Module 1:

Basic Concepts
and Calculations
in Chemistry
CE 0115 (Chemistry for Engineers – Lecture Series)
 Course Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student shall be able to:
1. Explain the chemical principles and concepts of structures and
bonding of common materials
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student shall be able to:
1. Describe the structure of atoms, molecules and ions based on
existing theories
2. Apply periodic trends in describing properties of an element and
chemical reactions
3. Describe different types of chemical bonds on how it affects the
molecular structure
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student shall be able to:
4. Perform basic stoichiometric calculations including limiting and
excess reactant and theoretical yield.

5. Illustrate types of unit cells and properties of crystalline and

amorphous solids

6. Identify properties of liquids and express a concentration of a

solution in terms of different concentration units.
 Topic Outline

1. Atoms, Molecules & Ions

2. The Periodic Table
3. Periodic Trends
4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
5. Stoichiometry
6. Solids, Liquids and Solutions
7. Gases
Atoms, Molecules, & Ions
 Atom: Structure

❑ Atom [“atomos” – uncuttable or indivisible]

❑ Atom is the basic unit of an (chemical) element
that can enter into chemical combination/reaction
 Atom: Structure
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. An element is composed of tiny particles called atoms.

atom

element
 Atom: Structure
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having same size, mass
and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from
atoms of other elements.
 Atom: Structure
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
3. In an ordinary chemical reaction, atoms move from one substance to
another, but no atom of any element disappears or is changed into an
atom of another element [Law of Conservation of Mass].
 Atom: Structure
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements
combine.

Element A Element B Compound

 Atom: Structure
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. An element is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having same size, mass and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from atoms of
other elements.
3. In an ordinary chemical reaction, atoms move from one substance to
another, but no atom of any element disappears or is changed into an atom
of another element.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements combine.
 Atom: Structure
Law of Definite Proportions
“Different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent
elements in the same proportion by mass.”
❑ This law states that a chemical compound, regardless of the amount of the
compound or its source, always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by mass.

Illustration: Sample 1: 30 g Water

Sample 2: 18 g Water
 Atom: Structure
Law of Multiple Proportions
“If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of
one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of
small whole numbers.

𝑶 𝟐
=
𝑪 𝟏
CO2

𝑶 𝟏
=
𝑪 𝟏
CO
 Atom: Subatomic Particles
❑ The Dalton’s atomic theory was extended into a series of research
that led to the discovery of three subatomic particles:
ELECTRON

ATOMS PROTON

NEUTRON
 Quantitative Properties of an Atom
1. Atomic Number (Z)
❑ The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element.
❑ In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons, so the atomic number also indicates the number of
electrons present in the atom.
❑ The chemical identity of an atom can be determined solely from its
atomic number.
 Quantitative Properties of an Atom
2. Mass Number (A)
❑ The total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of
an atom of an element.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴 = # 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 + # 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑍 + # 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

 Quantitative Properties of an Atom
Isotopes
❑ Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
❑ In an element, atoms of a given element do not have all the same
mass but it has two or more isotopes.

Example:
 Molecules
Molecules
❑ A molecule is an aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces (or chemical bonds ).
❑ Diatomic Molecules – molecules that contain two atoms.
❑ Polyatomic Molecules – molecules that contain more than two
atoms.
 Ions
Ions
❑ An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or
negative charge.
❑ Cation – ions that contain net positive charge.
❑ Anion – ions that contain net negative charge.
 Ions
Ions
❑ Monatomic Ions – ions that contain only one atom.
❑ Polyatomic Ions – ions that contain more one atom.
The Periodic Table
 The Periodic Table

❑ The periodic table

summarizes a wealth of
information about the
behavior of elements,
organizing them
simultaneously in ascending
order of atomic number and
in groups according to
chemical behavior.
 The Periodic Table

