member was to be elected from
each ward. There were 30 wards in total. The
Irrigation
eligibility to contest was to men in the age Cholas gave importance to irrigation.
group of 35–70, well-versed in vedic texts and The 16-mile long embankment built by Rajendra
scriptures, and also owned land and house. The Chola in Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an
process of election was as follows: The names illustrious example. Vati-vaykkal, a criss-cross
124

www.tntextbooks.in
channel, is a traditional type of harnessing rain Cholas as Patrons of Learning

water in the Cauvery delta. Vati is a drainage
Chola kings were great patrons of learning.
channel and a vaykkal is the supply channel. The
Rajendra I established a Vedic college at
commonly owned village channel was called ur- Ennayiram (now in Villupuram District). There
vaykkal. The nadu level vaykkal is referred to as were 340 students learning the Vedas, grammar
nadu-vaykkal. The turn-system was in practice and Upanishads under 14 teachers. This example
in distributing the water. was later followed by his successors and as a result
Religion two more such colleges had been founded, at
Tirubuvanai near present-day Puducherry and
Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Hymns,
Tirumukkoodal in present-day Chengalpattu
in praise of the deeds of Lord Siva, were
district, in 1048 and 1067 respectively. The
composed by the Saiva saints, the Nayanmars.
great literary works Periyapuranam and
NambiyandarNambi codified them, which
Kamba Ramayanam belong to this period.
came to be known as the Thirumurai.
Trade
Temples
There was a flourishing trade during the
The Chola period witnessed an extensive
Chola period. Trade was carried out by two
construction of temples. The temples in guild-like groups: anju-vannattar and mani-
Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and gramattar. Anju-vannattar comprised West
Darasuram are the repository of architecture, Asians, Arabs, Jews, Christians and Muslims.
sculpture, paintings and iconography of the They were maritime traders and settled on the
Chola art. Temples during the Chola period port towns all along the West Coast. It is said
were not merely places of worship. They were that mani-gramattar were the traders engaged
the largest landholders. Temples promoted in inland trade. In due course, both groups
education, and devotional forms of art such merged under the banner of ai-nutruvar and
as dance, music and drama. The staff of the disai-ayirattu-ai-nutruvar functioning through
temples included temple officials, dancing the head guild in Ayyavole, Karnataka. This
girls, musicians, singers, players of musical ai-nutruvar guild operated the maritime
instruments and the priests. trade covering South-East Asian countries.
Big Temple Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple

125

www.tntextbooks.in
Through overseas trade with South-East Asian Narsimahvarman I. Inscriptions and copper
countries elephant tusks, coral, transparent plates praise his victory over his counterparts:
glass, betel nuts, cardamom, opaque glass, Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
cotton stuff with coloured silk threads were Arikesari Maravarman is identified with the
imported. The items exported from here were Kun Pandian, the persecutor of Jains.
sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious gems,
pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt. Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar
converted Arikesari from Jainism to Saivism.
II. The Later Pandyas On his conversion, Arikesari is alleged to
Introduction have impaled around 8000 Jains on stakes.
Pandyas were one of the three ancient Though the number is an exaggerated one,
Tamil dynasties that ruled southern India since the anti-Jain attitude of Arikesari after his
the 4th century B.C. (BCE) but intermittently. conversion to Saivism cannot be doubted.
Korkai, associated with pearl fisheries, is
After Arikesari, the greatest of the dynasty
believed to have been their early capital and
was Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan (Varaguna
port. They moved to Madurai later, as many
early Tamil inscriptions of Pandyas have been I) (756-815), the donor of the Velvikkudi plates.
unearthed in Madurai and its surroundings. Nedunjadayan expanded the Pandya territory
Under the Pandya kings of the Sangam Age, to include Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Salem
Madurai was a great centre of culture. Poets and Coimbatore districts. Nedunjadayan’s
and writers of Tamil language gathered there successors Srimara Srivallabha and Varaguna
and contributed to the development of Tamil II, were successively defeated by Pallavas. Later
Classics. The Pandyas had re-established their they could not face the rising Chola dynasty
strong position in south Tamil Nadu by the end under Parantaka I. Parantaka I defeated the
of the 6th century A.D. (CE), after eliminating Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the country
the rule of Kalabhras. But they could not resist in 920. Thus ended the Pandya rule revived by
the rising power of the later Cholas who ruled Kadungon.
South India from 9th to 13th century. Thereafter Rise of Later Pandyas (1190 - 1310)
taking advantage of the decline of Chola power,
The Chola viceroyalty became weak in
the later Pandyas re-established their authority.
Pandya country after the death of Adhirajendra
Their rule continued until 16th century.
(the last king of Vijayalaya line). Eventually
Revival of Pandya Kingdom the Pandya kingdom could emerge as the only
(A.D. (CE) 600 - 920) leading Tamil dynasty in the 13th century.
Kadunkon recovered Pandya territory from Madurai continued to be their capital. Now
the Kalabhras towards the close of 6th century. Kayal was their great port. Marco Polo, a famous
He was succeeded by two others. Arikesari traveller from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in
Maravarman was the first strong Pandya ruler 1288 and 1293. He tells us that this port town
who ascended the throne in A.D. (CE) 642. He was full of ships from Arabia and China and
was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I and bustling with business activities.
126

