Mitigating Climate Change by Abating Coal Mine Metha - 2024 - International Jour

International Journal of Coal Geology 295 (2024) 104623
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Coal Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/coal
Mitigating climate change by abating coal mine methane: A critical review

of status and opportunities
C. Özgen Karacan a,* , Robert A. Field b , Maria Olczak c , Malgorzata Kasprzak b , Felicia A. Ruiz d,
Stefan Schwietzke e
a
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA
b
UNEP, International Methane Emission Observatory, Paris, France
c
Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
d
Clean Air Task Force, Boston, MA, USA
e
Environmental Defense Fund, Berlin, Germany
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Methane has a short atmospheric lifetime compared to carbon dioxide (CO2), ~decade versus ~centuries, but it
Methane emissions has a much higher global warming potential (GWP), highlighting how reducing methane emissions can slow the
Atmospheric methane rate of climate change. When considering the contribution of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to current global
Coal mining
warming (2010–2019) relative to the industrial revolution (1850–1900) levels, methane contributes 0.5 ◦ C or ~
Global warming
Methane mitigation
a third of the total. The most recent post-2023 global estimates of methane emissions by bottom-up (BU) and top-
down (TD) approaches for the coal mining sector are in the range of ~41 ± 3 Tg yr− 1 and 33 ± 5 Tg yr− 1,
respectively. This divergence, notwithstanding overlapping confidence intervals, is a result of differences be
tween applied TD global inversion models and BU emission inventories. Further research can help to better refine
emissions from the various contributing coal mine methane (CMM) emissions sources. The coal mining sector
accounts for over 10 % of global anthropogenic methane emissions. The contribution of CMM emissions to the
global budget have increased since 2000, although upward and downward regional trends have been observed.
The Global Methane Pledge (GMP), which was signed by more than 150 nations, aims to reduce methane
emissions by 30 % from 2020 levels by 2030. This could eliminate 0.2 ◦ C of warming by 2050. The success or
failure to reach the emission reduction targets of the GMP will depend on engagement with different sectors of
the economy. In that regard, the coal sector could play a significant role for mitigating emissions and reaching
emission reduction targets. The International Energy Agency (IEA) and United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA) both estimate that over half of global methane emissions from coal operations could be
avoided with the application of existing technologies. However, setting up emission reduction scenario targets
for the coal mining sector poses significant challenges, which require clear understanding of the magnitude and
behavior of CMM emission sources. Notwithstanding regional differences, with improved reporting and data
transparency, emission control potential can be more accurately defined, which can inform effective and
defensible policy approaches.
This paper highlights the climate forcing role of methane in the atmosphere and presents a detailed review of
CMM emission sources along the coal lifecycle, traditional and new inventory practices applied in different
countries, the status of estimating CMM emissions, and opportunities and difficulties associated with mitigating
emissions from different CMM sources. Different policy approaches utilizing regulatory and economic mecha
nisms are explored and concluding remarks for importance and tools of CMM emission mitigation are provided.
Ultimately, this paper aims to inform global CMM mitigation and emission reduction scenario targets for the coal
mining sector.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.Ö. Karacan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2024.104623
Received 3 September 2024; Received in revised form 15 October 2024; Accepted 15 October 2024
Available online 20 October 2024
0166-5162/Published by Elsevier B.V.
C.Ö. Karacan et al. International Journal of Coal Geology 295 (2024) 104623
1. Introduction then increased steadily from 2007 (Lan et al., 2023). Seasonal influences
induce some variability (Fig. 1), but year-to-year changes are driven by
This paper details coal mine methane (CMM) sources, monitoring larger forces that alter the balance between sources and sinks (Kirschke
and inventory studies, and mitigation techniques and discusses the et al., 2013). The relatively steady increase of ~9 ppb/yr− 1 of atmo
contribution of CMM to global emissions of methane in the context of spheric methane from 2007 to 2023 has been attributed to increased
climate change. It also explores the technical and political barriers that emissions or reduced removal rates or a combination thereof. Prior to
can impede CMM mitigation. However, before presenting these discus the period of stabilization (2000 to 2007), the postulation that
sions, it is also important to provide readers with a general discussion on increasing methane was due to anthropogenic emissions was not ques
atmospheric methane, its climate forcing role, sources and sinks, the tioned. Since this time the reasons for both plateaued and then
global methane budget, and management of methane, which are intro increasing methane has been, for over a decade, a topic of scientific
duced in this section. debate. The stabilization and subsequent rise of atmospheric methane
have been linked with the influence of hydroxyl (OH) radicals (Nguyen
1.1. Atmospheric methane, its climate forcing role, and global methane et al., 2020; Rigby et al., 2017), natural sources (Rosentreter et al.,
budget 2021), and anthropogenic sources (Saunois et al., 2016). Fossil fuels
have frequently been associated with rising methane (Hausmann et al.,
Methane emissions are a significant driver of current global warming 2016; Helmig et al., 2016) but so have natural and agricultural sources
(e.g., Reay et al., 2018), and their reduction represents a means to (Nisbet et al., 2016, 2023; Thompson et al., 2018). The lack of clarity,
reduce future warming anticipated in the coming decades (Collins et al., when considering the post 2007 rise of atmospheric methane, speaks to
2018; IPCC, 2021; UNEP and CCAC, 2021). In terms of atmospheric both an incomplete understanding of methane budgets and of the limi
abundance, methane is the second most important anthropogenic tations of methods applied to define atmospheric behavior (Levin et al.,
greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO2) (IPCC, 2013). While methane 2012; Ghosh et al., 2015; Schwietzke et al., 2016).
has a short atmospheric lifetime compared to CO2, ~12 years (Naik Atmospheric levels of methane are a balance between emissions
et al., 2013) versus ~centuries (Dlugokencky et al., 2011), it has a much (sources) and removal mechanisms (sinks) (Rigby et al., 2017). The
higher global warming potential (GWP). Methane has 81 (non-fossil predominant methane sink, ~90 %, is through reaction with the OH
origin) to 83 (fossil origin) times higher GWP than CO2 when estimated radical (Turner et al., 2019). As such, any significant change to the
over a 20-year timescale, and 27 (non-fossil origin) to 30 (fossil origin) abundance of the OH radical may influence the lifetime of methane as
times higher GWP when estimated over a 100-year timescale (IPCC, the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere is affected (Nguyen et al.,
2021). When considering the contribution of GHG emissions to the 2020; Zhao et al., 2020). Methane is unusual in that anthropogenic ac
2010–2019 global warming relative to 1850–1900, methane contributes tivities have altered the balance of both the sources and sinks of methane
0.5 ◦ C (~ a third of the total) according to the Intergovernmental Panel (IPCC, 1990). Rising methane levels poison the atmospheric sink for
on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023). To put this into a perspective, CO2 methane so that additional emissions are not removed as quickly
contributes 0.8 ◦ C (~a half of the total). (Prather, 2007). The atmospheric lifetime of methane has risen from
Notwithstanding the influence of natural sources (Etiope and about ~7 years in pre-industrial times to the present figure of ~12 years
Schwietzke, 2019; Peng et al., 2022; Petrenko et al., 2017), anthropo (Naik et al., 2013; Derwent et al., 2021; Pearson and Derwent, 2022).
genic emissions have driven global atmospheric methane mixing ratios The behavior of other air pollutants is also of significance for methane.
from pre-industrial levels of 700 ppb to present levels, of about 1934 ppb Global emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) have increased methane
as of November 2023 (Ghosh et al., 2015; Meinshausen et al., 2017). removal rates whereas global CO and non-methane volatile organic
This value continues to rise and in the absence of strong and coordinated compound (NMVOC) emissions have done the opposite (Stevenson
mitigation policies, whether voluntary or compulsory, emissions related et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020). For instance, the recent decline of
to human activities are projected to continue rising through to at least anthropogenic emissions during COVID-19 global lockdowns showed
2040 (UNEP and CCAC, 2021). Fig. 1 shows recent trends of methane that the global growth rate of background (marine air) atmospheric
mixing ratios generated by the Global Monitoring Laboratory of the methane rose by 5.3 ppb yr− 1 in 2020, reaching a rate of 15.0 ppb yr− 1,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) from the compared with 2019 (Stevenson et al., 2022). While not the only in
1980’s to the present day (Lan et al., 2023). As shown by Fig. 1, atmo fluence, NOx reductions led to a 4.8 (3.8 to 5.8) ppb yr− 1 increase in the
spheric mixing ratios of methane, measured at marine surface sites, global methane growth rate countered by − 1.4 (− 1.1 to − 1.7) ppb yr− 1
increased from 1650 ppb in 1984 to 1773 ppb in 2000, stabilized and for CO2 and − 0.5 (− 0.1 to − 0.9) ppb yr− 1 for NMVOC. Therefore, a
transition away from fossil fuels that reduces methane emissions should
yield lower atmospheric methane mixing ratios. The development of a
green hydrogen economy is widely viewed to have the potential to
substantially reduce the global warming consequences of the energy
sector. But there is also an important caveat; care must be taken to
reduce hydrogen leakage to an absolute minimum as increased atmo
spheric hydrogen levels will reduce OH radical abundance. This will in
turn lead to increased levels of ozone, the third most important man-
made greenhouse gas, and methane (Field and Derwent, 2021; Sand
et al., 2023). Therefore, from the point of view of atmospheric abun
dance, methane cannot be considered in isolation. It is important to keep
in mind the effects of potential simultaneous NOx emission reductions
from reduced fossil fuel use on the atmospheric lifetime of methane.
Attribution of atmospheric methane at the global scale is difficult due
to complexity of accurately defining the spatial distribution of emission
sources (Turner et al., 2017), difficulty of attributing emission factors to
provide realistic fluxes (Nisbet et al., 2014), the ability of models to
simulate atmospheric distributions (Riley et al., 2011) and availability
of suitable observations to validate modeled attributions (Saunois et al.,
Fig. 1. Global trend of atmospheric methane (Lan et al., 2023). 2020). As modeling efforts become more refined, outcomes are likely to
2
further reveal the challenge of allocating emissions rising from multiple from coal mining since 2000 (Shen et al., 2023). A rising trend from
sectors (Palmer et al., 2021; Nisbet et al., 2021). When comparing the 2000 to 2009 reported by Tibrewal et al. (2024) is driven by countries
periods 2000–2006 and 2007–2017, Zhang et al. (2022) estimate that with increasing emissions. While a declining trend is evident for the
increased methane was from anthropogenic rather than natural sources. United States, the magnitude of emissions is insufficient to have influ
They report that, together the agriculture, landfill and waste sectors ence upon global scale trends. For BU assessments, Saunois et al. (2024)
account for 53 ± 13 % of the rise, with fossil fuels contributing 34 ± 24 note that the main reason for similarities and differences is the deriva
%. Wetland sources were estimated to only contribute 13 ± 9 %. tion and application of emission factors. So, it remains important to
Through the Global Carbon Project, a living review of the global validate emission factors that are derived from production data, with
methane budget was created (Saunois et al., 2016, 2020, 2024). Despite direct measurement approaches. This is of particular importance when
the challenges of this undertaking, bottom-up (BU), activity- or facility- considering emissions from China and also those from abandoned mines.
based or inventory driven, which rely on mostly direct measurements, For the former the accuracy of past emission estimations has been
and top-down (TD), which rely on remote sensing using satellites and questioned Liu et al (2022). For the latter there is a great deal of un
aerial measurements along with atmospheric inversion methods, esti certainty associated with emission rates, hence not reported, and this
mates of total global emissions of methane provide broad context for the issue is compounded by the fact that there will be more abandoned
balance between contributing sources. For 2022, global methane emis mines in the future (Kholod et al., 2020). Tibrewal et al. (2024) report
sions are estimated to be between 540 and 866 Tg yr− 1 through BU broad consistency between different BU and TD global assessments of
approaches and between 561 and 650 Tg yr− 1 through TD approaches. emissions from the coal mining sector. But they indicate that there is
The 2024 update of the global methane budget for 2022 reveals that BU generally a far wider range for TD compared to BU estimations, in
estimates of emissions from natural sources of 314 Tg yr− 1 (range particular for Australia. A recent TD estimate using atmospheric in
195–457 Tg yr− 1) far exceed TD estimates of 216 Tg yr− 1 (range versions of satellite data by Shen et al. (2023) report global methane
193–241 Tg yr− 1). By contrast BU estimates for anthropogenic sources of emissions of 32.7 ± 5.2 Tg yr− 1 from the coal sector. While they note
372 Tg yr− 1 (range 345–409 Tg yr− 1) are similar to TD estimates of 392 that this value is similar to the corresponding global estimate of 32.8 Tg
Tg yr− 1 (range of 368–409 Tg yr− 1). yr− 1 from the latest aggregation of national BU inventories reported to
Fig. 2 illustrates the estimated contribution of different anthropo the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
genic and natural sources to the global methane budget (BU) mean (UNFCCC), it is higher than most recent TD estimates that are in the 20
values for 2022 (Saunois et al., 2024). Together, landfills and waste, to 30 Tg yr− 1 range. Further research can help to reconcile global BU and
agriculture, and fossil fuels dominate anthropogenic emissions within TD estimates for the coal mining sector. While there has been good
the 2022 global methane budget. UNEP and CCAC (2021) also note that progress towards refining emission estimates from the coal mining
these sectors account for more than 50 % of global methane emissions. sector it is important to not lose sight of the importance of managing and
For 2022, fossil fuel methane emissions (128 Tg yr− 1) are dominated by mitigating emissions as the scientific community refines understanding
the oil and gas (74 Tg yr− 1) and coal mining (41 Tg yr− 1) sectors of the methane budget (Turner et al., 2019).
(Saunois et al., 2024). The International Energy Agency’s Global
Methane Tracker reports a similar value. They indicated that coal mine
1.2. Management of atmospheric methane and methane emissions
operations globally released 40 Mt. (40 Tg) of methane into the atmo
sphere in 2023, which represents 10–12 % of all anthropogenic methane
Mitigation strategies for greenhouse gases should consider both
emissions (IEA, 2023b). While recent annual BU estimates are consis
shorter-term and longer-term perspectives (Balcombe et al., 2018).
tent, global methane emissions from coal mining are showing an
Aside from the longer-term need to reduce CO2 emissions, reducing at
increasing trend. Saunois et al. (2024) report that emissions from coal
mospheric concentrations of methane will help limit warming in the
mining have risen from 30 Tg yr− 1 for the period 2000 to 2009 to 41 Tg
shorter-term (Ocko et al., 2021), as the global economy slowly shifts
yr− 1 for 2022. This finding supports previous research by Jackson et al.
away from the current level of reliance upon burning fossil fuels (IEA,
(2020) who compared the global methane budgets for 2017 and the
2022a). The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
period 2000 to 2006. They report that emissions from coal mining
Change emphasizes that reducing methane emissions in the near-term is
increased from 29 Tg yr− 1 to 44 Tg yr− 1. Other researchers have also
critical to reaching global climate change goals (IPCC, 2024). The
reported increasing trends for global estimates for methane emissions
consensus for methane mitigation is shown by the creation of both the
Fig. 2. Global methane emissions (Tg yr− 1) for 2022 using bottom-up approaches (adapted from Saunois et al., 2024). Conversion: 1 Tg is equal to 1 Mt.
3
Global Methane Pledge on the sidelines of COP26 by Climate and Clean and compare various measurement techniques for use with the coal
Air Coalition (CCAC) partners, United States and European Commission, sector (Dameris and Gerbig, 2024). By providing independent emission
(CCAC, 2024) and the United Nation’s Environment Program’s Inter estimates such research should help to verify the accuracy of existing
national Methane Emissions Observatory (UNEP IMEO, 2024) in 2021. estimates for the coal mining sector. With a solid understanding of
Over 150 countries have signed into the Global Methane Pledge that was emissions, a clearer picture of the mitigation potential may follow.
initiated by the European Commission and the United States of America. This paper is meant as a comprehensive critical review of CMM,
Participants commit to taking voluntary actions as part of a group effort exploring its sources and promoting better inventory practices and
to reduce global anthropogenic methane emissions by at least 30 % from methane mitigation. The paper starts by presenting global coal pro
2020 levels by 2030 to potentially eliminate over 0.2 ◦ C of warming by duction and consumption trends in Section 2, as precursor to CMM
2050. emissions, and continues with a discussion on estimation of emissions
Management of methane emissions occurs at the local scale, rather from the coal sector, in Section 3, with emphasis of CMM sources and
than at the global scale (Stavert et al., 2021; Zazzeri et al., 2016). The inventory-based estimates of emissions from those with associated un
multitude of emission sources, with widely contrasting origins that are certainties. Examples from different countries are presented. Section 4
unevenly distributed across the globe and offer very different ap outlines opportunities for controlling and mitigating emissions, different
proaches for changing their temporal behavior, and regional or country- mitigation options, and impact of mine closure on balance of CMM
specific socio-economic constraints, present challenges. For instance, emission sources. Section 5 presents regulatory and policy issues related
although global methane budget for 2017 indicates that emissions from to CMM mitigation. Section 6 outlines international initiatives and or
natural and anthropogenic sources almost evenly split, with average ganizations promoting mitigation of methane, in general, and CMM. The
values of 367 and 380 Tg yr− 1, respectively, some regions have greater paper concludes with Section 7 summarizing the content and discussing
proportions of anthropogenic emissions (e.g., China, Middle East, and a roadmap for CMM emission mitigation.
South Asia) whereas others have less (e.g., Canada, Brazil, South
America) (Stavert et al., 2021). Trends of natural emission sources are 2. Global coal production and consumption trends
likely to be influenced by shifting climatic patterns, and increased
emissions from ecosystem changes can be anticipated (Reay et al., Production and utilization of coal are largely dictated by its ease of
2018). extraction and its physical and chemical properties, as well as stage of
Anthropogenic methane emissions, particularly from the fossil fuel coalification (rank). Coal can be classified, with increasing rank, as
sector, are in easier reach than natural systems for emission mitigation lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, or anthracite, although this is a
and can offer the possibility of more direct intervention with manage very broad classification for describing the characteristics and compo
ment approaches that may alter emission trajectories in a downward sitional complexity observed in different ranks. O’Keefe et al. (2013)
direction. Stavert et al. (2021) report that 62–67 % (33–46 Tg) of the discusses the fundamentals of coal rank and coal type, and the differ
global increase of methane emissions from 2000 to 2017 originated from ences in detail.
China, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, mostly from The characteristics of coal define its economic value and end use.
fossil fuel sectors. For instance, fossil fuels account for ~40 % of China’s Bituminous coals or anthracite with characteristics of high calorific
anthropogenic emissions and increasing emissions from the Chinese coal value, low moisture, and ash yield, as well as high fixed carbon are
sector alone, account for ~15 % of the increase of global methane suitable candidates for conversion to coke, which is raw material for
emissions. By contrast nearly a quarter of the estimated 10 % decline in steel production. Therefore, such coals can be defined as coking or
European emissions is attributed to coal. The trend of emissions from metallurgical coal. Thermal (steam) coal may be of any rank and is
2000 to 2020 for the coal sector of five countries showed that emissions predominately used for power generation. A small number of countries,
have declined in the United States, stabilized in Australia and increased China (3723 Mt), India (915 Mt), Indonesia (681 Mt), the United States
in the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, and China. Globally, coal mining (U.S.) (484 Mt), Russia (324 Mt) and Australia (275 Mt), produce
accounts for more than 10 % of anthropogenic methane emissions (IEA, approximately 85 % of the global (7489 Mt) thermal coal in 2022 (IEA,
2023a). 2023c). Global production of metallurgical coal (1094 Mt. in 2022), on
Despite technical, institutional, and economic barriers, significant the other hand, was mainly dominated by only four countries: China
reductions of CMM emissions are possible through a combination of (651 Mt), Australia (169 Mt), Russia (120 Mt) and the United States (55
transitioning away from coal use in power generation along with the Mt). Globally, more than 95 % of coal consumption is within countries
adoption of effective mitigation strategies (IEA, 2023a). Stavert et al. that have pledged to reach net zero emissions (IEA, 2022b), and the
(2021) note that emission reductions (2000− 2020) estimated for power generation sector consumes most of the coal, while approxi
Europe, Japan, and Korea show that economic forces and government mately 30 % coal production is consumed by iron and steel and cement
policies can positively influence methane trends. To support govern industries.
ment policies and designing mitigation strategies, understanding and Internationally, the Asia-Pacific region is the main driver of the
quantifying emission sources and sinks (Nisbet et al., 2019) and accurate thermal coal and metallurgical coal trade. In this region, China – also a
emission inventories for global, regional, and national estimates are of major coal producer - and India are the main importers, and Australia,
key importance (Tibrewal et al., 2024), regardless of the scale of inter with more than half of all global metallurgical coal exports, is the main
vention considered. exporter. In 2021, although coal had less than 40 % share of use in the
The accuracy of emission estimates largely depends on the quanti power generation sector, its share in the iron and steel sector was ~75 %
fication approaches, which vary depending on the anthropogenic or (IEA, 2022b). Asia drives the bulk of thermal coal demand. Together
natural system being considered. Typically, as shown in studies over the with a relatively young fleet of coal-fired power plants, thermal coal use
recent years, emission factor-based inventories produce lower estimates in Asia is not likely to decline dramatically in the near term. Unlike the
than a variety of empirically based measurement techniques (Rutherford power sector where replacements are readily available (i.e., gas),
et al., 2021). While reconciliation of different types of emission esti deploying cleaner alternatives to blast furnaces is restrained by limited
mates is closing the knowledge gap for the oil and gas sector, similar deployment of low-emission, green steel production technologies and an
activities for the coal sector lag behind. The United Nations Environ insufficient supply of scrap steel for electric arc furnaces (IEA, 2022b).
ment Programme’s International Methane Emission Observatory (UNEP Thus, without alternative materials or a global recession, demand for
IMEO, 2024) is supporting projects led by academic institutions that are steel is likely to remain strong and so is demand for metallurgical coal.
applying a variety of atmospheric measurement techniques to quantify But, over half of global iron and steel production facilities will undergo
emission fluxes from coal mines. Other initiatives have started to test investment decisions this decade, which will shape the outlook for coal
4
use in this industry (IEA, 2022b). that require significant mitigation of GHG emissions and trends of coal
The future coal demand is dependent on policy choices by both production, which neared record highs for the past decade at ~5500
producers and consumers. IEA (2022b) compared the influence of Stated Mtce yr− 1. To manage methane emissions, mining less coal and
Policies Scenario (STEPS), Announced Pledges Scenario (APS), and Net replacing coal with cleaner alternatives is certainly one approach,
Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE) with current global demand of although it may create social and economic distress for regions that rely
~5500 million tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce). Coal supply projections on coal if implemented without careful planning (Birol and Malpass,
and projections based on end-use coal types under these scenarios are 2021). An additional approach is to mitigate emissions from past, cur
given (IEA, 2022a). In these scenarios, STEPS presents projections based rent, and future mining operations. Mitigation of emissions requires
on conservative analysis of established and announced policies and understanding of processes by which methane is released to the atmo
regulations, whereas APS assumes all climate commitments are met in sphere because of mining operations (Karacan et al., 2011), mine closure
full and on time, and NZE is under a pathway required for net zero CO2 procedures (Duda and Valverde, 2020) and abandoned mine manage
emissions by 2050. According to these criteria, STEPS predicts that coal ment (Liu et al., 2022).
demand will decline by ~10 % by 2030 and by ~30 % by 2050, whereas
APS predicts that a decline of ~20 % by 2030 and more than 70 % by 3. Estimating methane emissions from the coal sector
2050 will be observed. For NZE, on the other hand, coal demand will
decline by ~45 % by 2030 and by 90 % by 2050. Each of these scenarios Methane emissions related to coal mining occur during three general
envisages declining coal demand in comparison to current demand, but phases of the coal lifecycle: active mining, after mine closure and during
the pace will be critically dependent upon the adopted policy pathway. coal storage and transportation. The CMM emissions may vary tempo
Furthermore, the pace of projected decline of demand will differ rally and spatially depending on different factors, such as mine type,
dramatically for power and industry sectors. For instance, in the APS coal properties, geological conditions and the pre- or post-mining ac
scenario, the demand for coking coal declines far less sharply than de tivity. These factors impact the sources, timescale, and magnitude of the
mand for the steam coal. emissions, as well as the uncertainty in emission estimates in the life
Fig. 3 shows that coal supply and use will be in the energy mix, cycle of coal (Olczak and Piebalgs, 2021). The following sections define
although in declining quantities, under all scenarios until 2050. While major CMM emission sources, emission mechanisms and their relative
modulated by other factors, future coal demand is the key parameter for magnitudes.
estimating future CMM emissions, unless actual measured emissions
data is available. Therefore, Fig. 3 also indicates the extent of the
challenge to reduce GHG emissions from the coal sector according to any 3.1. CMM emissions sources along the coal lifecycle
policy scenario that aims to tackle climate change. Globally, although
production, consumption, and trade of coal is largely dominated by 3.1.1. Emission sources during the mining process
China, there are other developing countries (e.g., India) that rely on coal Active mining is when most methane emissions are generated, due to
more than any other energy source for their socio-economic develop the disturbance of the geological formations or by exposing them to the
ment, as well as developed countries relying on their exports. So, ac atmosphere. In 2021, nearly 70 % of U.S. CMM emissions were reported
counting for half of global coal demand and around half of global CMM as the result of active surface mining and ventilation of underground
emissions (IEA, 2023a), the future of global coal mining emissions may mines (U.S. EPA, 2023a). Since underground mines generally extract
largely dependent upon the Chinese coal market and a few other coal- higher rank coals, such as anthracite or bituminous coal, which tend to
producing and -utilizing countries. According to the IEA (2023b), the be deeper and contain more methane than shallower lignite and subbi
world’s top eight largest emitters account for more than 90 % of total tuminous coals, they may emit more gas. As much as 90 % of global
CMM emissions. methane emissions are from underground coal mines, with the
Since coal remains readily available for many countries and is the remainder from surface mines (UNECE, 2016). The share of under
largest source of CO2 emissions from the energy sector (IEA, 2022a) at ground and surface mining of coal may vary depending on the country
the same time, it has been at the center of debates related to both energy and associated coal resources. For example, historically, underground
security and climate change. Furthermore, coal use has additional coal mining is 95 % of all coal mining activity in China, while it is only
climate burden of methane emissions associated with the extraction, 10 % in India, where most of the mines are surface mines (GMI, 2015).
handling, and transport of coal. For the steel sector, the use of metal Underground mining is performed by two main methods, namely
lurgical coal is estimated to add 27 % to the overall climate effect of this longwall mining (Fig. 4) and room-and-pillar mining. Room-and-pillar
sector over a 20-year time horizon (Campbell, 2023). Therefore, there is mines usually emit less gas compared to longwall mines since they are
a general disconnect between global climate aspirations of countries usually confined in the mined seam, and they disturb a limited area by
recovering the coal between the pillars supporting the overlying layers
Fig. 3. Coal supply by scenario, 2010 to 2050 (IEA, 2022a).