❑ The periodic law, is as follows:

the properties of the elements are
periodic functions of their atomic
numbers. A modern periodic table
arranges the elements in
increasing order of their atomic
numbers and groups atoms with
similar properties in the same
vertical column.
 The Periodic Table
❑ Each box represents an element and contains its atomic number,
symbol, average atomic mass, and (sometimes) name.
❑ The elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows, called periods
or series, and 18 vertical columns, called groups. Groups are
labeled at the top of each column.
❑ Although the properties of the elements can vary widely across a
period, each column collects elements that have similar chemical
properties. Most elements can combine with hydrogen to form
compounds.
The Periodic Table
 The Periodic Table
Categories of Element in the Periodic Table
❑ Metals (elements that are shiny, malleable,
good conductors of heat and electricity—
shaded yellow);
❑ Nonmetals (elements that appear dull,
poor conductors of heat and electricity—
shaded green);
❑ Metalloids (elements that conduct heat
and electricity moderately well, and possess
some properties of metals and some
properties of nonmetals—shaded purple).
 The Periodic Table

❑ The elements can be subdivided further by more specific

properties, such as the composition of the compounds they form.

❑ For example, the elements in group 1 (the first column) form

compounds that consist of one atom of the element and one atom
of hydrogen. These elements (except hydrogen) are known as
alkali metals, and they all have similar chemical properties.
 The Periodic Table
❑ The elements in group 2 (the second column) form compounds
consisting of one atom of the element and two atoms of hydrogen:
These are called alkaline earth metals, with similar properties
among members of that group.

❑ Other groups with specific names are the pnictogens (group 15),
chalcogens (group 16), halogens (group 17), and the noble gases
(group 18, also known as inert gases).
 The Periodic Table
❑ The elements can also be classified into the main-group elements
(or representative elements) in the columns labeled 1, 2, and 13–
18;
❑ The transition metals in the columns labeled 3–12; and
❑ The inner transition metals in the two rows at the bottom of the
table
❑ (the top-row elements are called lanthanides and the bottom-row
elements are actinides.
 The Periodic Table

❑ The groups can also be referred to by the first element of the

group.

❑ For example, the chalcogens can be called the oxygen group or

oxygen family.

❑ Hydrogen is a unique, nonmetallic element with properties similar

to both group 1A and group 7A elements. For that reason,
hydrogen may be shown at the top of both groups, or by itself.
The Periodic Table
Periodic Trends
 The Periodic Trends
Atomic Radius

❑ It is the total distance from an atom’s nucleus to the outermost

orbital of electron.
❑ It is the measure of the size of its atom.
❑ Atomic radius increases downward because we add shells, and
decreases to the right due to strong electromagnetic attraction.
 The Periodic Trends
Atomic Radius

❑ Negative ion is always larger and positive ion is always smaller than
its parent element.

SUMMARY:

Atomic radius increases downward and to the left.

 The Periodic Trends
Atomic Radius
 The Periodic Trends
Sample Problem:
1. Arrange the following sets of elements in increasing atomic radius:
a) C, Li, Be
b) P, Si, N
c) Sb, Cl, Cs
 The Periodic Trends
Ionic Radius

❑ It is the radius of a monatomic ion in an ionic crystal structure.

❑ It is the total distance from an atom’s nucleus to the outermost
shell of the ion.
❑ As you move down a column or group, the ionic radius increases.
This is because each row adds a new electron shell.
 The Periodic Trends
Ionic Radius

❑ Ionic radius decreases moving from left to right across a row or

period.
❑ More protons are added, but the outer valence shell remains the
same, so the positively charged nucleus draws in the electrons
more tightly. But for the nonmetallic elements, the ionic radius
increases because there are more electrons than protons.
 The Periodic Trends
Ionic Radius

❑ Adding electrons increases the ionic radius, while removing

electrons decreases the ionic radius.
❑ Ions with the same electronic configuration will have their ionic
radius decrease as the atomic number increases.
❑ Ions may be larger or smaller than neutral atoms.
 The Periodic Trends
Ionic Radius
INCREASE
INCREASE
 The Periodic Trends
Sample Problem:
1. Using periodic trends, arrange the following sets of elements in
decreasing ionic radius:
a) C, Li, Be
b) P, Si, N
c) Sb, Kr, Cs
 The Periodic Trends
Metallic Property
❑ Metallic property increases downward and to the left.