www.tntextbooks.in
There were two or three co-regents who ruled

Marco Polo hailed the Pandyan Kingdom as
simultaneously along with Sundarapandyan:
‘the richest and the most splendid province
VikramaPandyan and ViraPandyan. After
in the world’. Together with Ceylon, he
Sundarapandyan, MaravarmanKulasekaran
added, it ‘produced most of the gems and
ruled successfully for a period of 40 years , giving
pearls that are found in the world’. In his
the country peace and prosperity. He had two
travel account he recorded the incidents of
sons. The king’s appointment of ViraPandyan
sati and the polygamy practiced by the kings.
as a co-regent provoked the other son Sundara
Pandyan who killed his father Maravarman
Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
Kulasekaran. In the civil war that ensued,
The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya ViraPandyan won and became firmly
Kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman)
established in his kingdom. The defeated
Sundarapandyan (1251 to 1268). He brought
SundaraPandyan fled to Delhi and took refuge
the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, which
under the protection of Ala-ud-din Khalji. This
extended up to Nellore in Andhra. He held the
provided the opening for the invasion of Malik
Hoysalas in check. The Chera ruler, the chief of
Kafur.
Malanadu, accepted his feudatory position and
paid tribute to Sundarapandyan. Emboldened After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan
by the decline of the Chola state, the Boja King Kingdom came to be divided among a number
of Malwa region Vira Someswara challenged of kings from the main ruling Pandya’s family.
Sundarapandyan. In a war at Kannanur, In Madurai, a Muslim State subordinate to the
Sundarapandyan defeated Someswara. Delhi Sultan came to be established.
Sundarapandyan succeeded in establishing Polity and Society
his authority over the chieftains of Cuddalore,
State
Kanchipuram in northern Tamil Nadu, Arcot
and Salem in the western region. Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their
capital. Madurai has been popularly venerated
as Koodal. The kings are traditionally revered
as Koodal-kon, Koodal Nagar Kavalan. The
Pandyas derived military advantage over
their neighbours by means of their horses.
They imported these horses through Arabs
with whom they had commercial and cultural
contact.
The king claimed that he was ruling
according to Manu Sastra. This doctrine
supported the social hierarchy in the
society. Kings and local chiefs created
Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or
Coin of Pandya Kingdom
Chatur-vedi-mangalam with irrigation facilities.
127

www.tntextbooks.in
The actual landowning groups are described Vaigai and Tamiraparani, channels leading
as the Bumiputtirar, otherwise called the to the irrigation tanks were built. In southern
vellalar. Historically they were locals and Tamilnadu, like the Cholas, Pandyas introduced
hence they were referred to as nattu-makkal. the new irrigation technology. Irrigation works
The communal assembly of this group is were done by local administrative bodies,
Cittira Meli Periyanattar. local chiefs and officials. Repairs were mostly
Royal Officials undertaken by local bodies. Sometimes, traders
also dug out tanks for irrigation.
A band of officials executed the royal orders.
The prime minister was uttara-mantri. The Religion
historical personalities like Manickavasagar, Pandyas extended patronage to vedic
Kulaciraiyar and Marankari worked as practices. Velvikkudi copper plates as well as
ministers. The royal secretariat was known inscriptional sources mention the rituals like
as eluttu-mandapam. The most respected Asvameda yaga, Hiranya garbha and Vajapeya
officials were maran-eyinan, sattan-ganapathy, yaga, conducted by every great Pandya king.
enathi-sattan, tira-tiran, murthi-eyinan and The impartiality of rulers towards both Saivism
others. The titles of military commanders and Vaishnavism is also made known in the
were palli-velan, parantakan-palli-velan, invocatory portions of the inscriptions. Temples
maran-adittan and tennavan-tamilvel. of both sects were patronised through land
grant, tax-exemption and renovation.
Administrative Divisions
The great Saiva and Vaishnava saints
Pandy nadu, as in Chola state, consisted of
(Nayanmaras and Alwars) combined
many provinces known as vala-nadus, which,
contributed to the growth of Tamil literature
in turn, were divided into many nadus and
and spiritual enlightenment. The period was
kurrams. The administrative authorities of nadus
marked by intense religious conflict. The Bhakti
were the nattars. Nadu and Kurram contained
movement of the time prompted the heterodox
settlements, viz. mangalam, nagaram, ur and
scholars for a debate. Many instances of the
kudi, where different social groups inhabited.
defeat of Buddhists and Jains in such debates
Village Administration are mentioned in Bhakti literature. The Pandya
An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli kings of the period supported and promoted
district) dated A.D. (CE) 800 provides an Tamil and Sanskrit.
account of village administration. It looks Temples
similar to Chola’s local governance that included
Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did
village assemblies and committees. Both civil
not build any new temples but maintained
and military powers seem to have been vested
the existing temples, enlarging them with
in the same person.
the addition of gopuras, and mandapas. The
Irrigation monolithic mega size ornamented pillars are
The Pandya rulers created a number of the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style.
irrigation sources. On either side of the rivers The sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa
128