5
Fig. 4. Schematic representations of a panel surrounded with a three-entry gateroad system (A) and a shearer (B), and vertical cross-section along the X–XI profile (C)
(Karacan, 2008).
of rock. In room-and-pillar mines, most of the methane emissions are well-designed ventilation system operating with adequate air quantities
from produced coal, the exposed faces of the pillars and from any gas to dilute methane to under 1–2 % in air in working areas for safety
that may be transported from over- or underlying formations through reasons. Despite being low in concentration, ventilation air methane
stress-relaxation of existing natural fractures. For instance, a room-and- (VAM) is the largest source of emissions from active underground mines
pillar mine in the Lower Kittanning coal bed exhausted ~4530 m3/day due to large quantities of air ventilating the mines (U.S. EPA, 2023a).
methane from its main return (Karacan and Goodman, 2012). In the Ventilation shafts are characterized as significant point sources emitting
final retreat phase of room-and-pillar mining, pillars may be recovered methane to the atmosphere (GMI, 2020; Swolkień, 2020), which can be
by extracting as much coal as possible on the way out. Retreat mining detected and monitored using satellite and other airborne methods
allows the roof to collapse, and thus more emissions may be observed (Barkley et al., 2019; Varon et al., 2020; Andersen et al., 2023; Sadavarte
due to fracturing of overlying formations and release of gas contained in et al., 2021). Fig. 5 shows a typical exhaust fan serving a ventilation
other coal and non-coal strata. shaft in a mine.
Longwall mines are developed in two steps: development mining Horizontal wells drilled from the surface, in-seam boreholes drilled
(preparation of gateroads) and longwall mining of the panel. Develop from entries and surface-drilled vertical fractured pre-mining degas
ment mining is performed with a continuous mining machine and is ification wells (Fig. 6) are measures to support ventilation by reducing
similar to room-and-pillar mining. Therefore, it generates relatively the gas content of the coals and other gas-bearing strata. However, these
modest amounts of emissions. For instance, development of entries for a wells can be considered CMM wells only after they are undermined or
southern Pennsylvania, U.S., longwall mine generated 14,160 m3/day mined through. Wells produce CBM rather than capturing CMM until
methane emissions, on average, for development of a 3658 m, 3-entry they are affected by mining, regardless of the quality of gas they produce
roadway (Karacan, 2007). Longwall mining of a coal panel, on the (UNECE, 2021). Although these wells are intended as measures to
other hand, disturbs a very large volume within the overlying and un reduce emissions, they can be a source of emissions themselves, due to
derlying strata, and therefore generates a significant amount of methane venting of captured methane or due to corrosion of the pipework on the
(Fig. 4). The same southwestern Pennsylvania mine exhausted ~56,600 surface and underground, if they are not designed, completed, and
m3/day methane from its bleeder fan while mining one of the panels maintained adequately. Drainage systems can also be a source of emis
(Karacan et al., 2012). The disturbed volume, which is the source of sions at end-use systems (flares, engines, boilers, etc.) due to incomplete
most of the longwall emissions, is called the gas emission zone (GEZ). combustion (IEA, 2023b).
The properties of the GEZ, its gas-in-place (GIP) and the size of the Gob (or goaf) gas ventholes (or boreholes) (Fig. 6B) that are used to
longwall panels determine the quantity of methane emissions. In the control strata gas may be the biggest source of emissions from borehole
GEZ, bedding plane separations and stress-induced fractures are the degasification systems in active mining. Strata gas, or gob/goaf gas,
main pathways for gas transport into the mine and any boreholes starts liberating gas as the overlying and underlying formations subside,
extracting gas from overburden. relax and fracture during mining and can be a large contributor to the
Regardless of the mining method, all underground mines must use a emissions experienced in a mine, especially in the ventilation system.
6
the mining environment. Therefore, these ventholes can be a significant

method to reduce mine ventilation methane emissions if gob gas vent
hole production is captured and utilized or, at least, abated.
The design, placement, and productivity of gob gas ventholes largely
depend on the geology, rate of mining, panel width and the depth (e.g.,
Preusse, 2001; Karacan, 2015a). Gob gas ventholes are generally drilled
from the surface with a long open-hole (or slotted casing, Fig. 7A) sec
tion to capture the coal gas during and after mining. However, there
have been deep mines that used short boreholes (i.e., cross-measure
boreholes), instead, drilled at an angle into the overburden and under
lying strata to achieve the same purpose. In coal basins, e.g., Northern
Appalachian basin in the U.S., with mine designs that favor formation of
supercritical subsidence (panel width > depth), vertical gob gas vent
holes are generally drilled along the margins of the panel to take
advantage of higher permeability zones under tension (e.g., Schatzel
et al., 2012), whereas in areas, e.g., Central Appalachian and Black
Warrior basin of the U.S., that favor subcritical conditions (panel width
< depth), they can be drilled along the centerline of the panel.
Depending on the placement location and their depth proximity to the
mine, gob gas ventholes can produce pipeline-quality methane (e.g.,
Karacan, 2015a, 2023), or variable methane quality largely contami
nated with mine air. In the latter case, initially, methane concentration
Fig. 5. A typical high-capacity (14,160 m3/min) exhaust fan and ventilation can be high (~90 %), and there may be very little contamination by
shaft of an underground mine (Photo by C.Ö. Karacan). ventilation air. Later in time, gob gas production may exhibit decreased
methane concentration as more air is drawn from active mine workings.
Boreholes drilled from the surface are generally operated by exhausters
running with the produced gas, which partially abates methane emis
sions. However, unless there is a gas engine for on-site electricity or heat
generation or a flare system in place, it is common practice to release
variable quality gas to the atmosphere. Fig. 7B and C shows examples
from ventholes at two different mines in the U.S. producing high-
concentration methane sold to a pipeline and variable quality gob gas
released to atmosphere.
While less than underground mines, active surface mines also emit
large quantities of methane. Surface mining is performed using strip
mining, open-pit mining, and mountain-top removal methods (Fig. 8).
Since surface mining involves removing overburden or cutting through
strata covering the coal deposits, it exposes the coal seam, and some
times several of them, to the atmosphere. In that regard, surface mining
is not only more destructive to the landscape, but it releases environ
mental pollutants (primarily methane) directly into surrounding air and
watersheds. Fugitive emissions of methane are released from a large
area varying spatially and temporally across the mine site. This also
makes monitoring difficult, when coal and associated strata are blasted,
fractured, or excavated as part of the mining process (Saghafi, 2012).
Coals produced using surface mining methods generally have lower
gas content than coals mined underground. Therefore, although surface
mines generally produce more coal compared to underground mines, the
average methane emission per tonne of coal produced is usually less. For
example, when the range of methane emissions of all mines with similar
productivity is binned and plotted (Tate, 2022), there is a decline in
average emissions for coal productions surpassing 18 Mt. yr− 1, mostly
due to surface mines. This is because these larger mines tend to be
surface mines. The U.S. EPA reports that, in 2021, active surface mines
generated 196 kt methane, which corresponds to 11.2 % of all CMM
emissions in the U.S. (U.S. EPA, 2023b). In Australia, 30 % of all CMM
emissions, amounting to 268 kt, are from surface mines (Assan, 2022).
Fig. 6. Schematic representation of in-seam boreholes drilled from entries (A) Although surface mines generally emit less methane compared to deep
and fractured vertical and gob vent boreholes drilled from the surface (B) underground mines, the Global Energy Monitor (Tate, 2022) reports
(Karacan, 2009). surface mines operating in gassy seams in parts of China, Russia,
Indonesia, and South Africa are emitting more methane than average for
Since gob gas ventholes become productive only after they are under- surface mines. In fact, while median emissions from surface mines are
mined, they can also be considered part of post-mining degasification. estimated as 0.8 m3/t of mined coal, these gassy mines liberated up to 18
Gob gas ventholes capture released gas from the affected strata through m3/t, which is comparable to underground mine emissions. Degas
stress-relief fractures and bedding-plane separations (e.g., Palchik, ification is not as common in surface mines as found in underground
2020; Guo et al., 2012; Adhikary and Guo, 2015) before the gas enters mines due to lower gas content of the coal seams. However, in mines that
7
Fig. 7. Slotted casing used for completing a gob gas venthole, inset photograph scale in inches (A), gob gas ventholes producing high-quality methane sold to a
pipeline (B) and variable-quality methane released to atmosphere (C) (Photos by C.Ö. Karacan).
Fig. 8. A schematic representation of surface mining methods (Kentucky Geological Survey, 2023).
employ degasification systems, they have been proven to reduce emis emissions. After abandonment, most underground coal mines start
sions during mining (Marshall et al., 2017). accumulating gas, also known as abandoned mine methane (AMM), and
water into the old workings sourced from the mine GEZ and beyond. For
3.1.2. Fugitive emissions from post-mining operations longwall mines and the room-and-pillar mines, especially after retreat
After coal is mined and transported out of the mine, it undergoes a mining, fractured formations are the source of the methane emitted into
series of post-mining operations, called coal handling. Coal handling the previously mined workings. Fugitive emissions from abandoned
may include crushing, separation of impurities, size classification, dry underground mines through seals/shafts, venting pipes left in slopes and
ing, transportation, and storage. Since coal is removed from the mine shaft covers and other pathways, such as surface cracks and geological
shortly after being mined, part of its initial methane content – or discontinuities can be significant and present environmental and health
remaining after degasification – remains within the coal and is emitted issues (e.g., Chen et al., 2022a; Sechman et al., 2019; Voltattorni et al.,
during coal handling. As an approximation, it is assumed that a certain 2015). In addition to geological parameters, and sealing practices,
percentage of the initial gas content (40 % for British coals and 25–60 % external factors such as surface temperature, atmospheric pressure, and
for other areas) (Kirchgessner et al., 2000) remains in the coal after wind speed and direction may also affect methane emission fluctuations
mining and is emitted to the atmosphere during post-mining operations. from an abandoned underground mine (Lagny, 2014).
The actual amount of gas that escapes into the atmosphere is a function Despite the expected decrease in coal mining (IEA, 2022c), emissions
of the coal rank and maceral composition (which may impact desorption from abandoned mines are expected to increase (Kholod et al., 2020),
rate and how much gas remains in the coal), initial gas content, and the especially if coal mine closures are undertaken without proper planning
elapsed time after mining, or before coal utilization. Direct emissions and management. Therefore, pre-closure understanding of the GEZ of a
measurements from coal handling systems are unavailable. mine along with post-closure studies can help to characterize the nature
and the magnitude of potential emissions while minimizing the risk of
3.1.3. Emission sources after mine closure leaks. It is also important to understand the influence of the legal and
Mine closure is part of the coal lifecycle in countries with coal re regulatory status of abandoned mines and requirements to manage
sources and mining activities. Stopping production at an underground AMM emissions as these differ substantially from country to country (U.
coal mine with subsequent sealing and abandoning does not stop S. EPA, 2019d).
8
In 2021, 12.5 % of the CMM emissions in the U.S. (217 kt) was reporting that is required by the United Nations Framework Convention
estimated to be from abandoned underground mines (U.S. EPA, 2023a). on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2021). The accuracy of reporting from
Chen et al. (2022a) estimated China’s historical AMM emissions over the nearly 200 countries is important as this inventory serves as a reference
past 40 years (1980–2020). The results show that China’s AMM emis for the Global Methane Pledge (CCAC, 2024). The IPCC reporting
sions increased substantially from 0.11 ± 0.03 Mt. yr− 1 in 1980 to 4.7 ± scheme has three Tiers that are associated with increased confidence and
0.94 Mt. yr− 1 in 2020, with a potential to peak at 8.7 ± 2.6 Mt. yr− 1 in decreased uncertainty of emissions estimates for coal (IPCC, 2020).
2040, if unabated. Liu et al. (2024) conducted a study of coal mine Tier 1 is a global average method requiring selection of an emissions
closure strategy prioritizing closure of high emitting mines and consol factor within a range (10–25 m3/t) documented by the IPCC (IPCC,
idating production capacity. Their analysis both indicated considerable 2020), and national underground coal production data. The IPCC
underestimation of AMM emissions from China’s coal sector in previous default emission factors are gathered from several country-specific
BU inventories by a factor of 2–10 and such a strategy could decrease studies, and do not necessarily reflect the conditions in any particular
CMM emissions by 67 Tg (26 %) to 2050, potentially reaching 100 Tg country, and therefore introduce uncertainty. The Tier 1 approach re
(39 %) with improved methane recovery and utilization practices quires national underground and surface coal production data, which
without adversely affecting the cost of coal production. In Europe, can be obtained from relevant national agencies, for estimating national
abandoned underground mines emitted 258 kt of methane in 2020, or emissions. National coal production data is usually accurate and thus
27 % of EU’s CMM emissions (Assan and Campbell, 2023). In Australia, induces the least uncertainty on emission estimates. Tier 1 calculations
on the other hand, mines remain in “care and maintenance” state for for the coal mining category simply requires the multiplication of coal
years before being fully closed, and it is not clear how accurately production with a generic global emission factor and a units’ conversion
methane emissions from the “care and maintenance” stage are reported. factor.
For example, Ravensworth underground coal mine in New South Wales The Tier 2 method is a country- or basin-specific method, and thus
(Australia) emitted 1 Mt. CO2e (Carbon Dioxide equivalent) of methane uses emissions factors that are unique to a specific country or coal basin.
during “care and maintenance” and presently continues to leak methane The emission factors used in this method are usually derived through
to the atmosphere. Therefore, it is argued that the 35 kt of methane expert judgement or statistical analysis and are based on available, but
recorded by Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System usually limited, measurements. In the Tier 2 approach, a rough corre
(AGEIS) for abandoned mines is likely to be a large underestimation due lation of gas content with depth and emissions can be used as guide for
to a lack of accurate data (Assan, 2022). the choice of emission factor. Due to significant variation within a basin,
After surface mining of coal, on the other hand, coal companies the emission factor that is derived from correlations can be increased to
reclaim sites by grading, replacing topsoil, and revegetation driven by a account for emissions from surrounding strata including coal pillars,
specific set of soil, air, and water quality regulations, and health and overburden and underburden. The increase accounting for other con
safety standards (Acharya and Kharel, 2020). Emissions from aban tributions is termed as the emission factor coefficient. For the U.S.,
doned surface mines may be in the form of diffuse emissions through the Kholod et al. (2020) report a value of 1.7. Ju et al. (2016) report a range
soil covering the former mined land. In areas of decommissioned mines from 1.3 to 2.0 for a similar factor in China. In Tier 2, coal production
that are not reclaimed, emissions may continue as leaks from the coal data should follow the partition of emission factors based on coal basin
seams that were exposed or broken during mining. However, since the or political district, if that’s the case, within a country. Like Tier 1, coal
emissions may be low and dependent on the atmospheric pressure and production data, even when it is partitioned, is likely to have the least
temperature, they are generally hard to quantify. Presently, there are no uncertainty compared to basin- or district-specific emission factors.
methods for estimating emissions from abandoned surface mines (IPCC, The Tier 3 method relies on mine-specific data to develop national
2019). estimates. These data are usually measurements from ventilation and
degasification systems, which are more reliable than emission factors.
3.2. Methodologies to inventory emissions from coal mining sources and However, there are some sources of uncertainty that one should keep in
associated uncertainties mind. For instance, mines may or may not monitor methane emissions
continuously and may rely on periodic measurements of methane con
Emission inventories are frequently used as inputs for air quality centration and flow rate to estimate total emissions. The frequency of
modeling and can be the driver of mitigation strategies. Most in such sampling depends on national and local regulations, but ideally
ventories, regardless of pollutant(s), are time averaged for defined should be frequent enough to capture the variability in ventilation
geographic zones and can range from short-term averages at small scale emissions. Also, sampling should be performed during typical operating
facilities to annual averages for entire nations. Activity data of various conditions of the mine, avoiding temporary stops in coal production.
forms is the heart of any inventory and is used together with a relevant Since Tier 3 approach relies on mine-specific measurements from
emission factor to define a given source flux. The central question is how ventilation and degasification systems, coal production data are not
representative activity data and emission factors are, and what that used. It may be a good idea to still compare Tier 3 findings with the
means for the accuracy of inventories, subsequent air quality analysis, emission estimates based on coal production and emissions factors to
and potential mitigation programs (Rutherford et al., 2021). allow inventory experts to evaluate emissions factors relevant to specific
The inadequacy of oil and gas inventories was realized in the 2010’s. countries. In Tier 3, coal production can still be useful to back-calculate
Local and national scale inventories for this sector were consistently emission factors from previous data when direct measurements are not
lower than the level required to explain the atmospheric behavior of available for a specific year. Reporting based on empirical measure
methane (Brandt et al., 2014). Inventories did not properly represent ments can reduce uncertainty by accounting for temporal variability
activities and some emission factors were inappropriately applied that is driven by the myriad of geologic or mine management influences.
(Vaughn et al., 2018). Improvements to the quality of inventories have National government estimations for emissions from coal mining are
been facilitated through a variety of measurement-based approaches predominately from inventory-based BU methods based on the three
that have provided estimations from the geographic basin, down to an IPCC reporting Tiers. For many years, national inventories have been at
individual facility scale (Bell et al., 2017; Mielke-Maday et al., 2019). the core of several international emissions estimates. However, non-
Building from over a decade of research UNEP’s Oil and Gas Methane Annex 1 countries, mostly developed OECD countries, some of which
Partnership (OGMP 2.0) was created to provide improved methodolo are major coal producers, either have not updated their emissions
gies for estimation of emissions for this sector. A similar level of scrutiny, regularly or created a reporting scheme to compile data for national
as applied to oil and gas, has not yet been applied to the coal sector. estimates (Tate, 2022). The irregularities in nationally reported in
Arguably the most important methane inventory is the national ventories, differences in applied methodologies for emissions estimates
9
(Olczak and Piebalgs, 2021) and national reporting requirements have mines (GMI, 2024). The share of CMM extraction and utilization was
an inevitable impact on the consistency of emission estimates. Particu reported to increase from ~0.21 Mt. in 2010 to ~14.6 Mt. in 2019 (Lu
larly, UNFCCC estimates are dependent upon the accuracy of national et al., 2021). Overall CMM emissions in China decreased by 8.41 Tg from
reporting. Some of the countries with the highest methane emissions 22.66 Tg yr− 1 in 2010 to 14.25 Tg yr− 1 in 2019 according to Gao et al.
from the fossil fuel sector report emissions to the UNFCCC lower than (2021). Chen et al. (2022b) report comparable results with coal mining
estimated through atmospheric inversions (Deng et al., 2022). as responsible for 16.6 Tg yr− 1 in 2019. For this time period, other re
Between 2000 and 2009, estimates of global methane emissions from searchers have proposed different emission magnitudes, with some
coal mining reported by Saunois et al. (2024) ranged between 29 and 32 indicating increasing trends, highlighting the need for better and more
Tg y− 1, representing approximately 33 % of all fossil-fuel-related consistent BU methods (Sheng et al., 2019; Lin et al., 2021). By contrast,
methane emissions (Saunois et al., 2024). This improvement, using TD methods, Miller et al. (2019) reported that China’s methane
compared to range of 29–61 Tg y− 1 reported for the period 2009 to emissions increased from 2010 to 2015, and that this increase was likely
2017, is due, partly, to more complete data from major coal producing driven by CMM emissions. However, they do report mean CMM emis
countries. While there is consistency of estimates for the coal sector, sions over 2010–2015 of ~18 Tg yr− 1, which is of comparable magni
Saunois et al. (2020) highlight the potential for significant errors tude to recent BU estimates (Gao et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022b).
emanating from the use of emission factors, and the UNFCCC Tier 1 There has been a lack of consistency between various independent
approach. When considered together with other energy sources, global TD and BU estimates of CMM emissions for China. Therefore, the ability
emissions of methane are also relatively consistent, with the notable of current BU methods to accurately estimate CMM emissions in China
exception of UNFCCC estimates that are 79.2 Tg yr− 1 compared to has been questioned and the inaccuracy of AMM estimates, generic
values from 119.2. Tg yr− 1 to 145.9 Tg yr− 1 for other global estimates emission factors, and surface mining contributions were highlighted (Ju
(UNFCCC, 2021; Crippa et al., 2021; O’Rourke et al., 2021; Saunois et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2020, 2021). Additionally,
et al., 2020, 2024; IEA, 2022d). UNFCCC emissions data for Chinese coal mines was last updated in
A new model-based CMM abatement initiative by the IEA seeks to 2014. By contrast with other energy sectors, Chen et al. (2022b) report
refine estimations of CMM emissions while defining costs of mitigation that current best estimates are lower than current inventory estimates
at the national and global level (IEA, 2023a). The IEA (2023a) estimates for the coal sector. Chen et al. (2022a) report that AMM emissions have
for CMM emissions are derived from emission intensities that are been growing substantially in China and, if unabated, could each 8.7 Tg
calculated using best available data from inventories, satellites, and y− 1 in 2040.
atmospheric measurements. Emission intensities reveal the methane Ji et al. (2017) stated that there had been several emission estimation
released per tonne of coal mined and indicate mitigation potential and methods for CMM and suggested that with large regional differences and
differences related to the mining approach and coal being mined. geological complexities, the universality of these methods was proven
Emission intensities for major thermal coal producers, range from 3.8 to unsuitable for all mining areas (e.g., Jiaozuo mining area). They
7.7 kg CH4/t of coal equivalent. Except for Australia, (4.8 kg CH4/t of concluded that pre-drainage that was not quantified accurately was the
coal equivalent range) emission intensities for major coking coal pro main reason for inaccurate estimations. Therefore, they developed a
ducers range from 12.2 to 17.2 kg CH4/t of coal equivalent. Australia is method taking pre-mining drainage into account and verified six coal
the outlier as its metallurgical coal is predominately from surface min mines with minimum errors of 12.11 %, 9.23 %, 5.77 %, 5.20 %, 8.75 %
ing. The higher emission intensity for metallurgical coal elsewhere is and 4.92 % compared to other methods. Sheng et al. (2019) recognized
due to greater depth and gassiness associated with this type of produc that China has large but uncertain CMM emissions and suggested that
tion (IEA, 2023a). IEA (2023a) estimate a value of ~40 Tg yr− 1 for inverse modeling (TD) of atmospheric methane observations could help
global CMM emissions from coal mining. This estimate does not include improve the emission estimates. For this objective, they developed a
emissions from abandoned mines. This value is in close agreement with high-resolution (0.25◦ × 0.25◦ ) methane emission inventory for China’s
the Saunois et al. (2024) estimate of 41 Tg yr− 1 (range 38–43 Tg yr− 1) coal mining using a publicly available database of more than 10,000 coal
for coal mining in 2022, but higher than the value of 32.7 ± 5.2 Tg yr− 1 mines for 2011 in China. Contrary to EDGAR v4.2 and EDGAR v4.3.2
reported by Shen et al. (2023). (Crippa et al., 2021), their results suggested that CMM emissions have
been decreasing since 2012 considering coal mining activities and
3.3. Status of estimating CMM emissions with select national and regional assuming time-invariant emission factors. However, they found that
case studies regional trends differed greatly too. Zhang et al. (2023) estimated that
methane emissions from coal- and gas-outburst-prone mines account for
3.3.1. China about 64 % of total net methane emissions, while other highly gassy
China has been the world’s largest coal producer for the past three mines account for 36 %. They predicted that methane emission factors
decades and is the world’s leading contributor of CMM emissions. The U. from Shanxi coal mines will steadily increase from 8.859 m3/t in 2016 to
S. EPA (2019a) estimates that China accounted for 44 % of global CMM 9.136 m3/t in 2025, and methane emissions will reach 8.43 Tg in 2025.
emissions in 2015. In recent years, the Chinese government is in the Wang et al. (2019) analyzed 10,951 underground coal mines for
process of closing small, inefficient, and unsafe mines: in 1990 there developing an emission factor matrix for national and provincial scales
were over 100,000 mines; as of 2018 there were 5800, of which 4383 and expanded the results using bootstrap and Monte Carlo methods to
held licenses (GMI, 2020). assess uncertainty. They showed that emission factors ranged from
Emissions from coal mining are the leading source of methane 3.005 m3/t to 54.487 m3/t, and from 0.58 m3/t to 56.19 m3/t at the
emissions for China (Wang et al., 2019). Peng et al. (2016) reported that national and provincial scales, respectively, and argued that they are
the fast increase of Chinese national emissions in the 2000s, as compared more representative than the default values recommended by the IPCC.
to previous decades, was driven by coal production. Gao et al. (2021) Zhu et al. (2017) studied 23 major coal producing provinces in China for
estimate that annual average CMM emissions from 2010 to 2019 in CMM emissions and concluded that 15.8 Tg yr− 1 of methane was
China were 20.11 Tg yr− 1. Furthermore, during this period, a declining released from the coal mining industry in 2018. They found that Shanxi
trend was reported of 0.91 Tg yr− 1 as being due to CMM utilization, Province’s methane emissions are much higher than other provinces,
increased contributions from surface mining, and closure of gassy mines accounting for 35.5 % of the country’s total CMM emissions.
