Chapter 11

Lab 4: Speed of Sound

11.1 Pre-Lab
• Read this section of the lab manual carefully.

• There is no formal pre-lab assignment. This lab requires a full lab report. You are advised to
create a draft of your Introduction and Methods section and plan your analysis by creating a
spreadsheet of the variables you will measure and those you will derive.

• Download and install the Phyphox app from your app store.

11.2 Purpose
• To measure the speed of sound in air using standing sound waves in a pipe.

• To learn about resonance, and understand the nodes and antinodes in a wave.

• To compare the measured speed of sound from waves in a pipe to the measured speed of sound
using the Phyphox app.

11.3 Introduction

Sound is a longitudinal (compressional) wave caused by a vibrating source. Sound travels through
a medium by the molecular transfer of energy. In this experiment, you measure the speed of sound
in air by examining the resonances of a cylindrical pipe closed at one end. Read Appendix 11.7 at
the end of this chapter for a brief discussion on longitudinal waves.

64
CHAPTER 11. LAB 4: SPEED OF SOUND PHYS 130 – Page 65

The apparatus consists of a long pipe with a plunger inside, and a series of four tuning forks.
After being struck with the provided rubber-coated striker, a tuning fork will ring at its characteristic
frequency. The tuning fork is held in front of the tube and the plunger in the tube can be adjusted
until resonance is achieved (you should notice a substantial increase in the loudness of the tuning
fork). When the tube is resonant with the tuning fork, the sound waves will form standing waves
inside the tube.

11.4 Theory

The speed of sound 𝑣 in a medium (gas, fluid, solid) is defined in terms of its frequency 𝑓 and
wavelength 𝜆 by the following equation:

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 (11.1)
To determine the speed of sound in air, both the frequency and wavelength of the sound wave must be
known. Tuning forks with known frequencies are used to generate sound in the lab. The wavelength
𝜆 can be experimentally determined by examining the standing waves set up in a pipe closed at one
end. The pipe resonates with maximum sound intensity when the plunger is adjusted for a standing
wave as shown in Fig. 11.1.

Figure 11.1: Successive distances for displacement amplitudes of standing waves

in a pipe closed at one end.

When standing waves occur, a series of nodes and antinodes are set up at fixed positions within
the pipe. In Fig. 1, nodes are positions where the air molecules are stationary, and antinodes are
11.5. PROCEDURE PHYS 130 – Page 66

positions where the air molecules vibrate with maximum amplitude. For a given frequency 𝑓 , these
resonances occur when the length of the air column 𝐿 𝑛 is and odd 1/4-multiple of 𝜆: 𝜆/4, 3𝜆/4,
5𝜆/4, etc. This can be expressed as follows:
𝜆
𝐿 𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) , 𝑛 =1, 2, 3... (11.2)
4
Note that the total air length 𝐿 𝑛 is greater than the air chamber distance 𝐷 𝑛 inside the pipe. The
antinode at the open end of the tube is actually located a small distance 𝑥 𝑜 outside of the pipe.
Rewriting Eq. 2 in terms of the length of the inside pipe chamber 𝐷 𝑛 we have
𝜆
𝐿 𝑛 = 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑥 0 = (2𝑛 − 1) . (11.3)
4
Ideally from theory, the end correction 𝑥 0 is constant and does not change with 𝑛 or the frequency 𝑓 .
Also, it does not depend on the particular resonance order 𝑛 that is excited.

Combining Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, we obtain the expression for pipe chamber 𝐷 𝑛 for successive
resonances 𝑛 as follows:
(2𝑛 − 1)
𝐷𝑛 = 𝑐𝑠 − 𝑥 0 , 𝑛=1, 2, 3... (11.4)
4𝑓
This is a linear equation, where the speed of sound 𝑐 𝑠 and the end correction (𝑥 0 ) are unknowns. You
will measure measure 𝐷 𝑛 for different values of 𝑛 and 𝑓 . Then, you can use linear regression to find
𝑐 𝑠 and 𝑥 0 .