www.tntextbooks.in
and Subramanyar are the best specimens in of port dues and tolls. In Kayal, there was
these temples. Pandyas specially patronised the an agency established by an Arab chieftain
historic Meenakshi temple at Madurai and kept by name Malik-ul-Islam Jamal-ud-din. This
expanding its premises by adding gopuras and agency facilitated availability of horses to
mandapas. Pandya kings.
In 13th and 14th centuries, horse trade
became brisk. Marco Polo and Wassaff state
that the kings invested in horses as there was
a need of horse for ceremonial purposes as
well as for fighting wars. Those who were
trading in horses were called kudirai chetties.
They were active in maritime trade also.
The busiest port town under the Pandyas
was Kayal Pattinam (now in Thoothukudi
district) on the east coast. Gold coins were in
circulation as the trade was carried through
Meenakshi Temple, Madurai the medium of gold. It was variously called
Trade kasu, kalanchu and pon.
Arab settlements on the west coast of The vast trade in horses of that time has been
southern India, from 7th century, had led to recorded by Wassaff. He writes: ‘…as many
the expansion of their trade connection to the as 10,000 horses were imported into Kayal
east coast because the governments of the east and other ports of India of which 1,400
coast pursued a more liberal and enlightened were to be of Jamal-ud-din’s own breed. The
policy towards overseas traders. Their average cost of each horse was 220 dinars of
charters exempted traders from various types 'red gold'.
Summary
The Cholas and Pandyas are well known Tamil monarchs.
Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty.
The prominent Chola rulers are Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
Uttiramerur inscriptions provide details of village administration.
Kodunkon recovered Pandya territory from Kalabhras. Arikesari Maravavarman and
Parantaka Nedunjadayan were his two prominent successors.
The illustrious rulers of later Pandya kingdom were Sadaayavarman Sundarapandyan and
Maravarman Kulasekaran.
Maritime trade during Pandyas is highlighted by Marco Polo and Wassaff.
129

www.tntextbooks.in
Glossary
Matrimonial திருமண உறவுகள் மூலம்
political alliances through marriages
alliances அரசியல் கூட்டு
a wall or stone structure built to prevent a river
Embankment தடுப்பணை
flooding an area as well as to store its water
Ardent passionate தீவிரமான
அரசருக்குக் கட்டுப்பட்ட குறுநில

Feudatory a subordinate to another sovereign/ruler
மன்னர்
Refuge shelter புகலிடம்
Repository place in which things are stored கருவூலம்
Evaluation
I. Choose the Correct answer 5. An example of Chola architecture can be

seen at .
1. Who revived the later
Chola dynasty? a) Kannayiram b) Uraiyur
c) Kanchipuram d) Thanjavur
a) Vijayalaya
b) Rajaraja I 6. To which of the following, Marco Polo
c) Rajendra I went in the last decade of 13th century in
d) Athirajendra India?
2. Who among the following Pandya rulers is a) Chola mandalam

known for ending the Kalabhra rule? b) Pandya country
c) Kongu region
a) Kadunkon b) ViraPandyan
d) Malainadu
c) Kun Pandyan d) Varaguna
II Fill in the blanks
3. Which of the following was the lowest unit
1. built the famous
of Chola administration?
Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur.
a) Mandalam b) Nadu
2. established a Vedic college at
c) Kurram d) Ur
Ennayiram.
4. Who was the last ruler Vijayalaya line of
3. was the donor of Velvikudi
Chola dyanasty?
copper plates.
a) VeeraRajendra b) Rajadhiraja
4. The royal sectretariat of Pandya kingdom
c) AthiRajendra d) Rajaraja II
was known as .
130