(Liu et al., 2012). Chen et al. (2022a) estimated China’s historical AMM emissions over
As of March 2024, the Global Methane Initiative CMM International the past 40 years (1980–2020) and projected its AMM emissions to
Projects Database listed 58 projects in operation for the optimization of 2060, which is the target year for China’s carbon neutrality goal. The
degasification systems to reduce methane emissions from Chinese coal results show that China’s AMM emissions increased substantially from
10
0.11 were mostly for underground mines and were geology- and engineering-
± 0.03 Mt. yr− 1 in 1980 to 4.7 ± 0.94 Mt. yr− 1 in 2020. An accel focused towards understanding the source and prediction of emissions
erated AMM emission growth rate was found during 1998–2005, by for mines operating at similar conditions (Schatzel et al., 2012; Karacan
approximately three times, due to a high number of mine shutdowns. In and Olea, 2013; Karacan and Warwick, 2019; Karacan, 2023). These
2019, AMM emissions became the fourth largest anthropogenic source studies utilized on-site monitoring, as well as different empirical, sta
in China, higher than the national anthropogenic methane emissions of tistical, and theoretical approaches for emission estimates. To generalize
individual UNFCCC Annex I countries excluding the U.S. and the Russian the results for different mine settings operating in different States, and
Federation. If unabated, China’s AMM emissions were projected to peak for more accurate emission predictions from longwall mines, software
at 8.7 ± 2.6 Mt. yr− 1 in 2040 and reach approximately one-third of was developed using artificial neural networks in combination with
China’s anthropogenic emissions in 2060. statistical and mathematical techniques (Dougherty and Karacan, 2011).
Qin et al. (2024) introduced a comprehensive attempt to estimate This software predicts ventilation emissions, besides other capabilities
CMM emissions for Shanxi Province using BU and TD approaches. Data that can be used for estimating methane emissions in coal mining, based
gathered from 636 individual coal mines, along with the IPCC Tier 2 on several parameters related to coal characteristics, mining conditions
approach utilizing three to five sets of observed emission factors were and productivity.
used to compile a range of BU CMM emissions for each mine. An eddy- To help with creating an improved inventory of methane emissions
covariance tower was set up near the ventilation fan of a well- from coal mining in the U.S., Kirchgessner et al. (2000) performed a
characterized coal mine and was used to produce observed methane study and recognized the scarcity or complete absence of direct mea
fluxes over a two-month period. This was later used to produce a set of surements from mining operations (underground and surface). Lack of
scaling factors to revise preliminary BU emission estimates to account knowledge regarding the different life cycles of coal mining was noted as
for both bias and temporal variability. The resulting emissions dataset one of the common weaknesses for regional emission estimates. They
was compared with EDGAR database (European Commission, 2024). collected new methane emissions measurements and other data for the
The study found that Shanxi’s methane emissions were within the 50th most poorly characterized mining operations to better understand
and 70th percentile range of the database and indicated significant emissions characteristics of individual sources and to develop an
spatial and temporal disparities. improved methane emission estimation methodology for the U.S. coal
In addition to past and existing efforts to estimate and mitigate CMM mining industry. The estimated emissions from all major mining sources
emissions in China, the International Centre of Excellence on Coal Mine in the U.S. were ~ 4.67 Mt., which was 6 % higher than estimates
Methane (ICE-CMM) in China was launched in September 2017, with published by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) for 1995 (DOE,
the objective of serving as a regional and international center for best 1995).
practices in gas capture and utilization (https://globalmethane.org/ch Regional and nationwide estimates of CMM and AMM emissions are
allenge/china.html). Established through a memorandum of under largely performed by the U.S. EPA, which also develops different tools
standing (MoU) with the United Nations Economic Commission of (e.g., U.S. EPA, 2020a) for emission estimates. Since 2010, the infor
Europe (UNECE), the ICE-CMM is a non-governmental organization mation gathered by the GHG Reporting Rule (GHG Reporting Program,
operating under its own charter. The Center is hosted by one of China’s GHGRP, https://www.epa.gov/ghgreporting) has given the U.S. EPA a
largest coal producers, Shanxi Coking Coal Group Ltd. (SCCG). The better understanding of the relative emissions of specific industries and
Center promotes increasing clean power generation, reducing green of individual facilities. The GHG Reporting Rule requires underground
house gas emissions, and improving mine safety. In addition, the ICE coal mines that liberate ~1.034 Mm3 (~0.67 Mt) or more greenhouse
serves as a forum for communication and exchange among Chinese and gases annually must report their net ventilation and drainage flows
international experts (UNECE, 2017a). along with the portion of flow that is emitted and the portion recovered
for use or flaring. Facilities submit annual monitoring reports to U.S.
3.3.2. The United States (U.S.) EPA by 31 March of the year following the reporting year (UNECE,
Coal mines are the fourth largest methane emitting sector in the U.S., 2021). All reporting is performed through a secure online portal. In
accounting for ~8 % of anthropogenic methane emissions (U.S. EPA, 2022, 61 mines reported, totaling 26.5 Mt. of emissions. The GHG
2023b). Underground mines are the largest source of CMM emissions, Reporting Rule allows calculating emissions from mine ventilation sys
releasing gas from mine ventilation shafts and degasification wells. In tems through grab samples, by using Continuous Emissions Monitoring
2015, 220 underground mines released ~1.6 Mt. of methane from (CEMS) to calculate total emissions, or from air sampling results from
ventilation shafts, equating to 65 % of all methane produced by active MSHA’s (Mine Safety and Health Administration) quarterly inspections.
underground coal mines. Between 2011 and 2015 ventilation and To calculate emissions from degasification systems, mines must use
degasification emissions decreased due to the restructuring of the coal either grab samples or CEMS. In the U.S., reported and verified data
industry. However, this decrease has translated to only a 16 % decline in were used to guide the voluntary outreach and capacity building pro
VAM emissions, while the number of mines decreased by over 47 %. This grams such as the Global Methane Initiative (GMI) (https://www.
is because most of mine closures were smaller room-and-pillar mines, as globalmethane.org/) and Coalbed Methane Outreach Program (CMOP)
opposed to longwall mines. About 16 % of 2015 emissions from coal (https://www.epa.gov/cmop), managed by the U.S. EPA.
mining were attributable to surface mining and post-surface mining Barkley et al. (2019) estimated emissions from coal and natural gas
operations (U.S. EPA, 2018). In 2015, underground mines liberated sources in the Northern Appalachian basin by using aircraft data from
~2.3 Mt. of methane. In the U.S., CMM emissions declined, driven by six flights between 2015 and 2016. Atmospheric methane observations
declining coal production and increased utilization of CMM for energy. were compared with modeled concentration fields, and emissions from
In 2020, ~48 % of CMM from underground mines was recovered coal and gas were adjusted within the model to create output that
compared to ~28 % in 2005 (Zhao et al., 2022). matched the observed plume. Additionally, ethane, which is present in
In the U.S., most coalbed methane and emission reduction studies natural gas sources, measurements in the region were used to differen
were started by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM; cf. Taylor and Karacan, tiate between coal and gas emissions, and a final range of possible
2010). As in other countries, the primary objective of these endeavors emissions was provided for each source. The study presented one of the
was to reduce methane emissions in mines, and therefore ensuring first aircraft-based emission estimates of underground coal mines in the
workers’ safety. The USBM, which later became the National Institute of U.S. and reported that methane emissions from underground coal mines
Occupational Safety and Health’s (NIOSH) mining program, led these in Southwestern Pennsylvania to be a factor of 0.7–1.5 times higher than
efforts and developed various technologies to reduce emissions in mines values reported by the U.S. EPA.
(Taylor and Karacan, 2010). These regional and facility-based studies Varon et al. (2020) used the GHGSat-D satellite instrument with 50 m
11
effective spatial resolution and 9–18 % single-pass column precision to also acknowledged that the predictions may be affected by market
quantify mean source rates for three coal mine vents, including the San conditions and from the operational parameters that are not included in
Juan Mine, New Mexico, over a two-year period (2016− 2018). Source their predictor set. Swolkień (2020) discussed short-term methane
rates were estimated from time-averaged plumes using two different emissions, ranging from 29 to 54 m3/min, from ventilation shafts by
methods: the integrated mass enhancement (IME) method and the cross- measuring concentrations and airflows. These measurements have also
sectional flux (CSF) method. A mean emission rate of 2320 ± 1050 kg been used to verify sensitivity of airborne test equipment and to validate
h− 1 was estimated for the San Juan mine’s ventilation shaft. Franken the measurements obtained during the CoMet (Carbon Dioxide and
berg et al. (2016) estimated emissions of 360–2800 kg h− 1 for the same Methane Mission) campaign (e.g., Luther et al., 2018), which led to the
mine on several days of aircraft remote-sensing measurements, and conclusion that short-term data from individual shafts could be more
Smith et al. (2017) inferred a mean emission rate of 1446 kg h− 1 from reliable than annual averages and could improve methane flux esti
five days of aircraft mass-balance measurements during the same period. mates. Swolkień et al. (2022) further note that safety sensor networks
Quarterly in situ measurements of the shaft flow rate and methane could be dual purposed to greatly improve emissions reporting from
concentration reported to the U.S. EPA in 2017 from the San Juan mine underground coal mines.
indicated 2585 kg h− 1 averaged over the year, which agreed with the The USB, as the most active coal producing area in Europe, has
GHGSat-D estimates. become a test bed for evaluating sensitivity and validation of different
Since enhancing GHG measurement and monitoring capabilities is remote sensing methods for assessing coal mine emissions. Kostinek
foundational to achieving emission-reduction targets and for assessing et al. (2021) used a quantum cascade inter band cascade laser
the effectiveness of climate actions, the U.S. has announced the National (QCL–ICL)-based spectrometer aboard the German Aerospace Center
Strategy to Advance an Integrated U.S. Greenhouse Gas Measurement, (DLR) Cessna 208B. They performed high-precision observations
Monitoring and Information System (The White House, 2023). The downwind of local (e.g., single facilities) to regional-scale (e.g., ag
Strategy aims to use data capabilities that currently exist but are spread glomerations) sources in the context of the CoMet 1.0 campaign in early
across various federal and non-federal entities. The goals are to enhance summer 2018.
coordination and integration of these capabilities and leverage recent The research found instantaneous coal mine emission estimates that
scientific and technological advances to provide more comprehensive, could be translated to 451/423 ± 77/79 kt yr− 1 for the morning/af
granular and timely data to support climate action. The Strategy ternoon flight of 6 June 2018. The emission rates were found to be
focusing on collective GHG measurement and monitoring efforts for distinctly lower than values reported in EDGAR v4.3.2 database
federal and non-federal entities aims to maximize GHG data derived (Janssens-Maenhout et al., 2019). Discrepancies were argued to be due
from activity-level estimates and/or atmospheric measurements, to instantaneous emission estimates over short-term sampling versus
develop quality assurance and quality control, and help modeling of yearly averaged inventories. Luther et al. (2022) reported methane
systems and activities that produce GHG emissions and removals. The emission estimates for coal mine ventilation in the USB. The estimates
Strategy foresees a coordination effort between federal agencies by were driven by pairwise upwind–downwind observations of the column-
forming a coal mine emission working group that will coordinate the average dry-air mole fractions of methane by a network of four portable,
federal efforts to improve methane emissions estimates from coal mines. ground-based, Fourier transform spectrometers operated during the
One of the objectives of this effort is reconciliation of methane emissions CoMet campaign in May–June 2018. Instantaneous emission estimates
estimates from atmospheric-based approaches with activity-based ap ranged between 80 and 133 kt y− 1 for the southeastern part of the basin
proaches at active underground coal mines. and between 414 and 790 kt y− 1 for more extensive areas. These values
were found to be higher than expected from the annual emissions re
3.3.3. Poland ported by the E-PRTR (European Pollutant Release and Transfer Regis
Poland has the second largest bituminous coal reserves, distributed ter, 2024 - https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/me
in the Upper and Lower Silesian Basins, and the Lublin Basin, in the mber-states-reporting-art-7-under-the-european-pollutant-release-a
European Union (EU). The Upper Silesian Basin (USB) is currently the nd-transfer-register-e-prtr-regulation-23/european-pollutant-release-a
major coal producing region, while the Lower Silesian Basin has been nd-transfer-register-e-prtr-data-base). Uncertainties in these estimates
abandoned from coal mining activities (GMI, 2015). According to the ranged between 23 % and 36 %, mainly dominated by the error
greenhouse gas data reported to the UNFCCC, coal mines in the EU contribution from uncertain wind fields. Fiehn et al. (2020) performed
emitted 943,000 t of methane in 2020, making the coal industry the aircraft- and ground-based in situ observations of methane, CO2, black
single largest methane emitter in the energy sector. Currently, almost carbon, and wind speed for two research flights over the USB in 2018, as
two-thirds of the EU’s CMM emissions come from Poland, with most of part of the CoMet mission. Interpolated concentrations between the
reported emissions originating from the country’s 12 highly gassy un downwind transects of the methane gas plume were used to calculate
derground hard coal mines (Assan and Campbell, 2023). In 2023, 62 % mass flux estimates. For the two selected flights, annual methane
of CMM was emitted from ventilation shafts of the mines, while 38 % emissions estimates were 13.8 ± 4.3 and 15.1 ± 4.0 kg s− 1, which were
was captured using degasification systems. In total, ~0.5 Mt. of methane found to be within range of emission inventories. The methane emission
was released from Polish hard coal mines (www.wug.gov.pl). In Poland, estimates had a relative error of 26 % – 31 %, mainly due to the un
methane emissions from underground coal mining account for about certainty of atmospheric background mole fractions and the changing
33.8 % of total methane emissions (Dreger, 2021). planetary boundary layer height during the morning flight. Andersen
Dreger and Kędzior (2021) analyzed emissions from Budryk and et al. (2023) flew an active AirCore system aboard an unmanned aerial
Pniówek mines between 1994 and 2018 by combining the data with vehicle (UAV) to obtain methane and CO2 mole fractions 150–300 m
information in geological and engineering reports and inferred the ef downwind of five individual ventilation shafts in the USB, conducting 34
fects of mining-depth changes and other features on emissions. They UAV flights to quantify emissions from individual shafts. The quantified
concluded that temporal variability of methane emissions coincided emissions were highly correlated with hourly inventory data-based
with the depth of coal extraction, coal production, mine design and shaft-averaged methane emissions. By upscaling the quantified emis
presence of geological discontinuities. Tutak and Brodny (2019) devel sions, they were able to make regional estimates for the basin, which
oped a prediction model based on artificial neural networks and were in the range of 268–447 kt y− 1 depending on the applied approach.
employed different predictors affecting emissions. They developed the Krautwurst et al. (2021) focused on methane column anomalies
model using data for the same time interval (1994–2018) and extended retrieved from spectral radiance observations acquired by the Methane
predictions until 2025 as the forecast period. They argued that a pre Airborne mapper (MAMAP) instrument. The observations were made
diction system can be used to estimate emissions for future years, but during several overflights on different days. The column anomalies,
12
combined with wind lidar measurements, were inverted to fluxes, which estimation, it also provides a discussion of coal seam gas measurement
were then compared with reported emissions from clusters of coal mine and surface mine-specific fugitive gas estimation concepts derived by
ventilation shafts. The MAMAP methane fluxes were estimated for four ACARP (The Australian Coal Association Research Program). Consid
clusters with a total of 23 ventilation shafts, which were responsible for ering that 80 % of Australia’s mines are surface mines, the differences in
about 40 % of the total methane mining emissions in the target area. The emission factors can have a very large impact on the country’s reported
average methane flux for the single cluster ranged from about 1 to 9 t emissions.
h− 1 at the time of the campaign. The fluxes observed at one cluster Surface mines can be highly relevant in Australia as major emitters.
during different overflights varied by as much as 50 % of the average For instance, Sadavarte et al. (2021), by analyzing two years of TRO
value. It has been pointed out that associated errors (15 % to 59 % of the POMI satellite observations, quantified methane emissions from coal
average flux) varied depending on the wind conditions, the number of mines in Queensland. A total of six analyzed surface and underground
flight tracks, and the magnitude of the flux itself. coal mines emitted 570 ± 98 Gg yr− 1 in 2018–2019. More importantly,
To help with curbing its CMM emissions, the Polish International for two of the three locations, satellite-based estimates were signifi
Centre of Excellence on Coal Mine Methane (ICE-CMM) was established cantly higher than those reported to the government and 40 % of the
in 2017, as a non-profit organization through collaborative efforts with quantified emissions came from the Hail Creek surface mine located in
the UNECE (https://globalmethane.org/challenge/poland.html). The Bowen Basin.
Center is hosted by the Central Mining Institute in Katowice. Operating Australian underground coal mines traditionally used European
within the organizational structure of the Chamber of the Natural Gas methods to predict their underground gas emissions (Qu et al., 2022). In
Industry. The principal objective of ICE-CMM is to actively support 1982, five European methods were compared at a longwall mine in
economic viability of methane abatement and utilization, environmen Australia to establish predictions of ventilation gas quantity with find
tally responsible methane management and the promotion of industry ings showing significant errors. Considering the differences between
best practices (UNECE, 2017b). European and Australian mining conditions, Hargraves (1986) proposed
hybrid methods of predicting maximum gas emission curves based on
3.3.4. Australia various European methods. Furthermore, numerical methods based on
The majority of Australia’s bituminous coal production comes from modeling were also presented (Lunarzewski, 1992; Guo et al., 2009).
Hunter and Bowen basins in Queensland and New South Wales (NSW) However, due to impracticality, these methods have not been used
(GMI, 2015). In 2019, Australian coal companies reported 898,000 t of extensively to predict gas emissions. In the absence of alternate and
methane emissions to the Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information improved gas emission prediction methods, the Flugge method and
System (AGEIS), which now is replaced with Australia National Green Winter method are commonly used in Australian longwall mines (Belle,
house Accounts (ANGA) system as the official source for tracking Aus 2017). Qu et al. (2022), based on gas content measurements before and
tralia’s progress towards international emissions reduction after mining, concluded that the Winter model significantly under
commitments (https://greenhouseaccounts.climatechange.gov.au/). estimated gas emissions and was inadequate for estimating the height of
This quantity corresponded to 5 % of Australia’s total GHG emissions the GEZ at different mines in Bowen Basin, and developed a new
and 68 % of the emissions from the energy sector in that year. The ANGA empirical model for predicting the specific gas emissions for Bowen
data shows that the majority (62 %) of reported CMM emissions were Basin mines and other mines with similar mining conditions.
due to active underground coal mines, while surface mines generated 30 Varon et al. (2020) used the GHGSat-D satellite to quantify mean
% of the emissions. The remaining emissions were from post mining source rate for the Appin mine in NSW and obtained 5850 ± 2360 kg h− 1
activities and abandoned mines. Despite the reported emissions, the IEA emission rate from a single vent. Ong et al. (2017) approximated
estimates indicated 1.8 Mt. methane emissions from Australian coal emissions of 10,800–12,600 kg h− 1 from the Appin mine, based on es
mines in 2021 (Assan, 2022), and it is argued that there could be a large timates of the vent flow rate and air stream methane concentration.
discrepancy between reported values and actual emissions. Sadavarte Cardno Forbes Rigby (2009), on the other hand, used coal production
et al. (2022) presented a high-resolution 0.1o x 0.1o BU gridded emission data and the emission factors from Australian National Greenhouse
inventory for methane emissions from coal mines in Australia to reduce Accounts (NGA) and estimated emissions as ~5200 kg h− 1. Considering
the uncertainty in emissions and to improve the spatial localizations, the timing of measurements and the activity were different in each of
which showed large differences from current global inventories. these cases, the estimates can be considered as being close. In general,
In Australia, the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting (NGER) Varon et al. (2020) concluded that time-averaged methane emissions
program provides the framework for monitoring and reporting of GHG from large coal mine vents (>1000 kg h− 1) could be estimated with ~40
emissions across all sectors. Under legislation that supports NGER, fa % uncertainty.
cilities that emit GHGs must report their annual emissions if they exceed Neininger et al. (2021) surveyed coal-seam-gas-production-related
certain thresholds (100,000 tCO2e). In the NGER scheme, underground sources located in an NW to SE trending region of approximately 50
mines are required to directly measure, while surface mines can use km (NE–SW) by 150 km (NW–SE) in the Surat Basin. The study was
‘emissions factors’, which do not consider the variation in gas content conducted through 11 research flights over seven days. Then, the grid
between different coal beds and pertinent geology, in their estimates. ded BU inventory, was used to attribute source categories, including coal
For example, Australian surface mines used nominal emission factor seam gas and surface mines, to the airborne measurement-based TD
values of 3.2 m3/t and 1.2 m3/t for the two main coal producing states of estimates and to compare BU and TD total methane emissions. The
New South Wales and Queensland, respectively. These values were used TD–BU reconciliation indicated that coal bed methane production
for all mines in these States, respective of the level of ‘gassiness’ of sources emit about 0.4 % of the produced gas, which is two to three
specific coal seams and strata (Saghafi, 2012). Therefore, the disparity times greater than existing inventories for the region.
between different estimates might be due to the influence of how
emissions from surface mines are estimated. To address the issue related 3.4. Implications of existing measurement and accounting procedures for
to emission factors, Saghafi (2012) developed a Tier-3 mine-specific tracking current and future emissions
methodology applicable to Australian surface mines for BU reporting. In
2023, The Clean Energy Regulator (CER) published guidelines (CER, This section, so far, described the status of CMM emission estima
2023) to promote better reporting in NGER by assisting registered cor tions by focusing on multiple countries from different geographies.
porations and relevant companies to estimate and report emissions Here, we illustrate several common features across these geographies
(including fugitive emissions) from coal mines. While this document still regarding the current state of knowledge about the magnitude and
preserves emission factors as an acceptable method of emission trends of CMM emissions estimated based on BU and TD approaches.
13
First and foremost, the existing datasets exhibit several limitations of have increased or declined in the 2010s given the contrary evidence
various emission inventories. In China, mine-specific data show the among TD studies (Peng et al., 2016; Sheng et al., 2019; Miller et al.,
large variability of emission factors across mines, up to an order of 2019; Gao et al., 2021). Future studies using satellite data combined
magnitude for underground mines alone (Wang et al., 2019). The lack of with publicly available mine-level location information on active and
consistency between TD measurements and BU estimates questions the abandoned mines will be needed to close the knowledge gap.
use of generic emission factors. As alluded to earlier, emissions ac Pilot research is underway to address the above shortcomings about
counting for mine-specific data including coal geology and gas drainage monitoring mine emissions and the discrepancies between inventories
and utilization are key for accurate reporting and avoiding reporting and TD measurements. In China, a project using local TD measurements
biases. Similarly, there is substantial inconsistency across inventories in has assessed the accuracy of emission factors (Qin et al., 2024). If suc
Australia where satellite data suggest underestimations of emissions cessful and scalable, the outcomes may be used for an assessment of
reported in inventories (Sadavarte et al., 2022). State-level single regional or even national scale emissions. In the U.S., a TD study illus
emission factors for surface mines disregard the variability of geology trated how to use independent airborne measurement data to assess the
across mines and coal properties, and hence the variability in absolute accuracy of EPA’s regional CMM estimates (Barkley et al., 2019). Such
emissions. Alternative estimation approaches based on modeling, which an approach, combined with an on-site monitoring component, would
account for this variability have been discussed in Australia but have not address the existing gap in contemporaneous TD and BU comparison. In
been successfully validated by gas content measurements (Saghafi, Australia, studies are underway to use repeat airborne measurements to
2012). These general limitations underline the need for location-specific validate previous satellite-based emissions of individual mines
measurements to improve the accuracy of current inventories. (Borchardt et al., 2024). Altogether, these pilot efforts, together with an
There is a lack of widely available data with higher temporal reso increasing amount of satellite data will support monitoring CMM
lution across the world. In Australia, and elsewhere, several satellite emissions, as well as tracking the execution of mitigation action.
estimates described earlier in this section generally suffer from repre
senting only a few snapshots, which makes a comparison with annual- 4. Opportunities for controlling and mitigating CMM emissions
based inventories challenging, especially in the absence of publicly
available BU estimates with a fine-scale temporal resolution. Our un Approximately 40 Mt. of CMM (70 % from underground coal mines)
derstanding of the accuracy of existing national reporting would thus were emitted to the atmosphere in 2022, representing more than 10 % of
benefit from future studies combining TD surveys with contempora total anthropogenic methane emissions (IEA, 2023b). Mining of lower
neous BU data for the same mines. For surface mines, due to the areal rank coals accounted for 75 % of these emissions, while metallurgical
extend of emissions, more detailed studies are needed for BU and TD coal production accounted for the remaining 25 %. The IEA’s Net Zero
assessments over wide range of time frames to characterize the true Emissions by 2050 Scenario suggests methane emissions from coal
temporal variability of emissions, and to provide annually representa production will decrease more than 70 % by 2030, mostly due to a
tive emission estimates for comparison with inventories. Similarly in the projected decrease for coal demand, particularly demand for lower rank
U.S., national reporting is based on infrequent samples, e.g., quarterly coals, by 50 % (IEA, 2023b). However, despite CMM reduction pro
inspections, which do not account for the temporal variability in emis jections linked to decrease in coal demand, some countries (e.g.,
sions, which include hourly and diurnal changes as well as variability Australia, China, Russia) have been on track to expand coal production
over longer periods (U.S. EPA, 2020a). with new mines (Assan, 2022).