11.5 Procedure

You will create your own spreadsheet and data table for this lab. This table should include the
measured and derived parts of Equation 11.4.

1. Start the experiment with the plunger positioned at the open end of the tube. Strike the tuning
fork with the rubber rod and hold it at the open end.

2. Slowly move the plunger back into the tube until a loud amplification of the tone is heard. It
might be necessary to strike the tuning fork with the rubber rod several times to keep the tuning
fork vibrating. Adjust the plunger for maximum amplification. This corresponds to the first
resonance point. Measure the length of the standing wave column.

3. Continue pulling out the plunger, recording the length of the standing wave columns cor-
responding to the maximum amplification points. Two or three resonances should be ob-
tained depending on the tuning fork used. These lengths correspond to 𝐷 1 , 𝐷 2 , 𝐷 3 , · · · for
𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, · · · as shown in Fig. 1. Estimate the uncertainty in all your measurements. The
uncertainty in the marked frequencies on the tuning forks is small and can be neglected.
Note: Use the rubber rod to strike the tuning fork. This will cause the tuning fork to vibrate
with the fundamental frequency marked on the fork. If the tuning fork is struck using a
CHAPTER 11. LAB 4: SPEED OF SOUND PHYS 130 – Page 67

hard object, it will not only resonate with the fundamental frequency 𝑓 but also with second
harmonic. The second harmonic is twice the fundamental frequency 2 𝑓 . If this occurs during
your measurements, it can cause considerable confusion. You can detect harmonics by noting
a higher pitched tone (one octave higher) compared to the fork’s tone. For those who are
familiar with music, if the fork is marked C you will hear a high C instead of the original C.
Also, the fork will become damaged if struck using a hard object.

4. Repeat steps (2) and (4) of the procedure using the remaining three tuning forks.

5. Repeat your entire experiment (all 4 forks) once more to illustrate the uncertainty in your data.
If you are working with partner, swap who is doing what if possible. It is important to change
forks between trials or else you will subconsciously adjust your data to be the same between
trials.

6. Measure the total length and inside diameter of the pipe. Record the ambient temperature.
Estimate the uncertainties in all measurements.

We will also measure the speed of sound using the Phyphox app and two smartphones.

1. Open the Phyphox app on both phones and select the Acoustic Stopwatch experiment.

2. Click the play button and it will begin listening for sounds. Adjust the threshold so that it is
low enough to be triggered by a clap, but high enough that it is not triggered by background
noise.

3. Set the two phones several metres apart, measure the distance, and then have one person stand
next to each phone.

4. One person should clap which will begin the timers on both phones at slightly different times.

5. After a few seconds, the other person should clap which will stop the timers on both phones.

6. Record the times from both phones. The speed of sound is then 𝑐 𝑠 = 2𝑑/Δ𝑡, where 𝑑 is the
distance between the phones and Δ𝑡 is the difference in times between the two phones. You
can assume the uncertainty in timing is negligible, but estimate the uncertainty in distance so
that you can determine an uncertainty in the speed of sound.

11.6 Analysis Questions

Use these questions to guide the structure of your results/analysis section.

1. Looking at Eq. 4, a graph of 𝐷 𝑛 vs (2𝑛 − 1)/(4 𝑓 ) is expected to be linear. Identify the

constants corresponding to the slope and intercept for the proposed linear graph. Clearly show
how the constants were identified.
11.7. STANDING SOUND WAVES PHYS 130 – Page 68