www.tntextbooks.in
III Match the Following a) 1 and 2 b) 3 and 4

c) 1,2 and 4 d) All the above
1. Madurai Inland traders
3. Assertion:- The Yuvarajas were appointed
2. Gangaikonda Maritime traders Governors in the provinces.
Cholapuram Reason:- This was done for their training
3. Anju- Vannattar Capital of Cholas in administration.
4. Mani- gramattar Capital of Pandyas a) R is the correct explanation of A.
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
IV. True or False c) A is wrong and R is correct.
d) A and R are wrong.
1. A Muslim state subordinate to Delhi Sultan
4. Arrange the following administration
was in Madurai.
divisions in descending order.
2. Koodal – nagar Kavalan was the title of a
1. Nadu 2. Mandalam
Pandya king.
3. Ur 4. Kurram
3. Chola kingdom was situated in Vaigai 5. Arrange the events in chronological order.
delta. 1. Maravarman appointed Virapandyan as
4. Kulothunga I belonged to Chalukya – co – regent.
Chola dynasty. 2. Civil war broke out.
5. The elder son of the Chola king was called 3.
A Muslim State was established in
Yuvaraja. Madurai.
V Consider the following statements. 4.
MaravarmanKulasekaran had two
Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer. sons – Virapandyan and Sundrapandyan
1. Which of the following statements about 5.
SundraPandyan sought help from
Later Cholas are correct? Ala–ud-din Khalji.
1. They had a system of Local self 6. Malik Kafur invaded Madurai.
government. 6. Find out
2. They maintained a strong navy.
Brahmadeya
3. They were the followers of Buddhism.
4. They built big temples.
a) 1,2 and 3 b) 2,3 and 4 Devadana
c) 1,2 and 4 d) 1,3 and 4
2. Which of the following statements are true Pallichchandam
with regard to Rajendra Chola?
1. He assumed the title Gangaikonda
Vellanvagai
Chola.
2. He conquered Southern Sumatra.
3. He is credited with consolidating the
Chola power.
VI Answer in one or two sentences
4. His naval power enabled him to conquer 1. What were the items exported during the
Srivijaya. later Chola period?
131

www.tntextbooks.in
2. What was called Chatur-vedi-mangalam? IX Students activity
3. Write about Kanikadan. Who am I?
1. I was responsible for Malik Kafur invasion.

VII Answer the following in detail
2. I built 16-mile embankment-lake in
1. Highlight any five aspects of Cholas’ legacy. Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
3. I am a water supply channel.
VIII HOTs
4. I codified Thirumurai.
1. Chola kings were great patrons of learning: 5. I was a great port. Marco Polo visited me
Support the statement with details. twice.
Who is he? Why is this person so

important?
Marco Polo
What are his observaons about Why do you think his observaons
Pandya Kingdoms? are so important?
X Answer Grid
1. Name the two literary works of Chola 2. Which port is associated with pearl fishery?
period. Ans:
Ans:
3. What do kasu, kalanchu and pon refer to? 4. In which district is Kayal -Pattinam located?
Ans: Ans:
5. Who was the Pandya king, defeated by 6. Where is the famous Meenakshi temple located?
Parantaka I? Ans:
Ans:
132

www.tntextbooks.in
XI Field trip
1. Visit any one temple built during Chola or Pandya period and see its magnificence.
References
1. K.A Nilakanda Sastri, A History of South India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.
2. Y. Subbarayalu, South India under The Cholas, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012.
3. R Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300, New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.
4. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2010.
133

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -4
The Delhi Sultanate
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with

Turkish Sultans of various dynasties who ruled India from Delhi
Their military conquests and extension of sovereignty
Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
Art and architecture of this period
Introduction Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290)

During the eleventh century, the Turkish Muslim rule in India was established by
horsemen pillaged northern India and due to Muhammad Ghori in 12th century A.D. (CE).
their persistent campaigns, they succeeded As he had no sons, he nurtured special slaves
in seizing political control of the Gangetic called bandagan (a Persian term used for slaves
plain by the next century. Though the success purchased for military service). These slaves were
of their conquests could be attributed to their
posted as governors and they were later raised to
audacity and ferocity, their success is really due
the status of Sultans. After Ghori’s death in 1206,
to the failure of Indians to defend themselves
one of his slaves Qutb-ud-din-Aibak who had
and their territories. Indians viewed each
been left behind by Muhammad Ghori to govern
other with distrust, failing to take note of the
the territories he had conqured, proclaimed
success of Islam in early years of its spread. The
superior military might of Muslim soldiers was himself ruler of the Turkish territories in India.
yet another factor that contributed to success He laid the foundation of the Slave Dynasty.
in their conquests. In this lesson, we discuss This dynasty is also known as Mamluk dynasty.
how Turkish warriors set about founding and Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning ‘‘slave’’.
consolidating their Islamic rule till the advent Qutb-ud-din-Aibak, Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish
of Babur. and Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban were the three great
134

www.tntextbooks.in
Sultans of this dynasty. The Slave Dynasty ruled reign that the threat of Mongols under Chengiz
over the sub-continent for about 84 years. Khan loomed large over the frontiers of India.
He averted the impending danger by refusing
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak (1206 - 1210)
to provide shelter to the Kwarezm Shah Jalal-
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak began his rule by ud-din, who had been driven out by Chengiz
establishing Lahore as the capital of his kingdom. Khan. In order to counter the possible attack
Later he shifted his capital to Delhi. He was of the Mongols, Iltutmish organised Turkish
active all through his rule in Delhi conquering nobility into a select group of 40 nobles known
new territories and suppressing rebellions. as chahalgani or The Forty.
He personally led military campaigns to the
Iltutmish granted iqtas (land) to members
central and western Indo-Gangetic plain (north
of his army. Iqta is the land granted to army
India) and left the conquest of the eastern
officials in lieu of a regular wage. The iqta
Gangetic Plain (Bihar, Bengal) to the care of
holder is called the iqtadar or muqti who had
Bakhtiar Khalji. Aibak built the Quwwat-ul-
to provide the Sultan with military assistance
Islam Masjid (mosque) in Delhi. This mosque is
in times of war. The iqtadar collected revenue
considered to be the oldest in India. He also laid
from his iqta to meet the cost of maintaining his
the foundation of the Qutb-Minar, but he was
troops and horses.
unable to complete it. It was later finished by his
son-in-law and his successor Iltutmish. Aibak
died of injuries received during an accidental
fall from a horse, while playing polo in 1210.
Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid
Iltutmish (1210 - 1236)