Several TD studies of the same coal mine using airborne, in-situ and In Europe, a turning point to reduce CMM can be the new regulation
remote sensing as well as satellite measurements were roughly consis (methane emissions reduction in the energy sector), agreed to by the EU
tent among methods, but they exhibited variability of almost an order of Council and the Parliament on tracking and reducing methane emissions
magnitude between methods (Frankenberg et al., 2016; Smith et al., in the energy sector (Council of the EU, 2023). The Council and the
2017; Varon et al., 2020). While this observed variability of point-in- Parliament have agreed on specific deadlines and frequencies for
time measurements could be due to temporal changes in the true monitoring, reporting and inspections of potential sources of methane
emission rate, no such investigation was possible so far given the lack of emissions. The regulation includes control of emissions from active
high temporal resolution BU data in the U.S. EPA inventory or in other underground mines producing steam coal, as well as abandoned un
public sources. In Poland, a few examples of mine-level BU data are derground mines. In accordance with monitoring, reporting and miti
available to validate the impact of temporal variability on emissions gation measures, mines that have been closed or abandoned for less than
using closely coordinated airborne measurements (Swolkień, 2020; 70 years come under the scope of the obligations of the regulation, with
Swolkień et al., 2022). In that respect, continuous monitoring systems an exemption for mines that have been fully flooded for more than 10
can be dual-purposed, besides ensuring safety, to quantify emissions at years. For operating mines, the regulation sets a threshold at 5 t CH4 per
high temporal resolution at the mine-level. Further research for the dual kt of coal (t/kt) mined from ventilation shafts, which will then be
use approach may include demonstrating the performance and deter restricted further to 3 t/kt by 2031. Under the new regulation, the EU’s
mining any potential biases of the measurement devices in the prevalent CMM emissions could be reduced by 40 % by 2040 (Assan and Campbell,
operating conditions, thereby accounting for environmental effects such 2023). The IEA (2023b) further states that CMM emissions regulations
as dust and humidity levels. This is key to ensure that the repurposed should be integrated with capture and mitigation strategies that are
instrumentation satisfies the accuracy and precision requirements for supported by financing options and better and more transparent data to
the new measurement goal of quantifying methane fluxes in addition to drive emissions reductions at the pace and scale needed, especially with
providing safety alerts. coal expansion plans in countries that are already among the largest
Tracking CMM emissions over a long period of time is still in its in emitters.
fancy given the small number of local pilot studies, none of which have In 2021, the U.S. announced a program for reducing methane
so far been repeated to test any temporal changes in emissions (Fiehn emissions by remediating abandoned coal mines, which are estimated to
et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2017; Barkley et al., 2019). Also, considering be producing 237,000 t of methane on an annual basis. Through the
that high spatial resolution satellites with wide global coverage have Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, the U.S. Congress provided funding for
only recently come online, space-based analyses of CMM emissions the Abandoned Mine Land (AML) grant program, for the remediation of
tracking over time is currently limited. In the U.S., for example, BU data most of the currently known coal AML sites throughout the country to
indicates declining emissions due to mine closures and increased CMM reduce methane emissions from non-remediated, abandoned under
utilization (U.S. EPA, 2018), but there is no TD data to validate this ground mines and spurring economic revitalization through creating
process. In China, there is currently no clarity whether CMM emissions jobs. The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law appropriated funding to eligible
14
states and Tribes to reclaim abandoned coal mines over 15 years to help that established technologies can capture CMM and use it to generate
eliminate methane pollution (The White House, 2022). power and argue that the investment case is probably strongest for
Mitigation of emissions is often achieved by utilization or destruc companies in China. Assan (2022) suggested that Australia could reduce
tion. Utilization pathways are usually for higher methane concentration its annual methane emissions by approximately 770,000 t by 2030,
streams and have the benefit of productive use of methane for energy equivalent to a 77 % reduction of CMM emissions. They argue that half
recovery but may include additional losses depending on the applied of the reduction could be achieved by phasing out thermal coal used for
system. Destruction pathways (e.g., flaring, oxidation), on the other electricity generation and thermal coal exports by 2030 and the
hand, have the benefit of operating with low concentrations of methane remainder could be achieved by reducing methane emissions through
but are usually not as efficient in terms of recovering energy from an the implementation of mitigation technologies.
otherwise wasted energy stream. Due to variations in the volume and The U.S. EPA (2023c) published a report analyzing global non-CO2
concentration of CMM, utilization and destruction pathways may need GHG emission mitigation potentials with projections between 2015 and
to complement each other over the lifetime of a mine to mitigate as 2050. The analysis considered six different measures with a cost analysis
much CMM as possible. for abating methane emissions from underground coal mines. The
The Global Methane Initiative published the most comprehensive findings suggested that reducing emissions by 2 % compared to 2020
international CMM and AMM mitigation project list (GMI, 2024). The baseline would be cost effective (below $0/CO2e), and an additional 61
list presents past and currently operational projects with specific oper % reduction could be available using different technologies at increasing
ational details and project descriptions. costs. The report suggested that, in 2030, the use of the studied six
abatement methods could reduce emissions by approximately 64 %, and
4.1. Estimation of global mitigation potential for CMM emissions by 78 % at prices lower than $10/CO2e. It was identified that the use of
stand-alone VAM, degasification for power generation and degas
CMM mitigation measures and costs (therefore mitigation potential) ification for pipeline injection were the top mitigation methods. Ac
vary depending on mine characteristics, methane concentrations, cording to these findings, VAM could abate up to 76 % of coal mining’s
emissions quantity and the size of operations. UNEP and CCAC (2021) total abatement potential, although it is also the most expensive method.
note that at the global scale readily available targeted measures could The report also stated that China, Russia, and the U.S. would have the
reduce methane emissions from the coal sector by 12 to 25 Mt./yr. They highest abatement potential in 2030.
identify key mitigation measures as pre-mining degasification and re
covery, oxidation of VAM, and flooding of abandoned coal mines. 4.2. Influence of coal production and mine closure upon balance of CMM
Abatement potential is usually higher for large underground coal mines emission sources
compared to surface mines. While it is technically more difficult and
economically more expensive to mitigate low-concentration VAM, Coal production and mine closures impact CMM emissions. Howev
existing technology is proven to be effective. Furthermore, analysis by er, due to the role of other factors, the relationship between coal pro
UNEP and CCAC (2021) reveals that major abatement potentials can be duction and CMM emissions may not necessarily be linear or positively
achieved at low cost (US$100 to US$700, per tonne of methane) espe correlated. For instance, in Poland, Dreger (2021) reported that
cially for the coal sector. The IEA’s Global Methane Tracker reports that methane emissions from the USB increased from 45.1 Mm3 yr− 1 in 1994
21 Mt. of CMM emissions are abatable at a weighted average cost of to a value of 70.6 Mm3 yr− 1 in 2018, while coal production decreased
$227 per tonne of methane, which equates to $7.60 per tonne of CO2e from 3.8 Mt. yr− 1 to 1.7 Mt. yr− 1 over the same period. The inverse
over 100 years, or $2.70 per tonne CO2e over 20 years (IEA, 2024). This relationship, despite a decrease in coal production is mainly due to
estimate establishes CMM as a large source of low cost GHG mitigation, increased depths of mines and subsequent increase in gas contents of
compared with many other GHG sources. While CMM is not the cheapest produced coal. A similar situation is observed in Kazakhstan, where coal
source of methane to abate (the oil and gas sector is even lower cost), its is produced from surface mines in the Ekibastuz basin (90 %), which are
relative abatement costs are likely cheaper than for the waste and responsible for significant methane emissions, and underground mines
agriculture sectors (UNEP and CCAC, 2021). in the Karaganda basin (10 %), which are among the gassiest in the
The Global Methane Tracker (IEA, 2023d) estimated that around 70 world. Even though coal production from underground mines has
% and 20 % of CMM can be abated from underground mines and surface declined in Kazakhstan, methane emissions increased from 240 kt to 370
mines, respectively. It is also estimated that nearly 50 % of emissions can kt over the past 10 years (Roshchanka et al., 2017). Despite the increase,
be abated from steam coal and lignite, and around 60 % can be achieved Kazakhstan captured only 2 % of methane released from underground
for coking coal. On a source base, abating methane from ventilation coal mines in 2013, while 7 % was captured in 2004 (Roshchanka et al.,
systems is the single most important measure the coal industry can take 2017). The increase in emissions and reduction in capture is partly due
to reduce its emissions. It would reduce CMM on a global level by almost to the increased share of coal production from surface mines from 83 %
30 %. The ventilation system is a vital component of every underground in 2004 to 91 % in 2014. In China, the government required a low ef
coal mine to keep in-mine methane concentrations well below the lower ficiency coal production phase out in 2010. A similar phase-out for high
explosive limit. Depending on the size of the mine, other methane methane content with low efficiency production was implemented in
control measures and the geology affected from mining, the methane 2013. In 2016, overcapacity was reduced through mine closures. From
sources and ventilation flow rates may vary. Ventilation air exhausts 2010 to 2019, the contribution of emissions from underground mining
generally contain very dilute concentrations of methane (typically less share of production decreased from 97 % to 81 %, while AMM increased
than 1 %), which can be variable depending on the coal production from 2 % to 15 % over the same period.
activity. However, since exhaust flow rates are very high, ventilation air These country-specific examples suggest that the effect of coal pro
methane (VAM) constitutes the largest source of methane emissions at duction and mine closures on the balance of CMM emission sources may
most mines. Such low concentrations of methane are usually difficult be a function of different factors, including policy, infrastructure, and
and expensive to abate. socioeconomic drivers, which can be better captured by integrated
The IEA estimates (IEA, 2023d) that China could reduce its CMM assessment models, especially for projections. A study by Höök (2011)
emissions by close to 65 % with existing technologies, whereas indicated that the average of model projections showed growth in coal
Indonesia could do the same to only about 25 %, due mostly to surface production through 2050 for all emission scenarios, except in “local
mining. Based on their analysis, McKinsey Sustainability (2021) sug environmental sustainability”, in which coal production increased
gested that the global mining sector has the potential to achieve a 2 % through 2040. In a more recent study, Kholod et al. (2020) presented
emission reduction by 2030 and a 13 % reduction by 2050. They suggest projections of global methane emissions from coal mining under
15
different coal production scenarios and with increasing mining depth. Pre-mining degasification using vertical boreholes has the advantage
Two established scenario frameworks that energy modelers commonly of not being conducted in a restrictive underground environment and
used for climate assessments were employed for projection of coal are mostly suited for highly gassy, deep, low-permeability coal seams
production under six different models. The first framework was the where it takes a long time prior to mining to adequately degasify the
Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs), which presents narratives of coalbed (Thakur, 2006, 2014). The boreholes, however, almost always
alternative socioeconomic development, including future changes in have to be fractured to be effective. During pre-mining degasification
demographics, human development, technology, economy, lifestyle, using vertical boreholes, either a single coal seam (usually the coal to be
and other similar trends (IIASA, 2017). The second scenario framework mined) or geologic units termed as “coal groups” that contain multiple
was the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) (Moss et al., coal beds within a close distance to the mined seam are usually
2010), which narrates that climate mitigation actions and policies would completed along the entire coal group using staged fracturing. This
lead to different GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. The SSPs and practice allows for simultaneous degasification of all coal seams, in
RCPs, thus, show how both socioeconomic changes and policy may addition to the mined seam, to reduce emissions from deformed strata.
affect future energy developments and emissions. The Model for Since vertical boreholes, even with hydraulic fracturing, have limited
Calculating Coal Mine Methane (MC2M) emissions was used to estimate reservoir contact, they usually need to be drilled with a pattern as
CMM emissions from underground and surface hard coal and brown coal closely spaced as possible and be produced for a long period of time to
mines as well as global AMM emissions. The authors averaged coal significantly reduce gas-in-place. It is not uncommon to drill such
production results from six models and estimate that the global share of boreholes many years in advance of mining and let them produce 10–15
underground hard coal production was 71 % in 2010. The 1990–2010 years. For instance, in the U.S. Oak Grove and Brookwood CBM fields in
trend was extended through 2100, which results in the share of under the Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, boreholes were completed at the
ground coal production declining to 65 % in 2050, and to 60 % in 2100. Mary Lee coal group, or at combinations of the Pratt, Mary Lee, and
With the underground and surface coal productions, and mine closure Black Creek groups, and have produced methane for about 20 years
rates (average coal abandonment rate of 5 %), it was estimated that the prior to mining (Karacan, 2013b). History matching models showed that
total CMM emissions from underground and surface mines were ~ 66.95 pressures in different coal groups decreased as much as 80 % in some
Mt. in 2010, with underground coal mines and surface, hard coal mines areas and resulted in corresponding decreases in methane content
accounted for 91 % and 9 % of global CMM emissions, respectively. (Karacan, 2013b). Similarly, in the Oakwood field in Virginia (Karacan,
Projections showed that total CMM emissions would reach ~280.8 Mt. 2023), vertical boreholes were drilled at 20–40 acre spacing and
in 2100. The share of emissions from surface mines in total CMM completed using 4–6 staged fracturing along the Pocahontas Formation
emissions would increase to 23 % in 2100. The same study estimated to degasify different coal seams prior to mining of the Pocahontas-3 coal,
global AMM emissions to be ~14.3 Mt. in 2010 but were projected to which is one of the gassiest coal seams in the U.S. The wells were
increase to ~48.8 Mt. in 2050 and ~ 105.3 Mt. in 2100. terminated, however, either during the development of entries or the
The International Energy Agency (IEA, 2023b) states that addressing start of mining. Therefore, most wells had <10 years of production
methane from coal will require both transitioning away from coal use, (~4–6 years on average) (Karacan, 2023), which limited their effec
particularly in the power sector, and simultaneously encouraging miti tiveness, especially when combined with the low permeability (~5–10
gation strategies where economically feasible. The IEA’s Net Zero md) of Pocahontas-3 coal. Although fractured boreholes have been
Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE) envisages that coal demand will drop shown to be effective in draining methane in different coal basins, the
almost 50 % from 2022 to 2030, which will result in a 50 % decline in technology has not been universally accepted by the U.S. mining in
supply of steam coal by 2030, together with a 25 % decline in coking dustry due to concerns that hydraulic fracturing might adversely affect
coal supply (IEA, 2021). As a result, the NZE scenario predicts that coal- the integrity of the weak roof material, especially in the Northern Ap
related methane emissions will decrease by more than 70 % from 2022 palachian Basin.
to 2030, with a drop of 22 Mt. and an additional reduction of over 8 Mt. In most mines where gassy coal seams are mined, a combination of
resulting from better management of methane leaks in existing opera different drainage methods leads to the highest recovery of methane
tions. The largest share of the decline in CMM comes from a trans from the coalbed and its overlying strata. Therefore, either directional
formation in the power sector as coal-fired plants are rapidly replaced by horizontal boreholes from surface or in-seam cross-panel lateral bore
renewables in the NZE Scenario. This analysis (IEA, 2021) also indicates holes are also drilled into the target coal bed from gateroad development
that the worst-performing coal mines may emit as much as 100 times entries. Due to the operating costs and superior drainage area (when all
more methane than the best performing ones. This means that as coal boreholes are considered), underground in-seam drainage can be
production drops in the coming years, the impact on methane emissions favored. The surface to in-seam technique can be superior to under
will depend largely on which coal mines are closed. For example, ground in-seam drilling if the borehole can be drilled in a way to take
retiring the worst-performing quartile of production would remove well advantage of permeability anisotropy and start production long before
over 20 Mt. of methane, but retiring the best-performing quartile would mining, so effective drainage is not shortened by coal production ac
only remove about 3 Mt. Abandoned mines will present a growing tivities (UNECE, 2016).
challenge, both for methane emissions and land use, as more mines are In-seam horizontal methane drainage boreholes are usually
retired. Therefore, well-managed mine closures can ensure emissions completed open-hole and they are logistically difficult to drill due to the
reductions and mitigate impacts on local communities. limited workspace. In-seam boreholes, although they accelerate
methane drainage, are prone to be affected by local changes in coal seam
4.3. Pre-mining drainage: status, difficulties and opportunities properties. In addition, these boreholes, especially cross-panel bore
holes, are connected in the mine to monitor only total production at the
Capturing high-quality methane, which can be used for pipeline in surface. Therefore, it is difficult to diagnose if any of them, or a set of
jection or power generation, prior to mining not only improves safety wells, will not produce due to some unfavorable reservoir condition or
but also decreases atmospheric methane emissions (Karacan et al., 2011; borehole collapse (Keim et al., 2011). The other constraint for the pro
Dreger, 2021). Pre-mining degasification can be performed using ductivity of these boreholes is production time. Since they are drilled
different well configurations, drilled either from surface or from mine from gateroads and their production is terminated as longwall face ap
entries (Diamond, 1994; Noack, 1998; Karacan, 2013a) (Fig. 6). These proaches, gateroad development should be completed long before the
boreholes can be vertical, lateral, or multi-lateral depending on the start of longwall mining, so there would be enough production time
geology, depth, stress orientation in the area, coal permeability, and the (usually 2–3 years) to effectively reduce in-place gas of the mined coal.
mine’s production schedule. In the U.S., in-seam cross-panel boreholes are extensively used in the
16
Black Warrior and Central Appalachian basin coal mines. It is not un and economic barriers (Karacan et al., 2011).
common to drill 60–100 boreholes per longwall panel and produce from Flow rates from a mine shaft can range from 150 to 600 m3/s with
them for about a year (preferably longer) to decrease the gas contents of methane concentrations typically less than 1 % (Karakurt et al., 2011).
coal seams to more manageable levels (Karacan, 2023). Regenerative Thermal Oxidation (RTO) and Regenerative Catalytic
Methane drainage prior to surface mining can be performed using the Oxidation (RCO) are two proven technologies capable of using VAM as
same technology that has been developed and employed for coalbed primary fuel (Karakurt et al., 2011). In using VAM as the primary fuel in
methane production (UNECE, 2016). As in underground mining, RTO and RCO systems, VAM is diverted into an oxidation chamber
drainage holes need to be drilled in advance of mining. In surface coal where it is oxidized and releases heat, which is absorbed by the second
mines, designed as either open pit mines or strip mines, vertical or bed or column of heat exchange material, heating the bed to 1000 ◦ C.
directionally drilled boreholes from the surface can be employed. Ver This heat sustains the auto-oxidation process without requiring addi
tical wells drilled from the surface have been used effectively in the U.S. tional fuel input. Valves and dampers repeatedly reverse the flow of
Powder River Basin to drain gas from coal seams prior to mining incoming VAM to keep the hot zone in the center of the oxidizer. Both
(UNECE, 2016). The key to success in this project was close coordination types of oxidation systems operate on this flow reversal principle,
between the mine operator and the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, although catalysts are intended to allow the reaction to occur at lower
the owner of the rights to associated coalbed methane. This example of temperatures and with a reduced pressure drop across the bed of heat
coordinated co-production resulted in gas being produced and sold to exchange material. When VAM concentrations are high enough, thermal
pipeline rather than being emitted to the atmosphere as mining pro oxidizers can provide excess heat energy for uses such as shaft heating
ceeded (UNECE, 2016). and electricity generation (U.S. EPA, 2019a).
In most cases, pre-mining drainage boreholes produce high-quality Demonstrations of RTO systems in the early 2000s resulted in the
gas that can be injected into a pipeline or be sold to a power- implementation of the first commercial project in 2007 by BHP Billiton
generation facility. Therefore, unless produced gas can be used at the in Australia’s West Cliff mine (NSW). The project operated between
mine, proximity of a gas pipeline or power facilities is important and 2007 and 2017 generating 6 MW (MW) of electricity using a steam
may require additional infrastructure including additional pumping fa turbine generator, producing 300,000 MWh and reducing GHG emis
cilities and pipelines for transport of gas to its end use. Swolkień et al. sions by 2 MtCO2e during its project life (U.S. EPA, 2019a). In 2015, the
(2022) note that drainage stations can be a significant source of methane world’s largest capacity VAM project started operating at the Gaohe
emission through intermittent releases into the atmosphere that are not Mine in Shanxi Province, China, as a VAM-to-power project (U.S. EPA,
accounted for when constructing regional methane budgets. 2019a). It produced a reported grid-connected power generation of
For boreholes drilled from the surface (either vertical or directional), 8000+ hours per year by using utilizing 12 RTOs. Heat produced by the
surface arrangements can be difficult in terms of land ownership and oxidation process was routed to a steam boiler which generated suffi
access, as well as mineral rights as coal ownership may not necessarily cient steam for a 30-MW power plant. In the U.S., the first commercial-
grant ownership to gas rights (UNECE, 2016). Furthermore, disposal of scale VAM mitigation project, at the Marshall County Mine in West
water produced along with gas may be a problem, and processing and Virginia, became operational in 2012. This project reduced methane
disposal may be a significant cost. emissions by 17 Mm3 in 2015 (U.S. EPA, 2018). Additionally, an RTO
system was fully operational at the Blue Creek No. 4 mine in Brookwood,
4.4. Ventilation air methane: status, difficulties and opportunities Alabama from 2009 through 2012 (U.S. EPA, 2019a). The initial project,
the first at an active underground coal mine in the U.S., employed a
Gassy underground coal mines employ large-scale ventilation sys single unit capable of handling 14 m3/s flow. In 2019, the same com
tems to move fresh air into the mine. Ventilation systems dilute methane pany reached an agreement with the mine to install two large-scale RTO
released into the mine from pillars, newly cut coal, from the face and units, each capable of handling 65 m3/s flow (U.S. EPA, 2019a).
from the affected strata and remove the gas from the mine environment. Recently, Buchanan mine located in the U.S. installed one of similar
Methane concentrations within the mine must be well below (< 1 % in capacity units to a high-concentration shaft for methane destruction
active areas) the lower explosion limit (LEL) of methane and air mixture (Fig. 9).
(5 %). Therefore, ventilation air exhausts contain very dilute concen Besides using VAM as the primary fuel, with supplemental or ancil
trations of methane. However, since mine exhaust flow rates are so high, lary fuel, VAM can be used as combustion air in combustion engines, in
VAM constitutes the largest source of methane emissions at most mines coal-fired boilers or turbines. For instance, in the Appin Colliery in New
and therefore, is a primary target for widescale project implementation South Wales, Australia, a project used 54 VAM/CMM driven internal
to achieve significant emission reductions from the sector. combustion engines to power generators that produced 55.6 MW of
VAM emissions vary from country to country due to mining prac electricity.
tices, size of the longwall panels, the degree of pre-mining degas Despite the proven benefits of capturing and utilizing VAM and the
ification, gassiness of the coal seams and surrounding strata and coal effectiveness of various technologies, mainly RTOs, there have been
production. For instance, in Australia, VAM constitutes about 66 % of technical, financial and regulatory barriers for their wide-spread use in
underground CMM emissions, whereas in China, it is approximately 83 mines. So far, most technical work on VAM capture and utilization has
%. In the U.S., the proportion of VAM emissions to total CMM emissions focused on the oxidation of very low concentration methane and
is about 52 % and 64 % of underground emissions. In each country, these improving technology for that objective. The lower technical limit for
emissions are generally released from a limited number of facilities at oxidation is currently ~0.15–0.20 % methane, but the average methane
point-source ventilation shafts, so they are easy to locate and consider concentration in many ventilation shafts can be below the lower limit
for mitigation. For example, in the U.S. approximately 70 % of high (Expert Dialogue on Ventilation Air Methane, 2018). VAM projects have
concentration coal mine shafts are in the Central and Northern Appa been more successful where methane concentrations are higher and
lachian coal basins, and, according to the 2017 Inventory of U.S. approach to 1.5–2.0 % or when VAM is enriched with drained gas to
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, roughly 90 % of U.S. VAM emis achieve a methane concentration approaching 1.0 % (Expert Dialogue
sions originate from 42 coal mines. Furthermore, 20 % of these emis on Ventilation Air Methane, 2018). While methane concentration is very
sions come from ~25 high-concentration shafts in those mines (U.S. important, the characteristics of ventilation air flows and the presence of
EPA, 2020b). Despite the magnitude of VAM emissions and ease of certain compounds could make some potential VAM mitigation and
locating the sources, VAM technology and project development have utilization technologies unfeasible if they cannot operate with the
lagged implementation compared to more conventional CMM projects characteristics of a given mine site’s ventilation air. For instance,
(e.g., gas drainage to power projects) due to a range of policy, technical ventilation air flow may contain coal and rock dust, water vapor and
17
Fig. 9. A ventilation shaft (left) and the operating regenerative thermal oxidizer (RTO) unit (right) at a Southwest Virginia, U.S., coal mine (Photo by C.Ö. Karacan).
potentially other gases, such as H2S, CO2, light hydrocarbons and coal 4.5. Abandoned mine methane (AMM); status, difficulties and
oxidation products (Su et al., 2008; Pawlaczyk-Kurek and Suwak, 2021). opportunities
Also, fluctuations in methane concentration can be important. The RTOs
and RCOs can handle some degree of fluctuation in VAM concentrations Coal mine closures and associated issues will continue to be relevant
for destruction-only projects. However, to generate power using steam for the foreseeable future as countries continue to move away from
turbines and other technologies such as lean-burn turbines may require producing low-quality coal, shutdown small and unsafe mines or deplete
a consistent methane concentration and flow. RTOs and RCOs may not coal reserves that can be produced economically. When a planned area is
be able to handle large fluctuations below or above technical limits mined out, it is sealed and isolated from the ventilation system and any
which may result in shutdown of the units as high oxidation tempera boreholes extracting gas from the impacted strata can be stopped and
tures, particularly at shafts with high methane concentrations, may the wells plugged. Eventually, the entire mine may be abandoned by
cause damage to the units if the oxidation bed material is not reinforced sealing the entries and shafts. Even if there is no active mining in a
or the excess heat is not released from the unit (Expert Dialogue on sealed or abandoned area, mine voids and the GEZ continue accumu
Ventilation Air Methane, 2018). lating gas and may start leaking methane to the atmosphere, even into
One of the issues that has been discussed related to VAM mitigation residential areas, if the mines are close to such locations. Kholod et al.
using RTOs or RCOs is safety. Safety issues generally focus on ignition (2020) predicted that emissions from abandoned mines will increase to
and flow disruption risks with back pressure. To address the latter, VAM ~48.8 Mt. in 2050 and ~ 105.3 Mt. in 2100. In this regard, gas accu
projects are not connected directly to the fan, but use ductwork sepa mulation and surface emission risks are a particular concern for mining
rated from the fan to take a portion of the VAM flow to the oxidizer. areas. This risk can be mitigated in many instances by passive venting,
Blowers in the ductwork produce extra vacuum to draw away VAM from such as vent pipes placed in shaft plugs, or flaring with the benefit of
the fan to the oxidizer. Separation of oxidizer ductwork from the fan is earning carbon offset credits (Fig. 10) from a carbon capture point
also viewed as a measure to reduce ignition risk. Regardless, in the U.S., (UNECE, 2019).
for example, VAM projects are approved on a case-specific basis with The quantity of AMM in each mine depends on several factors,
modifications to the mine ventilation plan, which requires an extensive including the volume of the disturbed strata, mine footprint, degree of
regulatory review before approval by MSHA (Expert Dialogue on pre- and post-mining degasification of the mined seam and the GEZ as
Ventilation Air Methane, 2018). well as groundwater activity properties of the coal seams. These factors
make AMM assessment a difficult process, especially for an area that is
not accessible anymore for underground survey and monitoring. Also,
Fig. 10. An abandoned mine flare system used in Eastern Kentucky (U.S.) for carbon offset credits (Photo by C.Ö. Karacan).