2. Include the necessary graphing variables in the data table.

3. Plot the linear graph suggested in step (1) of the analysis. Determine experimental values for
the speed of sound 𝑐 𝑠 ± 𝛿𝑐 𝑠 and the end correction factor 𝑥 𝑜 ± 𝛿𝑥 𝑜 from the graph.
4. The speed of sound 𝑐 𝑠,0 in dry air at 0◦ C (273.15 K) is 331.3 m/s. As this speed depends
on the average velocity of the air molecules, which increases with temperature, we may use a
correction factor to calculate the speed of sound 𝑣, at room temperature 𝑇
√︂
𝑇
𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑐 𝑠,0 (11.5)
273.15 K
where 𝑇 is measured in Kelvin. Using the measured temperature and its uncertainty, calculate
a value (with uncertainty) for the speed of sound in air using Eq. 11.5. Do the calculated and
graphical values for the speed of sound agree within the error interval error?
5. A theoretical approximation for the end correction 𝑥 𝑜 of a thin-walled tube with circular cross
section can be calculated using
𝑥 0 ≈ 0.6𝑅 (11.6)
where 𝑅 is the radius of the tube. (See Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern
Physics, Serway, Beichner & Jewett, 5th ed., page 559). Calculate a theoretical value for the
end correction. Do the theoretical and experimental values for the end correction agree within
error?
6. What is the speed of sound and its uncertainty from the Phyphox experiment? Make sure to
show the calculation in your Results, and compare the value to the theoretical value in your
Discussion.

11.7 Standing Sound Waves

Under normal room conditions, the air molecules move randomly with average speeds near 550
m/s and undergo about 109 collisions per second. The motion of these molecules is barely affected
by the sound wave where the oscillations produced by the wave are superimposed as tiny regularities
upon the random motion.

A useful analogy exists between standing waves in air and standing waves on a string. As show
in Fig. 11.2, the node and antinode structure is the same in both cases. Note, however, that waves on
a string are transverse waves whereas sound waves are longitudinal waves.

Sound is usually described as a traveling pressure wave, yet we have described the standing wave
pattern in terms of the movement of air molecules (nodes occur where the molecules have no motion;
antinodes occur where the molecules move back and forth with greatest displacement). The standing
wave pattern can, however, be described in terms of the pressure variation but it is 90◦ out of phase
compared to the molecule movement. At a displacement antinode, the air molecules move back and
forth so as to keep the pressure constant (pressure node). At a displacement node, the air molecules
have zero net motion, hence the pressure is maximum (pressure antinode).
CHAPTER 11. LAB 4: SPEED OF SOUND PHYS 130 – Page 69

Figure 11.2: Transverse motion of a string versus longitudinal motion of air

molecules.
11.8. ASSIGNMENT PHYS 130 – Page 70

11.8 Assignment

Before you leave lab: Make a preliminary version of your main plot and show it to your TA.
Carefully examine your data in this graph and identify if any points look like they might not be part
of the regular line. Try to identify reasons that these data may be incorrect.

For this Lab, you will complete a full lab report (see Chapter 4). There is a limit of 4 pages.
Handwritten work and images of handwritten work will not be accepted. In completing your lab
report, keep the following points in mind:

• Your introduction section should introduce the idea of sound waves in a pipe and give our key
equation (Equation 11.4), explaining the variables.

• Your methods section should describe what you did in your lab. Explain how you measured
the different data requested.

• Make sure you have a clear data table showing all your trials. To save space, you can just
include a sample table in your Results and put the full table in the Appendix. Make sure to
refer to the full table in the caption of your sample table. Include uncertainties in your distance
measurements. If the uncertainty is the same for all measurements, you can just include the
uncertainty in the caption.

• Your results section should include a graph of the data from the tube portion of the experiment.
As usual, include a trendline and a caption.

• Your report should compare theoretical and observed values for both 𝑐 𝑠 and 𝑥 0 . The two
observed 𝑐 𝑠 values can each be compared against the theoretical value; you do not need to
compare the observed values against each other. State whether you have good agreement
within the error intervals. Identify any bad data that may be affecting your results.

• Make sure to answer all of the questions from Sec. 11.6 in the appropriate places in your
Results and Discussion sections.