Aibak’s son Aram Shah proved incompetent
and so the Turkish nobles chose Iltutmish, the
son-in-law of Aibak as the Sultan, who served Qutb-Minar
as a military commander of Aibak. Iltutmish Iltutmish completed the construction of

firmly established his control over the territories the Qutb-Minar, started by Aibak. Iltutmish
by suppressing rebellions. It was during his died in April 1236 after ruling for 26 years.
135

www.tntextbooks.in
Razia (1236 - 1240) cordial relationship with the Mongols. He

obtained from Hulagu Khan, a grandson of
As the most capable son of Iltutmish, Rukn-
Chengiz Khan and the Mongol viceroy in Iran,
ud-din-Firuz, was dead, Iltutmish nominated
the assurance that Mongols would not advance
his daughter Razia Sultana as his successor to
beyond Sutlej.
the throne of Delhi. Razia was an able and brave
fighter. But she had a tough time with Turkish Balban built forts to guard his empire
nobles as she favoured non-Turkish nobles. She against the Mongol attacks. He patronised the
also faced the situation of the ferocious Mongols famous Persian poet Amir Khusru. Balban died
raiding Punjab during her reign. in 1287. Balban’s son Kaiqubad turned out to
be weak. In 1290 Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the
Razia made an Ethiopian slave named
commander of the army, assumed the office
Jalal-ud-din Yakut as her personal attendant
of Naib (a deputy to the Sultan) and ruled the
and started trusting him completely. This led
kingdom in the name of Kaiqubad. Then one
to a revolt of the Turkish nobles who conspired
day, Jalal-ud-din sent one of his officers and had
against her and got her murdered in 1240.
Kaiqubad murdered. Jalal-ud-din then formally
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266 - 1287) ascended the throne. With him began the rule
After Razia, three weak rulers in succession of Khalji dynasty.
ascended the throne. After them came Ghiyas-
Khalji Dynasty (1290 - 1320)
ud-din Balban. Balban abolished The Forty
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290 - 1296)
as it was hostile to him. He established a
department of spies to gather intelligence There were many military campaigns
about the conspirators and the trouble makers during the reign of Jalal-ud-din. But they were
against his rule. He dealt with insubordination mostly organised and led by his nephew, Ala-
and defiance of royal authority sternly. Tughril ud-din, the governor of Kara. One significant
Khan, a provincial governor of Bengal, who military expedition was against the Deccan
raised a banner of revolt against Balban, was kingdom Devagiri. Ala-ud-din, after defeating
captured and beheaded. He was ruthless in the Yadava king Ramachandra, plundered
dealing with enemies like Meos of Mewat (a the city and returned with huge wealth. Ala-
Muslim Rajput community from north-western ud-din treacherously killed Jalal-ud-din after
India). Balban, however, took care to maintain buying off the prominent nobles and important
commanders with the wealth he had brought
from the Deccan and declared himself as the
Sultan of Delhi in 1296.
Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296 - 1316)
Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidated the
Delhi Sultanate. The range of his conquests is
impressive: in the Punjab (against the Mongols),
in Rajasthan and in Gujarat. With his northern
Tomb of Balban frontiers secure, he sent his chief lieutenant
136

www.tntextbooks.in
Malik Kafur into the southern parts who took Ala-ud-din died in 1316. The failure of his
even the distant Madurai in 1310. The Yadavas successors to retain power led to the seizure of
of Devagiri, the Kakatias of Warangal, the power by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, who founded
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of the Tughluq dynasty.
Madurai accepted Ala-ud-din’s suzerainty.
Tughluq Dynasty (1320 - 1414)
Sack of Chittor (1303): Ghiyas-ud-din (1320 - 1324)
When Ala-ud-din’s army One of the major tasks of Ghiyas-ud-
overwhelmed the Rajput
din as the Sultan was to recover the territories
army in Chittor and in
that the Sultanate had lost during the turmoil
the context of threat of
following the death of Ala-ud-din. Ghiyas-
defeat, the men and women of the fortress,
ud-din Tughluq sent his son Jauna Khan to
in accordance with their old custom,
fight against Warangal. Jauna Khan defeated
performed the rite of jauhar. According
Pratabarudra of Warangal and returned with a
to this custom, left with no other way to
rich booty. With this looted wealth, Ghiyas-ud-
survive, the men would go out and die in
din is said to have laid the foundation of the city
the field of battle and women would burn
Tughluqabad near Delhi. However, as Ala-ud-
themselves on a pyre.
din treacherously killed his uncle, Jauna Khan
was said to have killed his father and ascended
the throne with title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq
in 1325.
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (1325 - 1351)