Reactivity
❑ Metal reactivity decreases from left to right across periods and
increases down groups whereas nonmetallic reactivity increases
from left to right and decreases down groups.
 The Periodic Trends
Ionization Energy

❑ Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron

from the atom.
❑ The farther from the nucleus, the easier to pull it away.
❑ Ionization energy increases upward and to the right.
 The Periodic Trends
Ionization Energy

❑ Successive ionization energies increases and will have a sudden

jump in ionization energy on the last.
❑ However, there are EXEMPTIONS to the ionization energy trend.
Examples are: N to O, and Be to B. This is because of orbital
symmetry.
 The Periodic Trends
Electron Affinity

❑ Electron affinity tells us how much an atom wants to gain electrons.

❑ Electron affinity increases upward and to the right.
❑ Follows the same exceptions as ionization energy.
 The Periodic Trends
Electronegativity

❑ Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the

tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself. A higher
electronegative atom signifies a more reactive atom as it has more
power to pull electrons from other atoms.
❑ It is affected by both its atomic number and the distance that its
valence electrons reside from the charged nuclei. It increases going
upward and to the right.
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Chemical Bonding

❑ Atoms combine to make compounds by forming chemical bonds.

❑ Several different types of chemical bonds are possible (ionic
bonding, metallic bonding, and covalent bonding), and once we
learn to recognize them, these types of bonds will help us to
understand some of the chemical properties of many substances.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Chemical Bonding

❑ All chemical bonds share two characteristics. First, all bonds involve
exchange or sharing of electrons. Second, this exchange or
sharing of electrons results in lower energy for the compound
relative to the separate atoms.
❑ A chemical bond will not form, or will have only a fleeting
existence, unless it lowers the overall energy of the collection of
atoms involved.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Ionic Bonding

❑ Some compounds are composed of collections of oppositely

charged ions that form an extended array called a lattice.
❑ The bonding in these compounds is called ionic bonding. To form
the ions that make up the compound, one substance loses an
electron to become a cation, while another gains an electron to
become an anion. We can view this as the transfer of an electron
from one species to another.
The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Ionic Bonding

❑ Ionic compounds form extended systems or lattices of alternating

positive and negative charges
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Ionic Bonding

❑ Although the formula NaCl correctly indicates that sodium and

chlorine are present in a 1:1 ratio, we cannot really identify an
individual “molecule” of NaCl. To emphasize this distinction, we
sometimes refer to a formula unit, rather than a molecule, when
talking about ionic compounds.

❑ The formula unit is the smallest whole number ratio of atoms in an

ionic compound.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Metallic Bonding

❑ Metals represent another type of extended system, but here the

chemical bonding is totally different.

❑ In metals, the atoms are once again arranged in a lattice, but

positively and negatively charged species do not alternate.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Metallic Bonding
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Metallic Bonding

❑ In a metallic bonding, each metal atom contributes one or more

electrons to a mobile “electron sea.” The ability of the electrons to
move freely through this “sea” allows the metal to conduct
electricity. Here the blue area depicts those mobile (or
“delocalized”) electrons, and the red circles represent the positively
charged “cores” of the individual atoms.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Metallic Bonding

❑ Instead, the nuclei and some fraction of their electrons comprise a

positively charged “core” localized at these lattice points, and other
electrons move more or less freely throughout the whole array. This
is called metallic bonding.

❑ Metallic bonding leads to electrical conductivity because electrons

can move easily through the bulk material.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Covalent Bonding

❑ When electrons are shared between pairs of atoms rather than

donated from one atom to another or mobile across an entire
lattice, we have covalent bonding.