18
biogenic methane generation in the coal seams of abandoned areas may emissions are avoided annually using this AMM as fuel.
significantly augment methane production (e.g., Strąpoć et al., 2011). In the U.S. state of Colorado, North Fork Energy LLC, a subsidiary of
Assessing emissions using methods such as modeling and remote Vessels Coal Gas, operates one AMM project at the Elk Creek mine,
sensing, or those based on historical coal production, may help to which was abandoned in 2016, capturing approximately 8000 m3/day.
identify methane resources more comprehensively for inventory pur The project began in 2012 when the mine was active, and to date has
poses and for mitigation projects. However, it should be noted that using destroyed approximately 70 Mm3 methane. Operators investigated op
remote sensing methods to estimate abandoned mine emissions is tions for use of captured methane at several gassy mines in the region,
challenging and may not be applicable because of low emission rates. but due to the lack of access to natural gas pipelines, as well as very low
However, aerial survey instruments whose precision will be enhanced regional electricity sales prices, flaring has been the economically viable
through further research and development may become more useful in method of abatement. Details of these projects and others can be found
the future. Measuring abandoned mine methane can presently be better at the UNECE document on Best Practice Guidance for Effective Methane
addressed through ground-based technologies like vehicle-mounted Recovery and Use from Abandoned Coal Mines (UNECE, 2019).
methane detection systems or installation of detectors and flow meters Mitigating and utilizing AMM is important part of the U.S. efforts
at key emission locations. Nevertheless, for modeling and monitoring, supported by financial and regulatory incentives to mitigate GHG
data availability and accuracy remain a challenge since abandoned coal emissions and achieve climate change mitigation targets (Zhu et al.,
mines do not report any parameters or emissions data that can be used 2023; U.S. EPA, 2019e). Although there is insufficient data for accurate
for emission prediction. Similarly, an absence of monitoring in aban assessment of AMM emissions and a lack of a comprehensive national
doned mines that do not have methane utilization projects presents a monitoring program, some states are proactive to monitor AMM to
continued challenge (Zhu et al., 2023). More precise estimates of the quantify emissions and to calculate GHG offsets from AMM mitigation
cumulative volume of emissions should help focus attention on this projects. For instance, California, as part of the cap-and-trade regula
potentially important source and may also drive supportive policy tion, requires monitoring of mitigation devices for concentration and
frameworks promoting investment in mitigation efforts. flow rate at 15-min intervals (Zhu et al., 2023) for participating aban
Extracting and utilizing AMM using available technologies can both doned mines.
alleviate the harmful effects of methane leaking to the atmosphere
(GHG, health and safety) and can provide an energy resource through 5. Regulatory policies for control of CMM emissions
use of the recovered gas, which may stimulate socio-economic devel
opment and a just transition to clean energy (Karacan and Warwick, While methane is gradually coming to the front and center of climate
2019). It is important, therefore, to assess the magnitude of the AMM in change policy, the adoption of methane policies in the coal sector has
place and potential emission rates as both are relevant for consideration lagged behind other energy sectors. This is due to several factors. Of
of surface emission risks, GHG emission concerns and utilization op prime importance is the perceived limited cost-effectiveness of CMM
portunities. However, extracting gas from abandoned mines differs from mitigation options. There is a clear contrast with the oil and gas sector
capturing gas from active mines. Once a district or the entire mine is where mitigation efforts have clear financial benefits, with reduced
sealed off, gas from all connected sources can be available for extraction emissions either becoming product or being abated. However, recent
from a single or limited number of locations. For instance, two shallow analysis by UNEP and CCAC (2021) shows that from a global perspective
wells drilled into the sealed voids of an Indiana, U.S. room–and–pillar up to 25 Mt./yr of methane could be mitigated with existing technology.
mine collectively produced 2.5 Mm3 gas in 5 years (Karacan, 2015b), With up to 98 % of abatement measures achievable at low cost (less than
which was sold to a pipeline after purification. This gives an indication $700 per tonne of methane). The slow uptake of CMM projects is despite
of potential for methane production given this case is for a relatively governments trying to encourage projects through a combination of
small mine using only two shallow wells. Unlike pre-mining degas regulations and economic incentives. The key challenge for govern
ification or capturing high-quality gas from active mines, AMM con ments bound by long-term carbon neutrality targets is how to set in
centrations from a well-sealed abandoned mine may vary between 15 % centives at a level that encourages new project development without
to 90 %, due to the potential contribution of other gases, such as NOx and prolonging the lifetime of coal mines. Another challenge is how to
CO2. AMM quality not only depending on the mine but also the location facilitate a beneficial use of captured methane from mine drainage
within a given mine (UNECE, 2019). One of the main factors impacting activities.
gas composition is uncontrolled dilution with air during drawing of The previous sections state that methane emissions in the coal sector
AMM using vacuum pumps. Produced AMM may require purification, if can be reduced by decreasing coal production or by lowering methane
utilized as pipeline gas. When unpurified it can be used on-site by emissions associated with mining activity through technological in
technologies that are suitable for the composition of the produced gas. terventions. This section presents the different types of policy levers
The uses of AMM can parallel the use of CMM and those of natural gas, used to achieve these objectives, namely: (i) policies stimulating a
including power generation, heat and power for urban areas, chemical reduction in coal supply-demand through coal phase-out and phase-
feedstock and vehicle fuel (Zhu et al., 2023). down policies; (ii) policies stimulating a reduction of CMM emissions
There have been commercially profitable AMM projects in Europe through encouraging CMM/CBM/AMM capture and use or destruction
and in the U.S (UNECE, 2019). For instance, between 2002 and 2004, and (iii) enabling policies and regulatory frameworks. A more detailed
taking advantage of Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG), analysis can be found within Olczak (2023), as well as in U.S. EPA
project developers established AMM projects at several of the gassier (2019e) for selected countries.
coal mine sites in the Ruhr basin. At each mine site, gas recovery projects
were constructed utilizing landfill gas generator sets, fueled by AMM 5.1. Policies stimulating a reduction in coal supply and demand
drained from the mine voids, to generate electricity for sale to the local
grid. The projects, most of which are still operational, resulted in National policies are expected to show differences, as illustrated by
emission reductions varying between 90 and 1000 kt CO2e. In France, the contrasting approaches of Canada and China, as examples.
Francaise de l’Energie, operates numerous abandoned mine gas pro In Canada, coal phase-out policies have been adopted at the federal
duction sites that resulted in five electricity generation facilities with an and provincial level due to an on-going decreased reliance on coal. In
installed capacity of 9 MW. From 1978 through 2018, the Avion, Divion 2016, the government of Canada announced plans to phase out tradi
and Desiree sites each produced 1068, 325 and 145 Mm3 of methane, tional coal-fired electricity by 2030, while increasing the share of non-
respectively, and the annual gas production in 2018 for the three sites GHG emitting sources (hydropower, nuclear and non-hydropower re
was 26 Mm3. Francaise de l’Energie estimates that over 600,000 t of CO2 newables) from 80 % to 90 % by 2030 (Learn, 2016). In 2016, coal
19
accounted for ~10 % of electricity generation in Canada, with only 4 out (FiT).
of 10 provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns
wick) using coal in their electricity portfolios. Overall, phasing out un 5.2.1. Regulatory policies
abated coal-fired electricity, together with a ban on thermal (steam) coal Between 2006 and 2008 China adopted regulations mandating
exports from Canada by 2030, are the backbone of Canada’s efforts to CMM/CBM drainage prior to coal mining. Release from drainage sys
reduce CO2 and methane emissions from the coal sector (ECCC, 2020). tems was prohibited for methane concentrations ≥30 %, with a
Canada is largely on track to meet its thermal coal phase-out targets. requirement for use or flaring (IEA, 2009). These regulations were
Reductions in coal use for power generation are observed since 2018, combined with incentives, most notably priority dispatch and subsidized
coinciding with the adoption of the federal phase-out regulations. Due to pricing for electricity produced from CBM/CMM. While effective in
the closure of coal power plants, the installed coal-based capacity stimulating CBM/CMM capture, these regulations were largely ineffec
decreased from 16 GW to 9.7 GW and currently accounts for ~6 % of tive in promoting beneficial gas use. There is evidence that some coal
total installed electricity generation capacity (IEA, 2022e). While the mine operators were diluting CMM to avoid the obligation to flare or use
overall production of coal in Canada decreased by 28 % between 2010 the captured gas (IEA, 2009). Moreover, inappropriate incentives for
and 2020, metallurgical coal production and export increased. In 2020, power distribution companies discouraged the purchase of surplus
metallurgical coal accounted for 56 % of Canada’s coal production, 88 % CMM-generated electricity. Government subsidies (0.25 Yuan/kWh or
of total coal exports (IEA, 2022e) and 79 % of methane emissions from 0.03 USD/kWh) and priority grid access for CMM produced electricity
the sector. Hence, the decrease in methane emissions due to thermal coal were not enforced as the policy did not specify who should bear the cost
phase-out policies coincides with a higher share of emissions from of the subsidy. Hence, power distribution companies, whose main
metallurgical coal production, which remains underregulated. The objective is profit maximization, would not be able to make profit if they
current regulatory framework applying to metallurgical coal does not purchased surplus electricity from coal mines (IEA, 2009; Luo et al.,
address methane emissions associated with new, proposed mines nor the 2011; Yang, 2009).
expansion of existing mines, with no new policy initiatives planned Alternatively, policies can encourage electricity production from
(Minister of Environment and Climate Change, 2021). captured CMM/AMM. This is achieved by listing CMM as an alternative
In China, national policies have aimed at the reduction of excess coal energy source from waste. For instance, power providers in the U.S.
production capacity (overcapacity), known as the de-capacity policy. states of Colorado, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Utah can use CMM/
The problem of excess coal production capacity has become increasingly AMM-based electricity to satisfy in-state RPS requirements (U.S. EPA,
prominent since 2013. Over the period 2016–2018, several policies have 2019b). Such policies have a positive, but limited impact, with only few
been adopted setting two objectives: first to eliminate 500 Mt. coal CMM/AMM projects covered under the RPSs (Evans, 2018).
production capacity in 3–5 years, and second to reduce or restructure an
additional 500 Mt. (Zhang, 2022). In 2018, this overall target was 5.2.2. Economic policies
adjusted downwards to 800 Mt. (Hao et al., 2019). This policy inter Several jurisdictions including California, Québec and Australia
vention focused on structural reform of the supply-side coal production. allow CMM/AMM mitigation projects to participate in offset schemes.
Excess capacity was mitigated by a combination of the closure of smaller Under California’s Compliance Offsets Program, which constitutes a part
mines, capacity replacement, mergers and reorganization among mining of its broader cap-and-trade program, methane capture projects can
companies. Between 2016 and 2018, China’s coal industry reduced 810 generate offset credits. The 2014 Mine Methane Capture (MMC) Proto
Mt. of supply capacity achieving the de-capacity policy objectives, ac col sets eligibility criteria for projects capturing and destroying methane
cording to the China Coal Industry Association (Zhang et al., 2020). from U.S. coal and trona mines at active underground mines, active
However, implementation of the de-capacity policy has not actually surface mines and abandoned underground mines (CARB, 2014).
reduced total production capacity. While the number of coal mines Creditable destruction pathways include: i) VAM oxidation; ii) flaring of
decreased from 3907 to 3373 (2017–2018), total production capacity gas captured through drainage system and iii) end-uses of gas captured
increased from 3.37 × 103 Mt. to 3.53 × 103 Mt. This is largely because through drainage systems, except for pipeline injection.
the Ministry of Natural Resources lifted the moratorium on new coal However, the impact of offset schemes on CMM/AMM mitigation is
mines in response to soaring coal demand (Zhang, 2022). limited, as CMM credits accounted for only 4 % of all credits issued in
Gao et al. (2021) and Sheng et al. (2019) argue that the de-capacity California (down from 12 % generated under early action quantification
policy, which led to the closure of small, less efficient, and gassy coal methodology), and only 1 % in Australia. No CMM credits have been
mines and the shift to less methane-intense coal production, resulted in issued in the Canadian province of Québec. It may be the result of
decreased methane emissions from China’s mines since 2012. However, several reasons including CMM projects being crowded out by other
these analyses based on BU inventories deviate from the results of at projects, especially (cheaper, reputationally safe) forestry and the choice
mospheric inversions (Miller et al., 2019), which suggest that CMM of using the GWP100 when converting non-CO2 gases to CO2e, which
emissions in China increased between 2010 and 2015. The decrease in undermines the impact of short-lived methane. Moreover, the impact of
methane emissions resulting from the closure of smaller mines could offset schemes is debatable mostly due to the risk of over-crediting - the
have been more than offset by the increase of emissions from abandoned risk that the number of issued credits surpasses the tonnes of CO2e
mines and capacity expansion. More research could help to understand reduced (unless the compliance market sets a cap on the use of offset
CMM trends in China and the actual impact of adopted policies on its credits) or that emission reductions would have been achieved without
emissions. the offset projects (additionality). Over-crediting stems from difficulties
In general, supply-side policies, e.g., thermal coal phase-out in to assess which projects are additional driven by regulators not having
Canada, are easier to adopt and maintain in countries that are less coal- sufficient sector and industry-specific expertise, inflated baseline emis
reliant, where coal-to-gas switching for power generation is easier, and sions due to the emission monitoring methodologies prescribed, and the
the mechanisms to deal with the distributional effects of coal phase-out unintentional increase in emissions through eligibility restrictions (e.g.
policies (just transition policies) are in place. promoting CMM flaring instead of more beneficial gas use through
pipeline injection (Haya et al., 2020; Smith, 2019). These issues un
5.2. Policies stimulating reduction in methane emissions derscore the importance of offset system governance, which could
potentially be tackled by anticipating some problems through frequent
Policies can also incentivize the capture and use of CMM/CBM monitoring and evaluation of system performance (Badgley et al., 2022;
through a combination of regulation and financial/fiscal incentives, Macintosh et al., 2022).
offset credits, renewable portfolio standards (RPS) and feed-in tariffs By contrast, Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG)
20
introduced a 20-year fixed payback tariff through a premium for elec 6. International initiatives promoting CMM mitigation
tricity produced from pre-approved CMM and AMM projects (IEA,
2023d). The German FiT is combined with other incentives and project 6.1. Global methane initiative (GMI)
operators can sell the carbon credits generated. There may also be a local
tax and royalty exemption, easier grid access and priority dispatch. The According to projections from the U.S. EPA, emissions from coal
introduction of the EEG in 2004 coincides with a peak in the country’s mining activities will account for roughly 10 % of global methane
AMM emissions; since then, emissions have been following a decreasing emissions in 2030, with the majority originating in China, India,
trend (U.S. EPA, 2014). Hence, the CMM/AMM support system in Ger Indonesia, the U.S., Australia and Russia. (U.S. EPA, 2019c). The agency
many has been effective in incentivizing the economic use of captured also estimates that nearly 65 % of projected emissions in 2030, the year
methane, increasing resource efficiency without offering long term by which world leaders and signatories to the Paris Agreement have
expansion potential as gas volumes decrease over time (Schultz and stressed the need to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, can be
Adler, 2015). Additionally, Germany has announced its plans to phase mitigated using existing and widely available technologies.
out coal by 2038. The Global Methane Initiative (formerly, the Methane to Markets
The FiT scheme in Germany demonstrates the importance of Partnership) was launched by 14 nations in 2004 (U.S. EPA, 2010). GMI
providing regulatory stability. Policies promoting beneficial gas use face is a public-private partnership whose aim is to overcome barriers to
challenges as their implementation requires existing infrastructure methane capture and use projects in its 46 member countries
(pipelines, electricity grid) and coordination with other stakeholders, e. (https://www.globalmethane.org/partners/) by promoting the use of
g., electricity grid companies. In the case of jurisdictions where dispatch methane gas, providing technical support to coal mining companies for
is decided by local grid companies, e.g., China, such a central policy is site-specific projects and developing tools and resources to showcase
more difficult to implement without providing sufficient incentives for methane as an energy resource (U.S. EPA, 2023d). In addition to
local grid operators. focusing on mitigation from coal mines, the initiative, whose Secretariat
is hosted by U.S. EPA’s Climate Change Division, also promotes methane
5.3. Enabling policies and regulatory frameworks; ownership and others capture and utilization in other energy sectors.
GMI’s Coal Mines Subcommittee, currently led by the U.S., China
While CMM/AMM ownership does not have a direct impact on and India, develops key priorities and action items for its members via
methane mitigation, well-defined property rights and transfer of rights the development of a sector-specific action plan (U.S. EPA, 2022). The
are a pre-condition for the development of any methane capture and use initiative’s project network members, comprised mainly of private
project. Clear CMM ownership reduces potential risks to project stake sector companies, bolster the partnership’s overall success by assisting
holders. But there is no single model of ownership. In some countries partner countries with technical assistance and project implementation.
CMM is owned by national governments (e.g., China, Ukraine, Colombia In recent years, the scope of emissions from the coal sector has become
and Mongolia). In Australia ownership resides with states/territories. more defined and clarified how reducing emissions from coal mining can
Other jurisdictions have a combination of national and private owner help to meet international climate goals.
ship such as in Canada, Mexico and Germany or private ownership, as is
the case for the eastern U.S. (U.S. EPA, 2014; U.S. EPA, 2019d). In most 6.2. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)’s group
cases, the government is the owner of CMM resources and leases mineral of experts on coal mine methane and just transition
rights to other parties for a limited period in exchange for an up-front
payment and a royalty percentage of the value of any production. Originally launched in 2004 and under UNECE’s Sustainable Energy
However, challenges for development may arise if a separate license is Division, the group has historically focused on methane abatement
required for the development of coal and CBM/CMM extraction, which initially for coal mine safety and now increasingly in the context of
may delay gas production, e.g., in China (Tao et al., 2019). Also, if a climate change mitigation. In recent years, the group has expanded its
separate license is required for different stages of coal mine develop focus to also examine how all aspects of the industry can be made more
ment, delays can occur. And if the transfer of rights (subleasing) is not sustainable as it transitions with the need for decarbonization (UNECE,
well-defined this can be particularly challenging in case of AMM projects 2023a).
(Denysenko et al., 2019). Establishing clear ownership frameworks is With UNECE member countries (https://unece.org/member-states)
the first step towards the adoption of effective policies. accounting for approximately 38 % of global coal production and 40 %
Policies incentivizing electricity production from CMM/AMM (e.g., of global CMM emissions, the group’s principal activity has centered
RPS and FiT) were effective in encouraging capture and use of gas in around the development, dissemination and training on its Best Practice
Germany and several U.S. states; however, the application of a similar Guidance for Effective Methane Drainage and Recovery in Coal Mines
incentive approach for CMM-based electricity production in China (UNECE, 2016). Originally developed with funding from U.S. EPA in
shows that its effectiveness depends on the underlying regulatory 2010 and updated in 2016, the principles-based document was the first
framework and market conditions. These include CMM ownership and of its kind to provide high-level guidance on international best practices
transfer rights, access to electricity and gas markets, cost-reflectivity of for methane capture and use to government, corporate and financial
the electricity and gas prices, access to technologies, access to finance decision makers. The guide is designed to complement existing regula
and coordination between central and local governments. Careful study tory frameworks and to also aid in more prescriptive or performance-
of these conditions can help to inform any policy approach. Moreover, based regulations (UNECE, 2016). The group has also published
significant blind spots in current policies exist. Coal phase-out policies similar guidance documents for effective methane recovery and use
rarely address emissions associated with metallurgical coal and aban from abandoned mines, as well as a more recent guide on national level
doned or closed mines, which are likely to increase despite a decrease in monitoring, reporting and verification.
thermal coal production. Offsets failed to incentivize significant CMM The UNECE created the first ever ICE-CMM (International Center of
reductions, with CMM projects accounting for less than 5 % of credits Excellence on CMM) in Poland, followed by a similar center in China,
issued in California, Québec and Australia combined (Olczak et al., serving as regional and international hubs for the promotion of best
2023). practices in CMM capture and utilization.
6.3. The climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)
Founded in 2012 and hosted by the United Nations Environment
21
Programme (UNEP), the Climate and Clean Air Coalition is a voluntary opics/energy/methane/international-methane-emissions-observatory/
partnership comprised of more than 160 governments, intergovern methane-alert-and-response-system); through rigorous industry report
mental and non-governmental organizations targeting the reduction of ing via the Oil and Gas Methane Partnership 2.0 (OGMP 2.0) and from
short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) such as methane, black carbon, national emissions inventories. Through these diverse actions UNEP’s
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and tropospheric ozone in the fossil fuels, IMEO aims to place open, reliable, and actionable data directly into the
waste and agricultural sectors (UNEP, 2023a). The coalition’s 2030 hands of the those that have the power to reduce emissions. The ability
Strategy is to deliver significant enough reductions in SLCP’s that will of countries and companies to meet their mitigation goals requires a
enable global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius. thorough understanding of the magnitude and location of methane
In the fossil fuels sector, specifically, the CCAC aims to reduce emissions. This knowledge is also essential to demonstrate progress to
methane emissions by 60–75 %, by 2030. In its Global Methane wards these goals. There are already many successful mitigation case
Assessment, UNEP and CCAC estimate that from 55 % to 98 % of CMM studies for the oil and gas industry from the pilot phase of MARS
mitigation measures could be implemented at negative or low cost to the deployment (UNEP IMEO, 2024). While initially focused on the oil and
industry (UNEP and CCAC, 2021). Fossil fuel mitigation activities and gas sector UNEP’s IMEO is now branching out into other anthropogenic
CCAC-funded projects have historically focused on initiatives in the oil sectors. In 2022, its MSS program expanded to include science projects
and gas industry; however, in 2023 the CCAC funded its first CMM to estimate emissions from coal mining.
abatement project in Bosnia and Herzegovina, opening the doors for Since 2021, in collaboration with a wide variety of stakeholders
additional member countries to submit funding requests for CMM including industry, government and advocacy UNEP’s IMEO has also
reduction projects (UNEP, 2023b). been developing a Steel Methane Program (SMP) (UNECE, 2023b) that
As of 2023, the CCAC serves as the Secretariat for the Global Methane is centered upon metallurgical coal. Metallurgical coal, a primary
Pledge (GMP). The GMP is a voluntary framework supporting nations to ingredient used in steelmaking, accounts for 15 % of global coal pro
collectively reduce methane emissions by 30 % from 2020 levels, by duction but represents 25 % of global CMM emissions (IEA, 2023b).
2030. Launched at the Conference of Parties (COP) meeting in 2021 by Unlike thermal coal, alternatives for metallurgical coal use in the
the U.S. and the European Commission, the pledge now has over 150 steelmaking process are immature and still require years of research to
country partners, which represent close to 50 % of global anthropogenic deliver viable alternatives at scale. In its final stages of development, the
methane emissions (CCAC, 2024). As the secretariat, the CCAC is, SMP outlines a performance and reporting framework for the coal in
among other activities, working closely with GMP signatories and other dustry, with technical guidance documents, reporting commitments and
key constituents to strengthen its coordination, track progress to date performance targets similar to those developed for IMEO’s Oil and Gas
and assist countries in the development of their methane actions plans Methane Partnership 2.0, a comprehensive, measurement-based
and roadmaps, with some including CMM mitigation plans and targets. reporting framework for the global oil and gas industry.