Chittor Fort
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was a learned
Ala-ud-din’s political and administrative man. Yet he was a person of cruelty. Ala-ud-
reforms were as impressive as his military din had conquered, looted and left the old
conquests. Ala-ud-din undertook a survey of ruling families as his dependents. In contrast,
the agrarian resources around his capital and Muhammad Tughluq dreamt of making the
fixed a standard revenue demand. He entrusted whole of the subcontinent his domain. With
the task of collecting the revenue to the military the view to facilitating extended sovereignty, he
officers. This measure deprived the local chiefs shifted his capital from Delhi to the centre of
and rajas of their time memorial privilege. the kingdom, namely Devagiri. He also changed
Ala-ud-din established a system of forced its name to Daulatabad. When Muhammad
procurement of food grains for Delhi and other himself decided that the move was a mistake,
garrison centres. The procurement prices were he ordered a return to Delhi as the capital again.
fixed and grain collected as tax was stored in state When Ibn Battuta, the Morocco traveller who
granaries. In order to ensure the enforcement
was with the Sultan, returned to Delhi, he found
of his new regulations, he employed spies who
Delhi ‘empty, abandoned and had but a small
were responsible to report to him directly.
population’.
137

www.tntextbooks.in
revolts of the provincial governors. The

It was a 40-days march to Daulatabad
Governors of Awadh, Multan and Sind revolted
from Delhi. Many people left. Some hid
and declared themselves independent. In South
themselves. When they were found, they
India, several states arose. The new Daulatabad
were punished cruelly, even though one
and the conquered territories around them were
was a blind man and another a paralytic.
declared independent sultanate called Bahmani.
Describing the city as spreading over eight
Its founder after whom it was named, was a
or ten miles, a historian observed: ‘All was
soldier formerly in Tughluq service. Madurai
destroyed. So complete was the ruin that not
was proclaimed a separate sultanate in 1335.
a cat or a dog was left among the buildings
Bengal became independent in 1346. Tughluq
of the city in its palaces or in its suburbs.’
died on 23 March 1351.
Tughluq changed the Ala-ud-din’s system
Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351 - 1388)
of revenue collections in grain and ordered
that land revenue, which was increased, should
henceforward be collected in money. This
proved disastrous during famines. When he
discovered that the stock of coins and silver
was inadequate for minting, he issued a token
currency in copper. Counterfeiting soon
became order of the day and, as a result, the
entire revenue system collapsed. Trade suffered
as foreign merchants stopped business. This Tomb of Firoz Shah Tughluq
forced Sultan to withdraw the token currency Firoz, the son of Ghiyas-ud-din’s younger
and pay gold and silver coins in exchange. brother, succeeded Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
This move led the state to become bankrupt. Firoz could neither suppress revolts nor win
Tughluq increased land tax in the Doab region, back the provinces that had broken away. He
which triggered peasant revolts. As the revolts also showed no interest in re-conquering the
were cruelly dealt with, peasants abandoned southern provinces. He refused to accept an
cultivation, which resulted in the outbreak of invitation (c. 1365) from a Bahmani prince to
frequent famines. intervene in the affairs of the Deccan. Firoz
rewarded Sufis and other religious leaders
generously and listened to their advice. He also
created charities to aid poor Muslims, built
colleges, mosques, and hospitals. He adopted
many humanitarian measures. He banned
inhuman punishments and abolished taxes not
Coins of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq recognised by Muslim law.
Tughluq ruled as Sultan for 25 years. He promoted agriculture by waiving off the
During his long reign, he had to face many debts of the agriculturalists and constructing
138

www.tntextbooks.in
many canals for irrigation. He laid out 1200 Timur’s Invasion (1398)
new gardens and restored 30 old gardens of Ala-
The sacking and massacre by Tamerlane or
ud-din-Khalji. He had built new towns such as
Timur of Delhi came a decade after Firuz
Firozabad, Jaunpur, Hissar and Firozpur.
Shah Tughluq died. As a ruler of the region
Despite adopting a peaceful approach and around Samarkand in Central Asia, Timur had
taking efforts to organise the Sultanate well, he occupied some parts in the north-west of India.
had to spend his last days in unhappiness. His Taking advantage of India’s weakness, he entered
own son Muhammad Khan revolted against India in December 1398 and plundered Delhi.
him and Firoz Shah died in September 1388, at Punjab, besides the Delhi city, was the province
the age of 83. that suffered most by Timur’s raid. Timur, apart
139