❑ In covalent bonds, electrons are usually shared in pairs. A pair of

electrons shared between two nuclei leads to an attraction
between those nuclei, and we call this a covalent bond.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Covalent Bonding

❑ In other cases, two or three pairs of electrons may be shared

between a single pair of nuclei, resulting in double bonds or triple
bonds.

❑ The long chains in all polymers are formed by covalent bonds in

which electrons are shared between adjacent carbon atoms.
Smaller, more familiar molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, and
propane are simpler examples.
 The Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Covalent Bonding
Stoichiometry
 Amount of Substance
❑ The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg) of the carbon-12 isotope.
❑ Avogadro’s Number (NA) – it represents the number of atoms of an element
in a sample whose mass in grams is numerically equal to the atomic mass of
the element.

𝑰 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

 Amount of Substance
Molar Mass (MM)
❑ The molar mass (MM) is the mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole of units
(such as atoms) of a substance.

Example: 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎 𝒈 𝑶; 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝒆 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝑯𝒆

❑ The relationship molar mass of a substance and the amount of substance can
be written as:
𝒎𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
 Amount of Substance
Molecular Mass (MM)
❑ The molecular mass (MM) is the mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole of
units (such as molecules) of a substance.

Example: 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟐 𝒈 𝑯𝟐 𝑶; 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝟐 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟎𝟐 𝒈 𝑵𝟐

❑ The relationship molecular mass of a substance and the amount of substance

can be written as:
𝒎𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝑴𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
 Amount of Substance
Relationship between Mass, Number of Moles, Number of Atoms

m/MM

n(MM)

𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟐 𝒈 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 = 𝑰 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

 Amount of Substance
Sample Problems
1. Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low-temperature research,
deep-sea diving tanks, and balloons.
a) How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?
b) How many grams of He atoms are in 6.46 mol of He?
c) How many atoms of He are in a gram of He?
 Amount of Substance
Sample Problems
2. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is a compound that is used for treatment in skin irritation and
other pharmaceutical purposes.
a) How many grams of ZnO are in 0.356 mole of ZnO?
b) How many molecules of ZnO are in 0.356 g of ZnO?
c) How many grams of Zn are in 1.345 mol of ZnO?
d) How many atoms of O are in 1.345 g of ZnO?
Amount of Substance
 Elemental Composition of Compounds
Percent Composition by Mass
❑The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each
element in a compound.

Note: 𝑛 = number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound.

 Elemental Composition of Compounds
Sample Problem
1. Calculate the percent composition of each element for the given compound:
a) Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
b) Butane (C4H10)
c) Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
d) Ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
 Elemental Composition of Compounds
Sample Problem
2. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is a principal mineral of copper. Calculate the number of
kilograms of Cu in 3.71 x 103 kg of chalcopyrite.
 Elemental Composition of Compounds

Sample Problem:
3. Aspirin is a compound with the molecular formula 𝐶9 𝐻8 𝑂4 . What is
its percent composition?
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
❑ Chemical equations are designed to represent the transformation
of one or more chemical species into new substances.
❑ The original materials are called the reactants and they appear on
the left-hand side of the equation. The compounds that are formed
from the reaction are called products and appear on the right-
hand side of the equation.
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
❑ An arrow is used to represent the changes that occur during the
reaction. Thus we can write a completely generic chemical
equation:

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

NOTE: This is read as “reactants go to products” or “reactants give

products.”
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
❑ We use chemical formulas to identify the specific reactants and
products. The physical states of the compounds are often
designated; (s) indicates a solid, (l) a liquid, (g) a gas, and (aq) a
substance dissolved in water.

2𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝑂2 𝑔 → 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)

 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations
❑ In the formation of water in the gas phase from the reaction of
gaseous hydrogen and oxygen gas, all substances involved in this
equation are gases, as indicated by the “(g)” notation. One
characteristic of this reaction is that it will only occur at high
temperatures.
❑ To show this, we placed the symbol ∆ or “delta” to denote the use
of heat in the reaction.
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations

∆
2𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝑂2 𝑔 →2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations

❑ If the reaction requires the presence of light in order for the

reaction to proceed, we use the symbol “hv”. We call this light-
induced process as photochemical reaction.