The pledge is engaging the private sector, development banks, financial
institutions, and philanthropic institutions to further support imple 7. Concluding remarks
mentation of mitigation actions.
There is complete consensus within the scientific community
6.4. International Energy Agency (IEA) regarding the observed upward trend in the atmospheric abundance of
methane. While there is no doubt that atmospheric methane is rising,
Created in 1974 in response to the 1973–74 oil supply crises, the IEA precise attribution of the influence of methane emission sources and
is a partnership of more than 30 nations providing comprehensive data, sinks remains challenging. Measurement-based data is now improving
analysis and policy recommendations that cover renewables, oil, gas and our understanding different sources of methane while modeling ap
coal supply and demand, energy efficiency, clean energy technologies, proaches are also becoming more refined. A wide variety of TD meth
electricity systems and markets, access to energy and demand-side odologies are now available, including satellite-based approaches, and
management (IEA, 2023b). The agency has provided a first of its kind these are starting to provide the spatiotemporal data needed to quantify
regulatory roadmap and toolkit for driving down CMM emissions at the emissions of methane more accurately.
national policy level. They identify prescriptive, performance or Globally, anthropogenic sources represent approximately half of
outcome based economic and information-based options as potential total methane emissions. Recent literature, some of which are cited in
regulatory approaches (IEA, 2023b). Prescriptive approaches include this paper, underscores an important role of anthropogenic activities,
regulations, such as the new EU regulations on methane emissions most notably agriculture, waste management and fossil fuel sectors, in
reduction in the energy sector, which are effective when key abatement driving this trend. However, unlike natural sources, these sectors also
opportunities are identified. IEA’s Global Methane Tracker outlines offer direct intervention opportunities through effective management
opportunities for emissions reductions in the fossil fuels sector, and for strategies for altering emission trajectories. This review focused on
the first time, in its 2023 tracker (https://www.iea.org/reports/globa methane emissions from the coal sector, emphasizing its significant
l-methane-tracker-2023), includes CMM emissions reduction opportu potential for mitigating global methane emissions despite inherent
nities and costs. challenges such as global trade dynamics, the complex nature of coal
geology, varied extraction methods, regional disparities in socio-
6.5. UNEP’s International methane Emission Observatory (IMEO) economic dependence on coal and uncertainties in emission inventories.
Global coal demand reached a new peak in 2023, driven largely by
The United Nation’s Environment Program’s International Methane developing countries. The continued demand for coal is expected to
Emissions Observatory (UNEP IMEO, 2024) in 2021 was created in 2021 instigate further deviations from anticipated climate targets, leading to
to further address methane mitigation goals. UNEP’s IMEO is a core additional pressures to reduce methane emissions from coal mining.
implementing partner of the Global Methane Pledge. Its goal is to Effective methane mitigation strategies require not only reductions in
establish a global, centralized public record of empirically verified coal production but also the adoption of advanced mitigation technol
methane emission estimates. This is important as accurate and ogies. However, existing regulatory frameworks, as evidenced by com
measurement-based methane data is needed by countries to support parisons between the IEA’s Stated Policies and the Net Zero by 2050
science-based policy actions for the achievement of their methane scenario, fall short of meeting the ambitious targets necessary for the
reduction ambitions. UNEP’s IMEO collects, synthesizes, and publishes coal industry to support a 1.5 ◦ C-compatible global warming trajectory.
data from its methane science studies (MSS); from satellites via the This inadequacy is particularly evident in current coal phase-out stra
Methane Alert and Response System (MARS - https://www.unep.org/t tegies in major coal-producing nations such as China, India and
22
Indonesia. emissions progress, these initiatives can play a pivotal role in fostering
The potential of CMM mitigation in each mine varies based on and supporting coal mining companies’ voluntary mitigation actions.
different factors, such as mining method, mine design, geological Such initiatives can provide opportunities for expediting progress to
characteristics, intrinsic properties of coal, as well as concentration of wards methane emission reduction targets in addition to the regulatory
methane in emitted gas stream. In most cases, the scale of emissions, mandates, and thus for reaching the Net Zero trajectory.
which can be mitigated in each mine, is generally not well-known since
current estimation practices in the biggest-emitting countries over Author statement
whelmingly rely on either emission factors or measurements primarily
for mining safety. Such data lack the temporal scale needed for accurate I declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published
prediction and can largely deviate from the independent facility-level before and is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere.
measurements. Reconciliation studies on the nature of CMM emissions
in varying geologies and jurisdictions can help to fill this knowledge gap. CRediT authorship contribution statement
Upgrading inventories with more precise and temporally resolved
measurements can improve emissions accounting and help define a C. Özgen Karacan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
combination of strategies that could be introduced to drive mitigation draft, Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Data cura
actions. tion, Conceptualization. Robert A. Field: Writing – review & editing,
While better emissions accounting would support targeted mitiga Writing – original draft, Supervision, Resources, Data curation,
tion, designing successful one-fits-all mitigation policy proves difficult Conceptualization. Maria Olczak: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
given the existing differences in regulatory and economic policies per original draft. Malgorzata Kasprzak: Writing – review & editing,
taining resource ownership and incentive schemes. Presently, countries Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Felicia A. Ruiz: Writing –
use a wide array of policy instruments to support mitigation. Coal phase- review & editing, Writing – original draft. Stefan Schwietzke: Writing –
out policies compatible with 1.5 ◦ C degree pathway rarely address review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization.
emissions associated with metallurgical coal and abandoned mines,
emissions from which are likely to increase despite a decrease in thermal
coal production. Policy interventions, including economic incentives Declaration of competing interest
such as offset schemes and feed-in tariffs, have been implemented in
select jurisdictions, albeit with varying success. Challenges related to The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
CMM ownership, gas price fluctuations, financial accessibility, and co interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
ordination between local and central governments can hinder the the work reported in this paper.
widespread adoption of such measures. The forthcoming years are ex
pected to witness the initial outcomes of more restrictive policies, as Data availability
envisaged in the European Union.
In addressing methane emissions from coal mining, maximizing All data presented in the are either public or referenced.
drainage efficiency in all phases of mining, and implementing VAM
oxidation emerge as key mitigation opportunities. Both surface and Acknowledgements
underground mines could proactively use methane drainage and aim to
enhance its effectiveness with better design practices, which might incur Hanling Yang and Andrew Howell of Environmental Defense Fund,
extra costs depending on the design, depth and geology. However, and Peter D. Warwick of USGS are acknowledged for reviewing an
considering the safety and environmental benefits, such costs might be earlier version of this paper and making useful comments that improved
minimal for most mines and could be offset by use of gas collected its quality. Martin Blumenberg and an anonymous reviewer are also
through drainage. Where use of extracted gas is limited due to dilute acknowledged for their careful review for the journal and positive
concentrations or lack of infrastructure for gas transport, or to mitigate comments.
AMM, flaring can be employed with proper monitoring so that climate Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes
benefits are not jeopardized. only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
Ventilation air represents the biggest emission source for active
mines. Despite the proven efficacy of VAM oxidation in mitigating References
methane emissions, its widespread adoption remains constrained by
upfront costs, regulatory barriers and technical constraints. Thermal Acharya, B.S., Kharel, G., 2020. Acid mine drainage from coal mining in the United
States – an overview. J. Hydrol. 588, 125061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
oxidation favors steady concentrations above 0.15 %–0.20 % of jhydrol.2020.125061.
methane. It presents a viable mitigation strategy where such concen Adhikary, D.P., Guo, H., 2015. Modelling of longwall mining-induced strata permeability
trations can be achieved, as exemplified by successful industrial-scale change. Rock Mech. Rock. Eng. 48, 345–359.
Andersen, T., Zhao, Z., de Vries, M., Necki, J., Swolkien, J., Menoud, M., Röckmann, T.,
projects, which also refutes typical safety concerns related to the tech Roiger, A., Fix, A., Peters, W., Chen, H., 2023. Local-to-regional methane emissions
nology. Some countries, e.g., USA, China and Australia, have greater from the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB) quantified using UAV-based atmospheric
VAM reduction potential as ventilation air concentrations generally measurements. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 23, 5191–5216. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-
23-5191-2023.
exceed the technical limitations of the thermal oxidizers.
Assan, S., 2022. Tackling Australia’s coal mine methane problem. EMBER.
Successful implementation of methane mitigation strategies in the https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/tackling-australias-coal-mine-meth
coal sector can be supported by coordinated efforts of all parties ane-problem/#supporting-material (accessed November 1st, 2023).
Assan, S., Campbell, C., 2023. Major loopholes for coal mines in EU methane regulation.
involved and robust infrastructure development. These efforts can
EMBER. https://ember-climate.org/app/uploads/2023/03/Report-Major-loopholes-
include policy interventions as well as direct engagements with coal for-coal-mines-in-EU-methane-regulation-.pdf (accessed November 1st, 2023).
mining companies and stakeholders through established international Badgley, G., Freeman, J., Hamman, J.J., Haya, B., Trugman, A.T., Anderegg, W.R.L.,
platforms such as the Global Methane Initiative, UNECE’s Group of Cullenward, D., 2022. Systematic over-crediting in California’s forest carbon offsets
program. Glob. Chang. Biol. 28, 1433–1445. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15943.
Experts on Coal Mine Methane and Just Transition, Climate and Clean Balcombe, P., Speirs, J.F., Brandon, N.P., Hawkes, A.D., 2018. Methane emissions:
Air Coalition, IEA and UNEP’s International Methane Emissions Obser Choosing the right climate metric and time horizon. Environ Sci Process Impacts 20
vatory (IMEO). Parallel developments in mitigation as well as BU and TD (10), 1323–1339. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EM00414E.
Barkley, Z.R., Lauvaux, T., Davis, K.J., Deng, A., Fried, A., Weibring, P., Richter, D.,
methods can help to ensure that mitigation progress is tracked based on Walega, J., DiGangi, J., Ehrman, S.H., Ren, X., Dickerson, R.R., 2019. Estimating
robust, empirical evidence. As international efforts to lower GHG methane emissions from underground coal and natural gas production in
23
southwestern Pennsylvania. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 531–4540. https://doi.org/ Diamond, W.P., 1994. Methane control for underground coal mines. In: Information
10.1029/2019GL082131. Circular No. 9395, US Dept. of Interior, US Bureau of Mines. https://www.cdc.go
Bell, C.S., Vaughn, T.L., Zimmerle, D., Herndon, S.C., Yacovitch, T.I., Heath, G.A., v/niosh/mining%5C/UserFiles/works/pdfs/ic9395.pdf.
Petron, G., Edie, R., Field, R.A., Murphy, S.M., Robertson, A.M., Soltis, J., 2017. Dlugokencky, E.J., Nisbet, E.G., Fisher, R., Lowry, D., 2011. Global atmospheric
Comparison of methane emission estimates from multiple measurement techniques methane: Budget, changes and dangers, Philosophical. Trans. Royal. Soc. A Math.
at natural gas production pads. Elementa Sci. Anthropocene 5, 79 doi:1.1525/ Phys. Eng. Sci. 369 (1943), 2058–2072. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0341.
elementa.266. DOE, 1995. Coal Industry Annual; DOE/EIA-0584 (95); Distribution Category UC-98. U.
Belle, B., 2017. Optimal goaf hole spacing in high production gassy Australian longwall S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC.
mines – Operational experiences. In: Proceedings of the Australian Mine Ventilation Dougherty, H.N., Karacan, C.Ö., 2011. A new methane control and prediction software
Conference, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 1–12. In: https://www.ausimm.com/publicati suite for longwall mines. Comput. Geosci. 37 (9), 1490–1500. https://doi.org/
ons/conference-proceedings/australian-mine-ventilation-conference-2017/optim 10.1016/j.cageo.2010.09.003.
al-goaf-hole-spacing-in-high-production-gassy-australian-longwall-mines—operati Dreger, M., 2021. Variabilities in Hard Coal Production and Methane Emission in the
onal-experiences/. Mysłowice–Wesoła Mine. J. Min. Sci. 57 (3), 421–436. https://doi.org/10.1134/
Birol, F., Malpass, D., 2021. It’s Critical to Tackle Coal Emissions. https://www.iea. S106273912103008X.
org/commentaries/it-s-critical-to-tackle-coal-emissions. Dreger, M., Kędzior, S., 2021. Methane emissions against the background of natural and
Borchardt, J., Krautwurst, S., Gerilowski, K., Huhs, O., Schindewolf, J., Bovensmann, H., mining conditions in the Budryk and Pniówek mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin
Kumm, M., McGrath, A., Chakravarty, S., Junkermann, W., Hacker, J., Bai, M., (Poland). Environ. Earth Sci. 80, 746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-10063-
Kelly, B.F.J., Harris, S., Field, R., Bösch, H., Burrows, J.P., 2024. BBCMap 2023: 4.
Assessing methane emissions from open-cut and underground coal mining in eastern Duda, A., Valverde, G.F., 2020. Environmental and safety risks related to methane
Australia. In: EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, emissions in underground coal mine closure processes. Energies 13 (23), 6312.
EGU24–17580. https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-17580, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13236312.
Brandt, A.R., Heath, G.A., Kort, E.A., O’Sullivan, F., Pétron, G., Jordaan, S.M., Tans, P., ECCC, 2020. Canadian Environmental Protection Act: Equivalency Agreements [Acts].
Wilcox, J., Gopstein, A.M., Arent, D., Wofsy, S., Brown, N.J., Bradley, R., Stucky, G. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/canadian-env
D., Eardley, D., Harriss, R., 2014. Methane leaks from north American natural gas ironmental-protection-act-registry/agreements/equivalency.html.
systems. Science 343, 733–735. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1247045. Etiope, G., Schwietzke, S., 2019. Global geological methane emissions: an update of top-
Campbell, C., 2023. Why the steel industry needs to tackle coal mine methane. EMBER. down and bottom-up estimates. Elementa Sci. Anthropocene 7, 47. https://doi.org/
https://ember-climate.org/app/uploads/2023/01/Ember-report-Why-the-stee 10.1525/elementa.383.
l-industry-needs-to-tackle-coal-mine-methane.pdf (accessed April 20th, 2023). European Commission, 2024. EDGAR - Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric
CARB, 2014. Compliance offset protocol mine methane capture projects: Capturing and Research. https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/.
destroying methane from U.S. coal and trona mines. https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/ European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register, 2024. https://www.eea.europa.
default/files/barcu/regact/2013/capandtrade13/ctmmcprotocol.pdf. eu/data-and-maps/data/member-states-reporting-art-7-under-the-european-polluta
Cardno Forbes Rigby, 2009. Environmental assessment Appin Colliery area 7 goaf gas nt-release-and-transfer-register-e-prtr-regulation-23/european-pollutant-release-a
drainage project. https://www.south32.net/docs/default-source/illawarra-coal/ nd-transfer-register-e-prtr-data-base.
bulli-seam-operations/appin/appin-surface-gas-management-project—enviro Evans, M., 2018. Getting it Right: Policies that Provide a Solid Foundation for the
-asse/environmental-assessment-appin-surface-gas-management-project.pdf?sfvrsn Development of CMM/AMM and VAM Projects. 25th World Mining Congress,
=321a9200_4 (accessed: November 7th, 2023). Astana, Kazakhstan. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/images/CMM/
CCAC, 2024. Global Methane Pledge. https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/global CMM_CE/6._Evans.pdf.
-methane-pledge (accessed: May 1st, 2024). Expert Dialogue on Ventilation Air Methane, 2018. https://globalmethane.org/resources
CER, 2023. Estimating emissions and energy from coal mining guideline. Australian /details.aspx?resourceid=4749 (accessed: May 6th, 2024).
Government, Clean Energy Regulator. https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/ Fiehn, A., Kostinek, J., Eckl, M., Klausner, T., Gałkowski, M., Chen, J., Gerbig, C.,
DocumentAssets/Pages/estimating-emissions-and-energy-from-coal-mining.aspx Röckmann, T., Maazallahi, H., Schmidt, M., Korbeń, P., Neçki, J., Jagoda, P.,
(accessed: November 7th, 2023). Wildmann, N., Mallaun, C., Bun, R., Nickl, A.L., Jöckel, P., Fix, A., Roiger, A., 2020.
Chen, D., Chen, A., Hu, X., Li, B., Li, X., Guo, L., Feng, R., Yang, Y., Fang, X., 2022a. Estimating CH4, CO2 and CO emissions from coal mining and industrial activities in
Substantial methane emissions from abandoned coal mines in China. Environ. Res. the Upper Silesian Coal Basin using an aircraft-based mass balance approach. Atmos.
214 (2), 113944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113944. Chem. Phys. 20, 12675–12695. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12675-2020.
Chen, Z., Jacob, D.J., Nesser, H., Sulprizio, M.P., Lorente, A., Varon, D.J., Lu, X., Shen, L., Field, R.A., Derwent, R.G., 2021. Global warming consequences of replacing natural gas
Qu, Z., Penn, E., Yu, X., 2022b. Methane emissions from China: a high-resolution with hydrogen in the domestic energy sectors of future low-carbon economies in the
inversion of TROPOMI satellite observations. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 22, 10809–10826. United Kingdom and the United States of America. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 46 (58),
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-10809-2022. 30190–30203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.06.120.
Collins, W.J., Webber, C.P., Cox, P.M., Huntingford, C., Lowe, J., Sitch, S., Chadburn, S. Frankenberg, C., Thorpe, A.K., Thompson, D.R., Hulley, G., Kort, E.A., Vance, N.,
E., Comyn-Platt, E., Harper, A.B., Hayman, G., Powell, T., 2018. Increased Borchardt, J., Krings, T., Gerilowski, K., Sweeney, C., Conley, S., Bue, B.D.,
importance of methane reduction for a 1.5 degree target. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, Aubrey, A.D., Hook, S., Green, R.O., 2016. Airborne methane remote measurements
054003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aab89c. reveal heavy-tail flux distribution in four Corners region. Proc. Nation. Acad. Sci. US
Council of the EU, 2023. Press Release. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/pr 113 (35), 9734–9739. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1605617113.
ess-releases/2023/11/15/climate-action-council-and-parliament-reach-deal-on-n Gao, J., Guan, C.H., Zhang, B., 2020. China’s CH4 emissions from coal mining: A review
ew-rules-to-cut-methane-emissions-in-the-energy-sector/. of current bottom-up inventories. Sci. Total Environ. 725, 138295. https://doi.org/
Crippa, M., Guizzardi, D., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Lo, Vullo E., Solazzo, E., Monforti- 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138295.
Ferrario, F., Olivier, J., Vignati, E., 2021. Emissions database for global atmospheric Gao, J., Guan, C., Zhang, B., Li, K., 2021. Decreasing methane emissions from China’s
research (EDGAR) v6.0 greenhouse gas emissions. Europ. Commis. Joint Research coal mining with rebounded coal production. Environ. Res. Lett. 16 (2021), 124037.
Centre (JRC) [Dataset] PID http://data.europa.eu/89h/97a67d67-c62e-4826-b8 https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac38d8.
73-9d972c4f670b. Ghosh, A., Patra, P.K., Ishijima, K., Umezawa, T., Ito, A., Etheridge, D.M., Sugawara, S.,
Dameris, M., Gerbig, C., 2024. CoMet: a mission to improve our understanding and to Kawamura, K., Miller, J.B., Dlugokencky, E.J., Krummel, P.B., Fraser, P.J., Steele, L.
better quantify the carbon dioxide and methane cycles (AMT/ACP/GMD inter- P., Langenfelds, R.L., Trudinger, C.M., White, J.W.C., Vaughn, B., Saeki, T., Aoki, S.,
journal SI): special issue jointly organized between Atmospheric Measurement Nakazawa, T., 2015. Variations in global methane sources and sinks during
Techniques. In: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, and Geoscientific Model 1910–2010. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15, 2595–2612. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-
Development. https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/special_issue400_1034.html. 2595-2015.
Deng, Z., Ciais, P., Tzompa-Sosa, Z.A., Saunois, M., Qiu, C., Tan, C., Sun, T., Ke, P., GMI, 2015. Coal Mine Methane Country Profiles. https://www.globalmethane.org/
Cui, Y., Tanaka, K., Lin, X., Thompson, R.L., Tian, H., Yao, Y., Huang, Y., documents/toolsres_coal_overview_fullreport.pdf (accessed: October 31st, 2023).
Lauerwald, R., Jain, A.K., Xu, X., Bastos, A., Sitch, S., Palmer, P.I., Lauvaux, T., GMI, 2020. Global Methane Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities. https://www.
d’Aspremont, A., Giron, C., Benoit, A., Poulter, B., Chang, J., Petrescu, A.M.R., globalmethane.org/documents/gmi-mitigation-factsheet.pdf (accessed: November
Davis, S.J., Liu, Z., Grassi, G., Albergel, C., Tubiello, F.N., Perugini, L., Peters, W., 1st, 2023).
Chevallier, F., 2022. Comparing national greenhouse gas budgets reported in GMI, 2024. International Coal Mine Methane Project List. https://globalmethane.org/res
UNFCCC inventories against atmospheric inversions. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 14, ources/details.aspx?resourceid=1981.
1639–1675. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1639-2022. Guo, H., Adhikary, D.P., Craig, M.S., 2009. Simulation of mine water inflow and gas
Denysenko, A., Evans, M., Kholod, N., Butler, N., Ltd, H.-E., Roshchanka, V., 2019. Legal emission during longwall mining. Rock Mech. Rock. Eng. 42, 25–51. https://doi.org/
and Regulatory Status of Abandoned Mine Methane in Selected Countries: 10.1007/s00603-008-0168-9.
Considerations for Decision Makers. US EPA Coalbed Methane Outreach Program. Guo, H., Yuan, L., Shen, B., Qua, Q., Xue, J., 2012. Mining induced strata stress changes,
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-03/documents/legal-regulatory- fractures and gas flow dynamics in multi-seam longwall mining. Int. J. Rock Mech.
status-amm_epa.pdf. Min. Sci. 54, 129–139.
Derwent, R.G., Parrish, D.D., Archibald, A.T., Deushi, M., Bauer, S.E., Tsigaridis, K., Hao, X., Song, M., Feng, Y., Zhang, W., 2019. De–capacity policy effect on China’s coal
Shindell, D., Horowitz, L.W., Khan, M.A.H., Shallcross, D.E., 2021. Intercomparison industry. Energies 12, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122331.
of the representations of the atmospheric chemistry of pre-industrial methane and Hargraves, A.J., 1986. Seam gas and seam gas drainage. In: Martin, C.H. (Ed.),
ozone in earth system and other global chemistry-transport models. Atmos. Environ. Australasian Coal Mining Practices. Monograph Series No 12 AusIMM, Melbourne,
248, 118248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118248. pp. 393–411. ISBN: 978 1 921522 08 6. https://www.ausimm.com/publications/mo
nograph/monograph-12—australasian-coal-mining-practice—third-edition.
24
Hausmann, P., Sussmann, R., Smale, D., 2016. Contribution of oil and natural gas Total Environ. 543 (Part A), 514–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
production to renewed increase in atmospheric methane (2007–2014): top–down scitotenv.2015.11.024.
estimate from ethane and methane column observations. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, Karacan, C.Ö., 2007. Development and application of reservoir models and artificial
3227–3244. https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/16/3227/2016/. neural networks for optimizing ventilation air requirements in development mining
Haya, B., Cullenward, D., Strong, A.L., Grubert, E., Heilmayr, R., Sivas, D.A., Wara, M., of coal seams. Int. J. Coal Geol. 72 (3–4), 221–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2020. Managing uncertainty in carbon offsets: Insights from California’s coal.2007.02.003.
standardized approach. Clim. Pol. 20 (9), 1112–1126. https://doi.org/10.1080/ Karacan, C.Ö., 2008. Modeling and prediction of ventilation methane emissions of U.S.
14693062.2020.1781035. longwall mines using supervised artificial neural networks. Int. J. Coal Geol. 73
Helmig, D., Rossabi, S., Hueber, J., Tans, P., 2016. Reversal of global atmospheric ethane (3–4), 371–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2007.09.003.
and propane trends largely due to U.S. oil and natural gas production. Nat. Geosci. 9, Karacan, C.Ö., 2009. Degasification system selection for US longwall mines using an
7. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2721. expert classification system. Comput. Geosci. 35 (3), 515–526. https://doi.org/
Höök, M., 2011. Future coal production outlooks in the IPCC Emission scenarios: are they 10.1016/j.cageo.2008.02.029.
plausible? Energy Environ. 22 (7), 837–858. https://doi.org/10.1260/0958- Karacan, C.Ö., 2013a. Integration of vertical and in-seam horizontal well production
305X.22.7.837. analyses with stochastic geostatistical algorithms to estimate pre-mining methane
IEA, 2009. Coal mine methane in China: A budding asset with the potential to bloom – drainage efficiency from coal seams: Blue Creek seam, Alabama. Int. J. Coal Geol.
Analysis. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-mine-methane-in-china-a-bu 114, 96–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.02.011.
dding-asset-with-the-potential-to-bloom. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed: May 15th, Karacan, C.Ö., 2013b. Production history matching to determine reservoir properties of
2023). important coal groups in the Upper Pottsville formation, Brookwood and Oak Grove
IEA, 2021. Net Zero by 2050 - A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector. IEA, Paris. https fields, Black Warrior Basin, Alabama. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 10, 51–67. https://doi.
://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed: May 15th, org/10.1016/j.jngse.2012.10.005.
2023). Karacan, C.Ö., 2015a. Analysis of gob gas venthole production performances for strata
IEA, 2022a. World Energy Outlook 2022, (Annex A p435). IEA, Paris. https://www.iea. gas control in longwall mining. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 79, 9–18. https://doi.
org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed: May 15th, org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2015.08.001.