www.tntextbooks.in
from carrying huge wealth in the form of gold, throne in 1451. This gave Bahlol Lodi, then the
silver, jewels, also took along Indian artisans like governor of Sirhind (Punjab), the opportunity
carpenters and masons to work on monuments to become the new Sultan of Delhi, leading to
in Samarkand. the establishment of Lodi dynasty.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451) Lodi Dynasty (1451 - 1526)
Though the Sultanate fragmented into a In 1489, Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by his son
number of independent kingdoms, it endured Sikandar Lodi. Sikandar was a patron of arts
for 114 years more, till the Mughal invasion. and learning. He founded the city of Agra and
Before leaving Delhi, Timur had left behind his made it his capital. He died in 1517 and was
representative Khizr Khan as the governor of succeeded by his son, Ibrahim Lodi, who was
the territories he had conquered (Delhi, Meerut defeated by Babur in 1526 in the Panipat battle.
and Punjab). He founded the Sayyid Dynasty in Thus the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate
1414, which lasted till 1451. The last ruler of this were ended by Babur who went on to establish
dynasty, Ala-ud-din Alam Shah, abdicated the the Mughal Empire in India.
Islamic art and architecture: The mansions of high-ranking Muslim nobles, soldiers and officials
were built first in cities and the neighbourhoods. Around them, the mosques in the imperial
style were constructed by successive Muslim regimes in Delhi. Mosques and Madrasas looked
architecturally different. The graceful decorations of doorways and walls with lines from the
Koran made a distinct appearance in these buildings. The shape of all these buildings was Persian,
while the decoration was Indian. So, it is called Indo-Saracenic architecture. Qutb Minar, Alai-
Darwaza, Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, the tombs of Iltutmish, Balban and the forts
of Daulatabad and Firozabad were all constructed in this style.
Daulatabad Fort Alai-Darwaza
Summary
Establishment of Muslim rule in India by Muhammad Ghori
Slave dynasty founded by Qutb – ud- din- Aibak and consolidated by his Son-in-law Iltutmish
Razia, the daughter of Iltutmish, a brave fighter and a great administrator
Balban’s espionage system and the abolition of The Forty, to reduce the power of Turkish nobles
140

www.tntextbooks.in
Ala – ud- din- Khalji as the founder of Khalji dynasty - his military conquests and administrative
reforms
Firoz Shah Tughluq as a compassionate ruler with his concentration on the well - being of the
people
The sacking of Delhi by Timur
Khizr Khan founding the Sayyid dynasty and Bahlol Lodi the governor of Sirhind establishing
the Lodi dynasty
The first battle of Panipat paving the way for the foundation of Mughal Empire by Babur in A.D.
(CE)1526
Glossary
எக்கணமும் நடைபெற இருக்கிற/
impending about to happen
அச்சுறுத்தும் நிலையில் இருக்கிற
ferocious cruel, violent மூர்க்கமான/ அச்சம் தருகிற வகையில்
someone who conspires secretly with other
conspirator சதிகாரர்கள்
people to do something unlawful or harmful
patron supporter, promoter புரவலர்
plunder to steal goods forcibly from a place especially
க�ொள்ளையடி
during a war
procurement the process of getting supplies க�ொள்முதல்
disastrous causing great damage பேரழிவு
fragment break into pieces துண்டு துண்டாக
counterfeit fake ப�ோலியான
waiving exempting விலக்கு அளி
Evaluation 2. Qutb-ud-in shifted his capital to Delhi

from_____________.
I Choose the correct answer a) Lahore b) Poona

c) Daulatabad d) Agra
1. ____________laid the foundation of 3. ______________ completed the
‘Mamluk’ dynasty. construction of the Qutb-Minar.
a) Mohammad Ghori a) Razia
b) Jalal-ud-din b) Qutb-ud-din -Aibak
c) Qutb-ud-din Aibak c) Iltutmish
d) Iltutmish d) Balban
141

www.tntextbooks.in
4. _________laid the foundation of the city V.

Match the statement with the
Tughluqabad near Delhi. reason.Tick the appropriate answer
a) Muhammad-bin -Tughluq 1) Assertion (A):Balban maintained cordial
b) Firoz shah Tughluq relationship with Mongols
c) Jalal –ud-din Reason (R): The Mongol ruler, a grandson
d) Ghiyas –ud-din of Chengiz Khan, assured that Mongols
would not advance beyond Sutlej.
II Fill in the Blanks
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
1. ___________ was the founder of Tughluq b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
dynasty. c) A and R are wrong.
2. Muhammad–bin-Tughluq shifted his d) A is wrong and R is the correct.
capital from Delhi to___________. 2) Find out the correct pair
3. ____________ patronized the famous a) Hoysala - Devagiri
Persian poet Amir Khusru. b) Yadavas - Dwarasamudra
4. Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid in Delhi was c) Kakatias - Warrangal
built by______________ . d) Pallavas - Madurai
5. The threat of Mongols under Chengizkhan 3) Find out the wrong statement
to India was during the reign a) After Ghori’s death in 1206, his slave Qutb-
of_________________________. ud-din Aibak proclaimed him self the ruler
III Match the following of the Turkish territories in India.
b) Razia established the department of spies to
1. Tughril Khan - Governor of Kara gather intelligence about the conspirators
2. Ala-ud-din - Jalal-ud-din Yakut and the trouble makers against her rule.
3. Bahlol Lodi - Governor of Bengal c) Balban built forts to guard his empire
4. Razia - Governor of Sirhind against the Mongol attack.
d) Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in
IV State true or false
1526.
1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak died of mysterious
VI Answer the following in one or
fever.
two sentences
2. Razia was an able and brave fighter.
1. Name the land granted to army officials in
3. The Turkish nobles chose Iltutmish, son of lieu of a regular wage.
Aibak, as Sultan after the death of Aibak. 2. Who founded the city of Agra?
4. FirozShah Tughluq refused to accept 3. Name the ruler who established Muslim
an invitation from a Bahmani Prince to rule in India in 12th century A.D (CE).
intervene in the affairs of the Deccan. 4. Write a note on chahalgani.
142

www.tntextbooks.in
5. How did Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidate the X Student Activity

Delhi Sultanate?
1. Match the Father with Son
6. List out the contributions of Firoz Shah
Tughluq. 1. Qutb-ud-din Rukn-ud-din-Firuz
Aibak
VII Answer the following
2. Iltutmish Kaiqubad
1. Write about the invasion of Timur in 1398. 3. Balban Ala-ud-din
VIIIHOTs 4. Ghiyas-ud-din Sikandar Lodi
5. Bahlol Lodi Aram Shah
1. How would you evaluate Muhammad-bin-
Tughluq as Sultan of Delhi? 2. Prepare an album of pictures of Islamic art
IX. Map Work and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate .
On the river map of India draw the extent References

of Tughluq Dynasty and mark the following 1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New
places. Delhi:Penguin, 2014.
2. R.C Majumdar, H.C. Ray Chaudhuri and
1. Delhi
Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of
2. Devagiri India, New Delhi:Trinity, 2018.
3. Lahore 3. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi:

Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
4. Madurai.
4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India, New
Delhi: Axis Books, 2013.
ICT CORNER
The Delhi Sultanate

PROCEDURE :
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Keep Scrolling and go to ‘Timeline’
Step 3: Click any period and you can explore the historical events with pictorial descriptions
(ex. Delhi Sultanate)
The Delhi Sultanate URL:

https://delhi-timeline.in/ (or) scan the QR Code
143

7th - Social - Science - Term - I - EM - WWW - Tntextbooks.in

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

7th - Social - Science - Term - I - EM - WWW - Tntextbooks.in

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

7th - Social - Science - Term - I - EM - WWW - Tntextbooks.in

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

www.tntextbooks.

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

VII Std Science Term-1 EM Introduction Pages.indd 1 06/01/2022 01:45:45

Government of Tamil Nadu

(Published under New Syllabus in

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational Research

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

VII Std Science Term-1 EM Introduction Pages.indd 2 06/01/2022 01:45:45

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 99 06/01/2022 03:17:23

1. Sources of Medieval India 102 June

2. Emergence of New Kingdoms in North India 110 July

2. Landforms 155 July

3. Population and Settlement 163 August

2. Political Parties 177 August

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 100 06/01/2022 03:17:23

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 101 06/01/2022 03:17:23

To acquaint ourselves with

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 102 06/01/2022 03:17:23

We examine the details of political,

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 103 06/01/2022 03:17:24

Charminar Lakshmi Coin of Ghori Coins of Khalji

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 104 06/01/2022 03:17:25

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 105 06/01/2022 03:17:25

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 106 06/01/2022 03:17:25

I. Choose the correct answer 2. _____________ was the land gifted to

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 107 06/01/2022 03:17:25

4. _________ provides information about 4. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller,

III Match the following c) Monuments d) Coins

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 108 06/01/2022 03:17:25

VIII Answer Grid

Sources of Medieval India URL:

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 109 06/01/2022 03:17:25

To acquire knowledge about the kingdoms of Rajputs and their

Introduction: of Sind (A.D. (CE)712) rather than in A.D.

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 110 06/01/2022 04:54:13

Origin of the Rajputs Chandelas of Bundelkhand were prominent.

NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 111 06/01/2022 04:54:14

Pratiharas centuries. Taking advantage of these internecine

Vatsaraja’s successors Nagabhatta-II and

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 112 06/01/2022 04:54:14

Mahipala I (988 - 1038) fought in 1191. However, he was defeated and

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 113 06/01/2022 04:54:14

Udaipur Lake Palace Jaipur Amber Fort Gwalior Palace

The temples the Rajput rulers built have

The Khajuraho in Bundelkhand has 30

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 114 06/01/2022 04:54:17

There are sixteen Hindu and Jain temples

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 115 06/01/2022 04:54:18

Arab Conquest of Sind and its Impact

Arrival of Turks in India

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 116 06/01/2022 04:54:19

The subsequent raids turned his attention to India. Unlike Mahmud

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 117 06/01/2022 04:54:19

7th_SS_History_Unit_2.indd 118 06/01/2022 04:54:19

To acquire knowledge about the kingdoms of Rajputs and their

1. Khajuraho - Mount Abu b) R is not the correct explanation of A.

4. _________laid the foundation of the city V.