2023). Karacan, C.Ö., 2015b. Modeling and analysis of gas capture from sealed sections of
IEA, 2022b. Coal in net zero transitions: Strategies for rapid, secure and people centered abandoned coal mines. Int. J. Coal Geol. 138, 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
change, World energy outlook special report. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/repor coal.2014.12.010.
ts/coal-in-net-zero-transitions. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed: May 15th, 2023). Karacan, C.Ö., 2023. Predicting methane emissions and developing reduction strategies
IEA, 2022c. Outlook for solid fuels. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-ener for a Central Appalachian Basin, USA, longwall mine through analysis and modeling
gy-outlook-2022/outlook-for-solid-fuels. License: Cc by 4.0. (accessed on December of geology and degasification system performance. Int. J. Coal Geol. 270, 104234.
12th, 2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2023.104234.
IEA, 2022d. Methane Tracker. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/ Karacan, C.Ö., Goodman, G.V.R., 2012. Analyses of geological and hydrodynamic
data-tools/methane-tracker. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed on December 12th, 2022). controls on methane emissions experienced in a lower Kittanning coal mine. Int. J.
IEA, 2022e. Canada 2022: Energy Policy Review. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/ Coal Geol. 98, 110–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2012.04.002.
reports/canada-2022. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed: May 15th, 2023). Karacan, C.Ö., Olea, R.A., 2013. Time-lapse analysis of methane quantity in Mary Lee
IEA, 2023a. Driving down coal mine methane emissions - A regulatory roadmap and group of coal seams using filter-based multiple-point geostatistical simulation. Math.
toolkit. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/driving-down-coal-mine-methane- Geosci. 45 (681–704), 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-013-9474-1.
emissions. License: CC BY 4.0. (accessed on December 12th, 2022). Karacan, C.Ö., Warwick, P.D., 2019. Assessment of coal mine methane (CMM) and
IEA, 2023b. Global methane tracker. Strategies to reduce emissions from coal supply. abandoned mine methane (AMM) resource potential of longwall mine panels:
IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-methane-tracker-2023/strategies-to example from Northern Appalachian Basin, USA. Int. J. Coal Geol. 208, 37–53.
-reduce-emissions-from-coal-supply. License: CC BY 4.0. (Accessed: October 31st, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.04.005.
2023). Karacan, C.Ö., Ruiz, F.A., Cotè, M., Phipps, S., 2011. Coal mine methane: a review of
IEA, 2023c. Coal 2023: Analysis and forecast to 2026. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/r capture and utilization practices with benefits to mining safety and to greenhouse
eports/coal-2023. License: CC BY 4.0. (Accessed: March 24th, 2024). gas reduction. Int. J. Coal Geol. 86, 121–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
IEA, 2023d. Germany’s renewables energy act. In: License: CC BY 4.0. IEA, Paris. https: coal.2011.02.009.
//www.iea.org/policies/12392-germanys-renewables-energy-act (accessed on April Karacan, C.Ö., Olea, R.A., Goodman, G.V.R., 2012. Geostatistical modeling of the gas
23rd, 2022). emission zone and its in-place gas content for Pittsburgh-seam mines using
IIASA, 2017. SSP database (Shared socioeconomic pathways) - Version 1.1. release sequential Gaussian simulation. Int. J. Coal Geol. 90-91, 50–71. https://doi.org/
October 2016. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, 10.1016/j.coal.2011.10.010.
Austria. https://tntcat.iiasa.ac.at/SspDb (accessed on April 23rd, 2022). Karakurt, I., Aydin, G., Aydiner, K., 2011. Mine ventilation air methane as a sustainable
IPCC, 1990. Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment (1990). Cambridge energy source. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 15 (2), 1042–1049. https://doi.org/
University Press, Cambridge, UK. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/climate-change-th 10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.030.
e-ipcc-1990-and-1992-assessments/ (accessed on April 11th, 2022). Keim, S.A., Luxbacher, K.D., Karmis, M., 2011. A numerical study on optimization of
IPCC, 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University multilateral horizontal wellbore patterns for coalbed methane production in
Press, Cambridge, UK. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324 (accessed on Southern Shanxi Province, China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 86 (4), 306–317. https://doi.org/
April 11th, 2022). 10.1016/j.coal.2011.03.004.
IPCC, 2019. Refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas Kentucky Geological Survey, 2023. Coal Mining. https://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/c
inventories, 2, 4, p. 163. https://www.ipccn-ggip.iges.or.jp/public/2019rf/vol2. oal-mining.php (accessed: November 1st, 2023).
html (accessed: Nov. 9th, 2023). Kholod, N., Evans, M., Pilcher, R.C., Roshchanka, V., Ruiz, F., Coté, M., Collings, R.,
IPCC, 2020. Background papers - IPCC expert meetings on good practice guidance and 2020. Global methane emissions from coal mining to continue growing even with
uncertainty management in national greenhouse gas inventories - CH4 emissions: declining coal production. J. Clean. Prod. 256, 120489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Coal mining and handling, pp. 129–144. https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/g jclepro.2020.120489.
p/gpg-bgp.html (accessed on April 11th, 2022). Kirchgessner, D.A., Piccot, S.D., Masemore, S.S., 2000. An improved inventory of
IPCC, 2021. Climate change 2021: the physical science basis. In: Contribution of Working methane emissions from coal mining in the United States. J. Air Waste Manage.
Group 1 to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Assoc. 50 (11), 1904–1919. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2000.10464227.
Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ (accessed on April 11th, 2022). Kirschke, S., Bousquet, P., Ciais, P., Saunois, M., Canadell, J.G., Dlugokencky, E.J.,
IPCC, 2023. Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, Bergamaschi, P., Bergmann, D., Blake, D.R., Bruhwiler, L., Cameron-Smith, P.,
II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Castaldi, S., Chevallier, F., Feng, L., Fraser, A., Heimann, M., Hodson, E.L.,
Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee and J. Romero (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Houweling, S., Josse, B., Fraser, P.J., Krummel, P.B., Lamarque, J.F., Langenfelds, R.
Switzerland, p. 184. https://doi.org/10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647. L., Le Quéré, C., Naik, V., O’Doherty, S., Palmer, P.I., Pison, I., Plummer, D.,
IPCC, 2024. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Poulter, B., Prinn, R.G., Rigby, M., Ringeval, B., Santini, M., Schmidt, M., Shindell, D.
https://www.ipcc.ch/. T., Simpson, I.J., Spahni, R., Steele, L.P., Strode, S.A., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., van der
Jackson, R.B., Saunois, M., Bousquet, P., Canadell, J.G., Poulter, B., Stavert, A.R., Werf, G.R., Voulgarakis, A., van Weele, M., Weiss, R.F., Williams, J.E., Zeng, G.,
Bergamaschi, P., Niwa, Y., Segers, A., Tsuruta, A., 2020. Increasing anthropogenic 2013. Three decades of global methane sources and sinks. Nat. Geosci. 6 (10),
methane emissions arise equally from agricultural and fossil fuel sources. Environ. 813–823. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1955.
Res. Lett. 15, 071002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab9ed2. Kostinek, J., Roiger, A., Eckl, M., Fiehn, A., Luther, A., Wildmann, N., Klausner, T.,
Janssens-Maenhout, G., Crippa, M., Guizzardi, D., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Dentener, F., Fix, A., Knote, C., Stohl, A., Butz, A., 2021. Estimating Upper Silesian coal mine
Bergamaschi, P., Pagliari, V., Olivier, J., Peters, J., van Aardenne, J., Monni, S., methane emissions from airborne in situ observations and dispersion modeling.
Doering, U., Petrescu, R., Solazzo, E., Oreggioni, G., 2019. EDGAR v4.3.2 Global Atmos. Chem. Phys. 21, 8791–8807. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8791-2021.
Atlas of the three major Greenhouse Gas Emissions for the period 1970-2012. Earth Krautwurst, S., Gerilowski, K., Borchardt, J., Wildmann, N., Gałkowski, M., Swolkien, J.,
Syst. Sci. Data 11, 959–1002. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-959-2019. Marshall, J., Fiehn, A., Roiger, A., Ruhtz, T., Gerbig, C., Necki, J., Burrows, J.P.,
Ji, Z.-M., Chen, Z.-J., Pan, J.-N., Niu, Q.-H., 2017. A novel method for estimating Fix, A., Heinrich, B., 2021. Quantification of CH4 coal mining emissions in Upper
methane emissions from underground coal mines: the Yanma coal mine, China. Silesia by passive airborne remote sensing observations with the methane Airborne
Atmos. Environ. 170, 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.09.052. MAPper (MAMAP) instrument during the CO2 and methane (CoMet) campaign.
Ju, Y., Sun, Y., Sa, Z., Pan, J., Wang, J., Hou, Q., Li, Q., Yan, Z., Liu, J., 2016. A new Atmos. Chem. Phys. 21, 17345–17371. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-17345-
approach to estimate fugitive methane emissions from coal mining in China. Sci. 2021.
25
Lagny, C., 2014. The emissions of gases from abandoned mines: role of atmospheric Naik, V., Voulgarakis, A., Fiore, A.M., Horowitz, L.W., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, M.,
pressure changes and air temperature on the surface. Environ. Earth Sci. 71, Prather, M.J., Young, P.J., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P.J., Cionni, I., Collins, W.
923–929. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2495-8. J., Dalsøren, S.B., Doherty, R., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G.A., Josse, B.,
Lan, X., Thoning, K.W., Dlugokencky, E.J., 2023. Trends in globally-averaged CH4, N2O, Lee, Y.H., MacKenzie, I.A., Nagashima, T., van Noije, T.P.C., Plummer, D.A.,
and SF6 determined from NOAA global monitoring laboratory measurements. Righi, M., Rumbold, S.T., Skeie, R., Shindell, D.T., Stevenson, D.S., Strode, S.,
Version 2023–11. https://doi.org/10.15138/P8XG-AA10. Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Zeng, G., 2013. Preindustrial to present-day changes in
Learn, J., 2016. Canada Announces ‘Traditional Coal’ Power Phase out by 2030. S&P tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime from the Atmospheric Chemistry
Global. https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/trending/ and climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP). Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13,
9fGm8_0qOEpt0cioAQOCxQ2. 5277–5298. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-5277-2013.
Levin, I., Veidt, C., Vaughn, B.H., Brailsford, G., Bromley, T., Heinz, R., Lowe, D., Neininger, B.G., Kelly, B.F.J., Hacker, J.M., Lu, X., Schwietzke, S., 2021. Coal seam gas
Miller, J.B., Poß, C., White, J.W.C., 2012. No inter-hemispheric δ13CH4 trend industry methane emissions in the Surat Basin, Australia: comparing airborne
observed. Nature 27 (486), E3–E4. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11175. measurements with inventories. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 379,
Lin, X., Zhang, W., Crippa, M., Peng, S., Han, P., Zeng, N., Yu, L., Wang, G., 2021. 20200458. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2020.0458.
A comparative study of anthropogenic CH4 emissions over China based on the Nguyen, N.H., Turner, A.J., Yin, Y., Prather, M.J., Frankenberg, C., 2020. Effects of
ensembles of bottom-up inventories. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 13, 1073–1088. https:// chemical feedbacks on decadal methane emissions estimates. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47,
doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-1073-2021. e2019GL085706. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085706.
Liu, G., Peng, S., Lin, X., Ciais, P., Li, X., Xi, Y., Lu, Z., Chang, J., Saunois, M., Wu, Y., Nisbet, E.G., Dlugokencky, E.J., Bousquet, P., 2014. Methane on the rise – again. Science
Patra, P., Chandra, N., Zeng, H., Piao, S., 2012. Recent slowdown of anthropogenic 343 (6170), 493–495. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1247828.
methane emissions in China Driven by stabilized coal production. Environ. Sci. Nisbet, E.G., Dlugokencky, E.J., Manning, M.R., Lowry, D., Fisher, R.E., France, J.L.,
Technol. Lett. 8, 739–746. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00463. Michel, S.E., Miller, J.B., White, J.W.C., Vaughn, B., Bousquet, P., Pyle, J.A.,
Liu, Y., Gao, H., Yu, Z., Li, C., Ren, H., Zhao, Y., Huang, F., Guo, Y., Wan, M., Tian, J., Warwick, N.J., Cain, M., Brownlow, R., Zazzeri, G., Lanoisellé, M., Manning, A.C.,
Chen, L., 2022. Managing methane emissions in abandoned coal mines: Comparison Gloor, E., Worthy, D.E.J., Brunke, E.-G., Labuschagne, C., Wolff, E.W., Ganesan, A.L.,
of different recovery technologies by integrating techno-economic analysis and life- 2016. Rising atmospheric methane: 2007–2014 growth and isotopic shift. Glob.
cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56 (19), 13900–13908. https://doi.org/ Biogeochem. Cycles 30 (9), 1356–1370. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005406.
10.1021/acs.est.2c02928. Nisbet, E.G., Manning, M.R., Dlugokencky, E.J., Fisher, R.E., Lowry, D., Michel, S.E.,
Liu, Q., Teng, F., Nielsen, C.P., Zhang, Y., Wu, L., 2024. Large methane mitigation Myhre, C.L., Platt, S.M., Allen, G., Bousquet, P., Brownlow, R., Cain, M., France, J.L.,
potential through prioritized closure of gas-rich coal mines. Nat. Clim. Chang. 14, Hermansen, O., Hossaini, R., Jones, A.E., Levin, I., Manning, A.C., Myhre, G., Pyle, J.
652–658. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02004-3. A., Vaughn, B.H., Warwick, N.J., White, J.W.C., 2019. Very strong atmospheric
Lu, Y.Y., Zhang, H.D., Zhou, Z., Ge, Z.L., Chen, C.J., Hou, Y.D., Ye, M.L., 2021. Current methane growth in the 4 years 2014–2017: implications for the Paris Agreement.
status and effective suggestions for efficient exploitation of coalbed methane in Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 33. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB006009.
China: a review. Energy Fuel 35 (11), 9102–9123. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs. Nisbet, E.G., Allen, G., Fisher, R.E., France, J.L., Lee, J.D., Lowry, D., Andrade, M.F.,
energyfuels.1c00460. Bannan, T.J., Barker, P., Bateson, P., Bauguitte, S.J.-B., Bower, K.N., Broderick, T.J.,
Lunarzewski, L.W., 1992. The role of predicted and measured gas emission in coal mine Chibesakunda, F., Cain, M., Cozens, A.E., Daly, M.C., Ganesan, A.L., Jones, A.E.,
gas control. In: Proceedings of Coalbed Methane Symposium, Townsville, Australia, Lambakasa, M., Lunt, M.F., Mehra, A., Moreno, I., Pasternak, D., Palmer, P.I.,
pp. 97–105. http://www.undergroundcoal.com.au/outburst/presentations_publicat Percival, C.J., Pitt, J.R., Riddle, A.J., Rigby, M., Shaw, J.T., Stell, A.C., Vaughan, A.
ions/coal_methane_1992/L.W.Lunarzewski.PDF. R., Warwick, N.J., Wilde, S.E., 2021. Isotopic signatures of methane emissions from
Luo, D.K., Dai, Y.J., Xia, L.Y., 2011. Economic evaluation based policy analysis for tropical fires, agriculture and wetlands: the MOYA and ZWAMPS flights. Phil. Trans.
coalbed methane industry in China. Energy 36 (1), 360–368. https://doi.org/ R. Soc. A 380, 20210112. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2021.0112.
10.1016/j.energy.2010.10.031. Nisbet, E.G., Manning, M.R., Dlugokencky, E.J., Michel, S.E., Lan, X., Röckmann, T.,
Luther, A., Swolkien, J., Necki, J., et al., 2018. Estimation of Methane Emissions in the Denier van der Gon, H.A.C., Schmitt, J., Palmer, P.I., Dyonisius, M.N., Oh, Y.,
Upper Silesian Coal Basin Using Portable FTIR Spectrometry and WRF Modelling. Fisher, R.E., Lowry, D., France, J.L., White, J.W.C., Brailsford, G., Bromley, T., 2023.
EGU European Geosciences Union: general assembly, Vienna, Austria 8–13 April. Atmospheric methane: Comparison between methane’s record in 2006-2022 and
Geophysical Research Abstracts. ISSN 1607–7962, vol. 2. during glacial terminations. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 37, 8. https://doi.org/
Luther, A., Kostinek, J., Kleinschek, R., Defratyka, S., Stanisavljevic, M., Forstmaier, A., 10.1029/2023GB007875.
Dandocsi, A., Scheidweiler, L., Dubravica, D., Wildmann, N., Hase, F., Frey, M.M., Noack, K., 1998. Control of gas emissions in underground coal mines. Int. J. Coal Geol.
Chen, J., Dietrich, F., Necki, J., Swolkien, J., Knote, C., Vardag, S.N., Roiger, A., 35, 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-5162(97)00008-6.
Butz, A., 2022. Observational constraints on methane emissions from polish coal Ocko, I.B., Sun, T., Shindell, D., Oppenheimer, M., Hristov, A.N., Pacala, S.W., Denise, L.,
mines using a ground-based remote sensing network. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 22, Mauzerall, D.L., Xu, Y., Steven, P., Hamburg, S.P., 2021. Acting rapidly to deploy
5859–5876. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-5859-2022. readily available methane mitigation measures by sector can immediately slow
Macintosh, A., Butler, D., Ansell, D., Waschka, M., 2022. The emissions reduction fund global warming. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 054042. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-
(ERF): Problems and solutions (Australian National University). https://law.anu. 9326/abf9c8.
edu.au/sites/all/files/erf_-_problems_and_solutions_final_6_april_2022.pdf. O’Keefe, J.M.K., Bechtel, A., Christanis, K., Dai, S., DiMichele, W.A., Eble, C.F., Esterle, J.
Marshall, J.S., Pilcher, R.C., Long, C., 2017. Surface mine methane emissions: current S., Mastalerz, M., Raymond, A.L., Valentim, B.V., Wagner, N.J., Ward, C.R.,
practices, challenges, and opportunities. In: Presented at the Workshop on Coal Mine Hower, J.C., 2013. On the fundamental difference between coal rank and coal type.
Methane and Abandoned Mine Methane in the Context of Sustainable Energy. Int. J. Coal Geol. 118, 58–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.08.007.
October 23, Geneva, Switzerland. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/s Olczak, M., 2023. Policy Options for Addressing Methane Emissions from the Coal Sector.
e/pdfs/cmm/cmm12/Workshop_2017/4.Mr._Marshall.pdf. EDF Economics Discussion Paper No. 23–04. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
McKinsey Sustainability, 2021. Curbing methane emissions: How five industries can cfm?abstract_id=4623998.
counter a major climate threat. https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/sustainab Olczak, M., Piebalgs, A., 2021. Methane emissions from the coal sector during coal
ility/our-insights/curbing-methane-emissions-how-five-industries-can-counter-a-ma phase-out. Policy Brief Florence School Regulation Issue 2021 (06), 1–10. https
jor-climate-threat (accessed: November 7th, 2023). ://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/69976/PB_2021_06-FSR.pdf?sequence
Meinshausen, M., Vogel, E., Nauels, A., Lorbacher, K., Meinshausen, N., Etheridge, D.M., =1&isAllowed=y.
Fraser, P.J., Montzka, S.A., Rayner, P.J., Trudinger, C.M., Krummel, P.B., Beyerle, U., Olczak, M., Piebalgs, A., Balcombe, P., 2023. A global review of methane policies reveals
Canadell, J.G., Daniel, J.S., Enting, I.G., Law, R.M., Lunder, C.R., O’Doherty, S., that only 13% of emissions are covered with unclear effectiveness. One Earth 6,
Prinn, R.G., Reimann, S., Rubino, M., Velders, G.J.M., Vollmer, M.K., Wang, R.H.J., 520–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.04.009.
Weiss, R., 2017. Historical greenhouse gas concentrations for climate modelling Ong, C., Day, S., Halliburton, B., Marvig, P., White, S., 2017. Regional methane
(CMIP6). Geosci. Model Dev. 10 (5), 2057–2116. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10- emissions. In: NSW CSG Basins Final Report. CSIRO, Australia. https://gisera.csiro.
2057-2017. au/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/GHG-4-Final-Report.pdf.
Mielke-Maday, I., Schwietzke, S., Yacovitch, T., Miller, B., Conley, S., Kofler, J., O’Rourke, P.R., Smith, S.J., Mott, A., Ahsan, H., McDuffie, E.E., Crippa, M., Klimont, S.,
Handley, P., Thorley, E., Herndon, S.C., Hall, B., Dlugokencky, E., Lang, P., McDonald, B., Wang, S., Nicholson, M.B., Feng, L., Hoesly, R.M., 2021. Community
Wolter, S., Moglia, E., Crotwell, M., Crotwell, A., Rhodes, M., Kitzis, D., Vaughn, T., Emissions Data System (CEDS) v-2021-02-05 Release Emission Data 1975-2019
Bell, C., Zimmerle, D., Schnell, R., Pétron, G., 2019. Methane source attribution in a (Version Feb-05-2021) doi:1.5281/zenodo.4509372.
U.S. dry gas basin using spatial patterns of ground and airborne ethane and methane Palchik, V., 2020. Analysis of main factors influencing the apertures of mining-induced
measurements. Elementa Sci. Anthropocene 7, 1 doi:1.1525/elementa.351. horizontal fractures at longwall coal mining. Geomech. Geophys. Geo-energ. Geo-
Miller, S.M., Michalak, A.M., Detmers, R.G., Detmers, R.G., Hasekamp, O.P., resour. 6, 37.
Bruhwiler, L.M.P., Schwietzke, S., 2019. China’s coal mine methane regulations have Palmer, P.I., Feng, L., Lunt, M.F., Parker, R.J., Bösch, H., Lan, X., Lorente, A.,
not curbed growing emissions. Nat. Commun. 10 (1), 303. https://doi.org/10.1038/ Borsdorff, T., 2021. The added value of satellite observations of methane for
s41467-018-07891-7. understanding the contemporary methane budget. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 379,
Minister of Environment and Climate Change, 2021. Canadian Impact Assessment 20210106. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2021.0106.
Registry, Letter by the Honourable Jonathan Wilkinson, P.C., M.P., Document Pawlaczyk-Kurek, A., Suwak, M., 2021. Will it be possible to put into practice the
Reference Number 4. https://iaac-aeic.gc.ca/050/evaluations/document/139435. mitigation of ventilation air methane emissions? Review on the state-of-the-art and
Moss, R.H., Edmonds, J.A., Hibbard, K.A., Manning, M.R., Rose, S.K., van Vuuren, D.P., emerging materials and technologies. Catalysts 11, 1141. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Carter, T.R., Emori, S., Kainuma, M., Kram, T., Meehl, G.A., Mitchell, J.F.B., catal11101141.
Nakicenovic, N., Riahi, K., Smith, S.J., Stouffer, R.J., Thomson, A.M., Weyant, J.P., Pearson, J.K., Derwent, R.G., 2022. Air Pollution and Climate Change: The Basics.
Wilbanks, T.J., 2010. The next generation of scenarios for climate change research Routledge, Abingdon, UK. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003293132. ISBN:
and assessment. Nature 463, 747–756. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08823. 978–1–032-27517-8.
26
Peng, S., Piao, S., Bousquet, P., Ciais, P., Li, B., Lin, X., Tao, S., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y., Saunois, M., Martinez, A., Poulter, B., Zhang, Z., Raymond, P., Regnier, P., Canadell, J.G.,
Zhou, F., 2016. Inventory of anthropogenic methane emissions in mainland China Jackson, R.B., Patra, P.K., Bousquet, P., Ciais, P., Dlugokencky, E.J., Lan, X.,
from 1980 to 2010. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 14545–14562. https://doi.org/ Allen, G.H., Bastviken, D., Beerling, D.J., Belikov, D.A., Blake, D.R., Castaldi, S.,
10.5194/acp-16-14545-2016. Crippa, M., Deemer, B.R., Dennison, F., Etiope, G., Gedney, N., Höglund-Isaksson, L.,
Peng, S., Lin, X., Thompson, R.L., Xi, Y., Liu, G., Hauglustaine, D., Lan, X., Poulter, B., Holgerson, M.A., Hopcroft, P.O., Hugelius, G., Ito, A., Jain, A.K., Janardanan, R.,
Ramonet, M., Saunois, M., Yin, Y., Zhang, Z., Zheng, B., Ciais, P., 2022. Wetland Johnson, M.S., Kleinen, T., Krummel, P., Lauerwald, R., Li, T., Liu, X., McDonald, K.
emission and atmospheric sink changes explain methane growth in 2020. Nature C., Melton, J.R., Mühle, J., Müller, J., Murguia-Flores, F., Niwa, Y., Noce, S., Pan, S.,
612, 477–482. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05447-w. Parker, R.J., Peng, C., Ramonet, M., Riley, W.J., Rocher-Ros, G., Rosentreter, J.A.,
Petrenko, V.V., Smith, A.M., Schaefer, H., Riedel, K., Brook, E., Baggenstos, D., Harth, C., Sasakawa, M., Segers, A., Smith, S.J., Stanley, E.H., Thanwerdas, J., Tian, H.,
Hua, Q., Buizert, C., Schilt, A., Fain, X., Mitchell, L., Bauska, T., Orsi, A., Weiss, R.F., Tsuruta, A., Tubiello, F.N., Weber, T.S., van der Werf, G., Worthy, D.E., Xi, Y.,
Severinghaus, J.P., 2017. Minimal geological methane emissions during the Younger Yoshida, Y., Zhang, W., Zheng, B., Zhu, Q., Zhu, Q., Zhuang, Q., 2024. Global
Dryas–Preboreal abrupt warming event. Nature 548, 443–446. https://doi.org/ Methane Budget 2000–2020, Earth Systems Science Data Discussions [preprint].
10.1038/nature23316. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2024-115 in review.
Prather, M.J., 2007. Lifetimes and time scales in atmospheric chemistry. Phil. Trans. R. Schatzel, S.J., Karacan, C.Ö., Dougherty, H., Goodman, G.V.R., 2012. An analysis of
Soc. A 365, 1705–1726. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2007.2040. reservoir conditions and responses in longwall panel overburden during mining and
Preusse, A., 2001. Effect of face advance rates on the characteristics of subsidence its effect on gob gas well performance. Eng. Geol. 127, 65–74. https://doi.org/
processes associated with US and Germany longwall mining. In: In: Proceedings of 10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.01.002.
20th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining, Morgantown, WV. Schultz, K., Adler, L., 2015. Environmental and Sustainability Assessment of Current and
Qin, K., Hu, W., He, Q., Lu, F., Cohen, J.B., 2024. Individual coal mine methane Prospective Status of Coal Mine Methane Production and Use in the European Union.
emissions constrained by eddy covariance measurements: low bias and missing European Commission report No. JRC96133. https://doi.org/10.2788/399444.
sources. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 24, 3009–3028. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-3009- Schwietzke, S., Sherwood, O.A., Bruhwiler, L.M.P., Miller, J.B., Etiope, G.,
2024. Dlugokencky, E.J., Michel, S.E., Arling, V.A., Vaughn, B.H., White, J.W.C., Tans, P.
Qu, Q., Balusu, R., Belle, B., 2022. Specific gas emissions in Bowen Basin longwall mines, P., 2016. Upward revision of global fossil fuel methane emissions based on isotope
Australia. Int. J. Coal Geol. 261, 104076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. database. Nature 538, 88–91. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19797.
coal.2022.104076. Sechman, H., Kotarba, M.J., Kędzior, S., Dzieniewicz, M., Romanowski, T., Twaróg, A.,
Reay, D.S., Smith, P., Christensen, T.R., James, R.H., Clark, H., 2018. Methane and global 2019. Distribution of methane and carbon dioxide concentrations in the near surface
environmental change. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 43, 165–192. https://doi.org/ zone, genetic implications, and evaluation of gas flux around abandoned shafts in the
10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-030154. Jastrzębie-Pszczyna area (southern part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin), Poland.
Rigby, M., Montzka, S.A., Prinn, R.G., White, J.W., Young, D., O’Doherty, S., Lunt, M.F., Int. J. Coal Geol. 204, 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.02.001.
Ganesan, A.L., Alistair, J., Manning, A.J., Simmonds, P.G., Salameh, P.K., Harth, C. Shen, L., Jacob, D.J., Gautam, R., Gautam, R., Omara, M., Scarpelli, T.R., Lorente, A.,
M., Jens, Muhle J., Weiss, R.F., Fraser, P.J., Steele, L.P., Krummel, P.B., Zavala-Araiza, D., Lu, X., Chen, Z., Lin, J., 2023. National quantifications of methane
McCulloch, A., Park, S., 2017. Role of atmospheric oxidation in recent methane emissions from fuel exploitation using high resolution inversions of satellite
growth. PNAS 114 (21), 5373–5377. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616426114. observations. Nat. Commun. 14, 4948. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40671-
Riley, W.J., Subin, Z.M., Lawrence, D.M., Swenson, S.C., Torn, M.S., Meng, L., 6.
Mahowald, N.M., Hess, P., 2011. Barriers to predicting changes in global terrestrial Sheng, J., Song, S., Zhang, Y., Prinn, R.G., Janssens-Maenhout, A.G., 2019. Bottom-up
methane fluxes: analyses using CLM4Me, a methane biogeochemistry model estimates of coal mine methane emissions in China: a gridded inventory, emission
integrated in CESM. Biogeosciences 8, 1925–1953. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-8- factors, and trends. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 6 (8), 473–478. https://doi.org/
1925-2011. 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00294.
Rosentreter, J.A., Borges, A.V., Deemer, B.R., Holgerson, M.A., Liu, S., Song, C., Smith, J.B., 2019. California Compliance Offsets: Problematic Protocols and Buyer
Melack, J., Raymond, P.A., Duarte, C.M., Allen, G.H., Olefeldt, D., Poulter, B., Behavior, Harvard Kennedy School Report. M-RCBG Associate. Working Paper Series
Battin, T.I., Eyre, B.D., 2021. Half of global methane emissions come from highly No. 120. https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/centers/mrcbg/files/
variable aquatic ecosystem sources. Nat. Geosci. 14, 225–230. https://doi.org/ 120_final.pdf.
10.1038/s41561-021-00715-2. Smith, M.L., Gvakharia, A., Kort, E.A., Sweeney, C., Conley, S.A., Faloona, I.,
Roshchanka, V., Evans, M., Ruiz, F., Kholod, N., 2017. A strategic approach to selecting Newberger, T., Schnell, R., Schwietzke, S., Wolter, S., 2017. Airborne quantification
policy mechanisms for addressing coal mine methane emissions: a case study on of methane emissions over the four corners region. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51,
Kazakhstan. Environ. Sci. Pol. 78, 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 5832–5837. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06107.
envsci.2017.08.005. Stavert, A.R., Saunois, M., Canadell, J.G., Poulter, B., Jackson, R.B., Regnier, P.,
Rutherford, J.S., Sherwin, E.D., Ravikumar, A.P., Heath, G.A., Englander, J., Cooley, D., Lauerwald, R., Raymond, P.A., Allen, G.H., Patra, P.K., Bergamaschi, P.,
Lyon, D., Omara, M., Langfitt, Q., Brandt, A.R., 2021. Closing the methane gap in US Bousquet, P., Chandra, N., Ciais, P., Gustafson, A., Ishizawa, M., Ito, A., Kleinen, T.,
oil and natural gas production emissions inventories. Nat. Commun. 12, 4715. Maksyutov, S., McNorton, J., Melton, J.R., Müller, J., Niwa, Y., Peng, S., Riley, W.J.,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25017-4. Segers, A., Tian, H., Tsuruta, A., Yin, Y., Zhang, Z., Zheng, B., Zhuang, Q., 2021.
Sadavarte, P., Pandey, S., Maasakkers, J.D., Lorente, A., Borsdorff, T., van der Gon, H.D., Regional trends and drivers of the global methane budget. Glob. Chang. Biol. 28,
Houweling, S., Aben, I., 2021. Methane emissions from superemitting coal mines in 182–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15901.
Australia quantified using TROPOMI satellite observations. Environ. Sci. Technol. Stevenson, D.S., Zhao, A., Naik, V., O’Connor, F.M., Tilmes, S., Zeng, G., Murray, L.T.,
55, 16573–16580. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c03976. Collins, W.J., Griffiths, P.T., Shim, S., Horowitz, L.W., Sentman, L.T., Emmons, L.,
Sadavarte, P., Pandey, S., Maasakkers, J.D., van der Gon, H.D., Houweling, S., Aben, I., 2020. Trends in global tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime since
2022. A high-resolution gridded inventory of coal mine methane emissions for India 1850 from AerChemMIP. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 20, 12905–12920. https://doi.org/
and Australia. Elementa Sci. Anthropocene 10, 1. https://doi.org/10.1525/ 10.5194/acp-20-12905-2020.
elementa.2021.00056. Stevenson, D.S., Derwent, R.G., Wild, O., Collins, W.J., 2022. COVID-19 lockdown
Saghafi, A., 2012. A Tier 3 method to estimate fugitive gas emissions from surface coal emission reductions have the potential to explain over half of the coincident increase
mining. Int. J. Coal Geol. 100, 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2012.05.008. in global atmospheric methane. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 22, 14243–14252. https://doi.
Sand, M., Skeie, R.B., Sandstad, M., Krishnan, S., Myhre, G., Bryant, H., Derwent, R., org/10.5194/acp-22-14243-2022.
Hauglustaine, D., Paulot, F., Prather, M., Stevenson, D., 2023. A multi-model Strąpoć, D., Mastalerz, M., Dawson, K., Macalady, J., Callaghan, A.V., Wawrik, B.,
assessment of the global warming potential of hydrogen. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, Turich, C., Ashby, M., 2011. Biogeochemistry of Microbial Coal-Bed methane. Annu.
1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00857-8. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 39 (1), 617–656. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-
Saunois, M., Jackson, R.B., Bousquet, P., Poulter, B., Canadell, J.G., 2016. The growing 040610-133343.
role of methane in anthropogenic climate change. Environ. Res. Lett. 11, 120207. Su, S., Chen, H., Teakle, P., Xue, S., 2008. Characteristics of coal mine ventilation air
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/12/120207. flows. J. Environ. Manag. 86, 44–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Saunois, M., Stavert, A.R., Poulter, B., Bousquet, P., Canadell, J.G., Jackson, R.B., jenvman.2006.11.025.
Raymond, P.A., Dlugokencky, E.J., Houweling, S., Patra, P.K., Ciais, P., Arora, V.K., Swolkień, J., 2020. Polish underground coal mines as point sources of methane emission
Bastviken, D., Bergamaschi, P., Blake, D.R., Brailsford, G., Bruhwiler, L., Carlson, K. to the atmosphere. Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control 94, 102921. https://doi.org/
M., Carrol, M., Castaldi, S., Chandra, N., Crevoisier, C., Crill, P.M., Covey, K., 10.1016/j.ijggc.2019.102921.
Curry, C.L., Etiope, G., Frankenberg, C., Gedney, N., Hegglin, M.I., Höglund- Swolkień, J., Fix, A., Gałkowski, M., 2022. Factors influencing the temporal variability of
Isaksson, L., Hugelius, G., Ishizawa, M., Ito, A., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Jensen, K.M., atmospheric methane emissions from Upper Silesia coal mines: a case study from the
Joos, F., Kleinen, T., Krummel, P.B., Langenfelds, R.L., Laruelle, G.G., Liu, L., CoMet mission. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 22, 16031–16052. https://doi.org/10.5194/
Machida, T., Maksyutov, S., McDonald, K.C., McNorton, J., Miller, P.A., Melton, J.R., acp-22-16031-2022.
Morino, I., Müller, J., Murguia-Flores, F., Naik, V., Niwa, Y., Noce, S., O’Doherty, S., Tao, S., Chen, S., Pan, Z., 2019. Current status, challenges, and policy suggestions for
Parker, R.J., Peng, C., Peng, S., Peters, G.P., Prigent, C., Prinn, R., Ramonet, M., coalbed methane industry development in China: a review. Energy Sci. Eng. ese3,
Regnier, P., Riley, W.J., Rosentreter, J.A., Segers, A., Simpson, I.J., Shi, H., Smith, S. 358. https://doi.org/10.1002/ese3.358.
J., Steele, L.P., Thornton, B.F., Tian, H., Tohjima, Y., Tubiello, F.N., Tsuruta, A., Tate, R.D., 2022. Bigger than oil or gas? Sizing up coal mine methane. Global Energy
Viovy, N., Voulgarakis, A., Weber, T.S., van Weele, M., van der Werf, G.R., Weiss, R. Monitor 27. https://globalenergymonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/GEM_
F., Worthy, D., Wunch, D., Yin, Y., Yoshida, Y., Zhang, W., Zhang, Z., Zhao, Y., CCM2022_final.pdf.
Zheng, B., Zhu, Q., Zhu, Q., Zhuang, Q., 2020. The Global methane Budget Taylor, C.D., Karacan, C.Ö., 2010. In: Brune, J.F. (Ed.), Historical Development of
2000–2017. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 12, 1561–1623. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12- Technologies for Controlling Methane in Underground Coal Mines. Extracting the
1561-2020. Science: A Century of Mining Research. Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and
27
Exploration, Littleton, CO, pp. 478–487. ISBN: 9780873353281. https://smemi.pe UNECE, 2017a. ICE-CMM Overview. https://unece.org/sustainable-energy/press/ne
rsonifycloud.com/personifyebusiness/Store/Product-Details/productId/116935. w-centre-excellence-coal-mine-methane-china-will-help-reduce-greenhouse
Thakur, P.C., 2006. Coal seam de gasification. In: Kissell, F. (Ed.), Handbook for Methane (accessed December 12th, 2023).
Control in Mining. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Information UNECE, 2017b. Opening of the International Centre of Excellence on Coal Mine Methane
Circular no: 9486, pp. 77–96. Pittsburgh, PA. https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/gdcebooks in Poland – safer mining, cleaner environment, and efficient resource use. http
public.2023692327. s://unece.org/sustainable-energy/press/opening-international-centre-excellence-co
Thakur, P.C., 2014. Coal seam degasification. In: Coal Bed Methane. Elsevier, al-mine-methane-poland-safer (accessed: December 10th, 2023).
pp. 155–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-15364-0. ISBN 978-0-12-800880-5,. UNECE, 2019. Best practice guidance for effective methane recovery and use from
The White House, 2022. Delivering on the U.S. Methane Emission Reduction Action Plan. abandoned coal mines. In: ECE Energy Series no. 64, United Nations, Geneva,
https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/US-Methane-Emissi Switzerland, p. 65. ISBN: 978-92-1-117216-4. https://unece.org/sustainable-ener
ons-Reduction-Action-Plan-Update.pdf. gy/publications/best-practice-guidance-effective-methane-recovery-and-use-aband
The White House, 2023. The National Strategy to Advance an Integrated U.S. Greenhouse oned (accessed: May 7th, 2023).
Gas Measurement, Monitoring, and Information System. https://www.whitehouse. UNECE, 2021. Best practice guidance for effective management of coal mine methane at
gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/NationalGHGMMISStrategy-2023.pdf. national level: monitoring, reporting, verification and mitigation. In: ECE Energy
Thompson, R.L., Nisbet, E.G., Pisso, I., Stohl, A., Blake, D., Dlugokencky, E.J., Helmig, D., Series no. 71, United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, p. 87. ISBN: 978-92-1-117287-4.
White, J.W.C., 2018. Variability in atmospheric methane from fossil fuel and https://unece.org/sustainable-energy/publications/best-practice-guidance-effective
microbial sources over the last three decades. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 11499–11508. -management-coal-mine-methane (accessed: May 7th, 2023).
https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078127. UNECE, 2023a. Mandate of the group of experts on coal mine methane and just
Tibrewal, K., Ciais, P., Saunois, M., Martinez, A., Lin, X., Thanwerdas, J., Deng, Z., transition. https://unece.org/sustainable-energy/coal-mine-methane-and-just-trans
Chevallier, F., Giron, C., Albergel, C., Tanaka, K., Patra, P., Tsuruta, A., Zheng, B., ition/mandate-group-experts-coal-mine-methane (accessed: December 10th, 2023).
Belikov, D., Niwa, Y., Janardanan, R., Maksyutov, S., Segers, A., Tzompa-Sosa, Z.A., UNECE, 2023b. MetCoal Methane Partnership Presentation. https://unece.org/sites/de
Bousquet, P., Sciare, J., 2024. Assessment of methane emissions from oil, gas and fault/files/2023-03/9.%20Kupers%20-%20Metcoal%20Methane%20Partnership%
coal sectors across inventories and atmospheric inversions. Commun. Earth Environ. 20-%20Slide%20Deck.pdf (accessed December 10th, 2023).
5, 26. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-01190-w. UNEP, 2023a. The Climate and Clean Air Coalition. https://www.ccacoalition.org/
Turner, A.J., Frankenberg, C., Wennberg, P.O., Jacob, D.J., 2017. Ambiguity in the content/climate-and-clean-air-coalition (accessed: December 10th, 2023).
causes for decadal trends in atmospheric methane and hydroxyl. PNAS 114 (21), UNEP, 2023b. Bosnia and Herzegovina - Accelerating implementation of coal mine
5367–5372. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616020114. methane mitigation measures. https://www.ccacoalition.org/projects/bosnia-an
Turner, A.J., Frankenberg, C., Kort, E.A., 2019. Interpreting contemporary trends in d-herzegovina-accelerating-implementation-coal-mine-methane-mitigation-meas
atmospheric methane. PNAS 116 (8), 2805–2813. https://doi.org/10.1073/ ures (accessed: December 10th, 2023).
pnas.1814297116. UNEP and CCAC, 2021. Global Methane Assessment: Benefits and Costs of Mitigating
Tutak, M., Brodny, J., 2019. Forecasting methane emissions from hard coal mines Methane Emissions. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, p. 172. ISBN:
including the methane drainage process. Energies 12, 3840. https://doi.org/ 978-92-807-3854-4. https://www.unep.org/resources/report/global-methane-
10.3390/en12203840. assessment-benefits-and-costs-mitigating-methane-emissions (accessed: May 7th,
U.S. EPA, 2010. The U.S. government’s methane to markets partnership 2023).
accomplishments fifth annual report. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/201 UNEP IMEO, 2024. The United Nation’s Environment Program’s International Methane
6-01/documents/usg_2010_accomplishments.pdf (accessed: April 23rd, 2023). Emissions Observatory. https://www.unep.org/topics/energy/methane/inte
U.S. EPA, 2014. Legal and regulatory status of CMM ownership in key countries: an rnational-methane-emissions-observatory.
overview provided for decision makers in Mongolia. https://www.epa.gov/sites/de UNFCCC, 2021. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
fault/files/2016-03/documents/mongolia-cmm-ownership-policy-white-paper-jul Greenhouse gas Data Interface. https://di.unfccc.int/ (accessed: October 5th, 2023).
y2014.pdf (accessed: April 25th, 2023). Varon, D.J., Jacob, D.J., Jervis, D., McKeever, J., 2020. Quantifying time-averaged
U.S. EPA, 2018. Coal Mine Methane Developments in the United States. EPA 430-R-18- methane emissions from individual coal mine vents with GHGSat-D satellite
002, p. 10. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2018-03/documents/cmm_dev observations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 54, 10246–10253. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
elopments_in_the_us.pdf (accessed: April 23rd, 2023). est.0c01213.
U.S. EPA, 2019a. Ventilation air methane (VAM) utilization technologies. Coalbed Vaughn, T.L., Bell, C.S., Pickering, C.K., Schwietzke, S., Heath, G.A., Pétron, G.,
methane outreach program, EPA-430-F-19-023, p. 6. https://www.epa.gov/sites/def Zimmerle, D.J., Schnell, R.C., Nummedal, D., 2018. Temporal variability largely
ault/files/2019-11/documents/vam_technologies.pdf (accessed: November 8th, explains top-down/bottom-up difference in methane emission estimates from a
2023). natural gas production region. PNAS 115 (46), 11712–11717. https://doi.org/
U.S. EPA, 2019b. State renewable energy programs (EPA-430-F-19-025). US EPA coalbed 10.1073/pnas.1805687115.
methane outreach program. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-07/do Voltattorni, N., Lombardi, S., Beaubien, S.E., 2015. Gas migration from two mine
cuments/state-programs.pdf (accessed: April 23rd, 2023). districts: the Tolfa (Lazio, Central Italy) and the Neves-Corvo (Baixo Alentejo,
U.S. EPA, 2019c. Global non-CO2 greenhouse gas emission projections and mitigation Portugal) case studies. J. Geochem. Explor. 152, 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2015–2050. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/documents/epa_no gexplo.2015.01.011.
n-co2_greenhouse_gases_rpt-epa430r19010.pdf (accessed: April 23rd, 2023). Wang, K., Zhang, J., Cai, B., Yu, S., 2019. Emission factors of fugitive methane from
U.S. EPA, 2019d. Status of CMM ownership and policy incentives in key countries: underground coal mines in China: estimation and uncertainty. Appl. Energy 250,
Considerations for decision makers, EPA Publication No: EPA-430-R-19-004. http 273–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.05.024.
s://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P100W9QH.PDF?Dockey=P100W9QH.PDF Yang, M., 2009. Climate change and energy policies, coal and coalmine methane in
(accessed: April 23rd, 2023). China. Energy Policy 37 (8), 2858–2869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
U.S. EPA, 2019e. Legal and regulatory status of abandoned mine methane in selected enpol.2009.02.048.
countries: considerations for decision makers. In: EPA 430R19003, p. 22. https:// Zazzeri, G., Lowry, D., Fisher, R.E., France, J.L., Lanoisellé, M., Kelly, B.F.J., Necki, J.M.,
www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-03/documents/legal-regulatory-status-amm Iverach, C.P., Ginty, E., Zimnoch, M., Jasek, A., Nisbet, E.G., 2016. Carbon isotopic
_epa.pdf (accessed: April 25th, 2023). signature of coal-derived methane emissions to the atmosphere: from coalification to
U.S. EPA, 2020a. User’s guide for estimating methane emissions from coal mining and alteration. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 13669–13680. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-
abandoned coal. In: Prepared for State Energy and Environment Program, U.S. 13669-2016.
Environmental Protection Agency, p. 15. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files Zhang, H., 2022. China’s ownership policies in the coal sector: Effectiveness of capacity
/2020-10/documents/coal_users_guide.pdf (accessed: April 25th, 2023). regulation and prospect for climate change mitigation. J. Energy Nat. Resour. Law
U.S. EPA, 2020b. Ventilation Air Methane Projects in the United States: Barriers and 40 (2), 251–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646811.2021.1972563.
Potential Opportunities. https://www.epa.gov/cmop/ventilation-air-methane-vam- Zhang, W., Meng, J., Tian, X., 2020. Does de-capacity policy enhance the total factor
projects-united-states-barriers-and-potential-opportunities (accessed: November 8th, productivity of China’s coal companies? A regression discontinuity design. Res.
2023). Policy 68, 101741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101741.
U.S. EPA, 2022. GMI Coal Mines Subcommittee 2022 Action Plan. https://www.global Zhang, Z., Poulter, B., Knox, S., Stavert, A., McNicol, G., Fluet-Chouinard, E.,
methane.org/resources/details.aspx?resourceid=5218 (accessed: December 10, Feinberg, A., Zhao, Y., Bousquet, P., Canadell, J.G., Ganesan, A., Hugelius, G.,
2023). (accessed: April 25th, 2023). Hurtt, G., Jackson, R.B., Patra, P.K., Saunois, M., Höglund-Isaksson, L., Huang, C.,
U.S. EPA, 2023a. Sources of Coal Mine Methane. https://www.epa.gov/cmop/sources-c Chatterjee, A., Li, X., 2022. Anthropogenic emission is the main contributor to the
oal-mine-methane (accessed: October 31st, 2023). rise of atmospheric methane during 1993–2017. Natl. Sci. Rev. 9 (5), nwab200.
U.S. EPA, 2023b. About Coal Mine Methane. https://www.epa.gov/cmop/abou https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab200.
t-coal-mine-methane (accessed: October 31st, 2023). Zhang, Z., Poulter, B., Feldman, A.F., Ying, Q., Ciais, P., Peng, S., Li, X., 2023. Recent
U.S. EPA, 2023c. Global non-CO2 Greenhouse Gas Emission Projections and Mitigation intensification of wetland methane feedback. Nat. Clim. Chang. https://doi.org/
Potential: 2015-2050. https://www.epa.gov/global-mitigation-non-co2-greenhou 10.1038/s41558-023-01629-0.
se-gases/global-non-co2-greenhouse-gas-emission-projections (accessed: November Zhao, Y., Saunois, M., Bousquet, P., Lin, X., Berchet, A., Hegglin, M.I., Canadell, J.G.,
7th, 2023). Jackson, R.B., Deushi, M., Jöckel, P., Kinnison, D., Kirner, O., Strode, S., Tilmes, S.,
U.S. EPA, 2023d. About the Global Methane Initiative. https://www.globalmethane. Dlugokencky, E.J., Zheng, B., 2020. On the role of trend and variability in the
org/about/index.aspx (accessed: December 10th, 2023). hydroxyl radical (OH) in the global methane budget. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 20,
UNECE, 2016. Best practice guidance for effective methane drainage and use in coal 13011–13022. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-13011-2020.
mines. In: ECE Energy Series no. 47, United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, p. 108. Zhao, A., O’Keefe, K., McJeon, H., Clark-Sutton, K., Cui, R., Feldmann, J., Kennedy, K.,
ISBN 978-92-1-117121-1. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/energy/cmm Kennedy, K., Kennedy, S., Meisel, J., Nilov, D., Rajpurohit, S., Hultman, N., 2022. An
/docs/BPG_2017.pdf (accessed: October 8th, 2023). ‘all-in’ Pathway to 2030: U.S. Methane Sector Emissions Reduction Potential. Center
28
for Global Sustainability, University of Maryland and America Is All In, p. 16. http Zhu, R., Khanna, N., Gordon, J., Dai, F., Lin, J., 2023. Abandoned Coal Mine methane
s://cgs.umd.edu/research-impact/publications/all-pathway-2030-us-methane-e reduction: lessons from the United States. In: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
missions-reduction-potential. under Contract No. DEAC02-05CH11231 with the U.S. Department of Energy, p. 31.
Zhu, T., Bian, W., Zhang, S., Di, P., Nie, B., 2017. An improved approach to estimate https://ccci.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Abandonded%20Coal%20Mines_Final
methane emissions from coal mining in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51 (21), %20%28EN%29.pdf.
12072–12080. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b01857.
29

Mitigating Climate Change by Abating Coal Mine Metha - 2024 - International Jour

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mitigating Climate Change by Abating Coal Mine Metha - 2024 - International Jour

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mitigating Climate Change by Abating Coal Mine Metha - 2024 - International Jour

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Coal Geology 295 (2024) 104623

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Coal Geology

Mitigating climate change by abating coal mine methane: A critical review

Fig. 3. Coal supply by scenario, 2010 to 2050 (IEA, 2022a).

the mining environment. Therefore, these ventholes can be a significant

6.3. The climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)

Founded in 2012 and hosted by the United Nations Environment

You might also like