ℎ𝑣
𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝐶𝑙2 𝑔 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔)
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Balancing Chemical Equations

❑ The underlying premise of the chemical equation is that it is a

written representation of a chemical reaction. So any reasonable
representation must be consistent with all of our observations of
the actual reaction.
❑ One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the law of
conservation of matter: Matter is neither created nor destroyed.
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Balancing Chemical Equations

❑ Atoms of one element are neither created nor destroyed in a

chemical reaction. A chemical reaction simply rearranges the atoms
present into different molecules.
❑ In its written representation of nature, therefore, the chemical
equation must not “create or destroy” atoms. To uphold this
condition, we must have the same number of atoms of each
element on both sides of the chemical equation.
Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Balancing Chemical Equations

❑ An equation that does not meet this condition cannot accurately

represent the observed chemical reaction and is said to be
unbalanced.
❑ As a general rule, always make sure that you have a balanced
chemical equation before you proceed with any calculations.
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Balancing Chemical Equations

❑ Chemists use the term stoichiometry to refer to the various

quantitative relationships between the amounts of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.
❑ The numbers used to balance a chemical equation are called
stoichiometric coefficients. The stoichiometric coefficient
multiplies the number of atoms of each element in the formula unit
of the compound that it precedes.
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Sample Problems:
1. Propane, 𝐶3 𝐻8 , is used as a fuel in many applications, including gas
barbecue grills. Because of its widespread use, extensive research is
underway to develop ways to produce propane from biomass. When
propane burns, it combines with oxygen, 𝑂2 , to form carbon dioxide
and water. Write a balanced chemical equation describing this
reaction.
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

Sample Problems:
2. Balance the following chemical reactions.
 Stoichiometry

Flow Diagram of Typical Stoichiometry Problem:

 Stoichiometry

Sample Problem:
1. In the combustion of methane, how many moles of 𝑂2 are required
if 6.75 mol of 𝐶𝐻4 is to be completely consumed?
 Stoichiometry

Sample Problem:
2. Tetraphosphorus trisulfide, 𝑃4 𝑆3 , is used in the manufacture of
“strike anywhere” matches. Elemental phosphorus and sulfur react
directly to form 𝑃4 𝑆3 :
𝑃4 + 𝑆8 → 𝑃4 𝑆3

If we have 153 g of 𝑆8 and an excess of phosphorus, what mass of

𝑃4 𝑆3 can be produced by this reaction?
 Stoichiometry

Terms Associated with Stoichiometry

❑ Limiting Reactant - the reactant that limits the amount of product

that can be made.
❑ Excess Reactant is one that is not entirely consumed.
❑ Theoretical Yield is the maximum amount of product that may be
made when all of the limiting reactant is converted to product.
 Stoichiometry

Terms Associated with Stoichiometry

❑ The actual yield is the actual amount of product that is made. The
actual yield may never exceed the theoretical yield.

❑ The percent yield is the percentage of the theoretical yield that is

actually obtained. The percent yield may never exceed 100%.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
 Stoichiometry
Sample Problem:
1. MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether) has been used as an additive in
gasoline. The compound is produced by reacting methanol and
isobutene, according to the following equation:

If 45.0 kg of methanol is allowed to react with 70.0 kg of isobutene,

what is the maximum mass of MTBE that can be obtained?
 Stoichiometry
Sample Problem:
2. The Solvay process is important in the commercial production of
sodium carbonate (𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 ), which is used in the manufacture of
most glass. The last step in the Solvay process is the conversion of
𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 (sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda) to 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 by heating:

In a laboratory experiment, a student heats 42.0 g of 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 and

determines that 22.3 g of 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 is formed. What is the percentage
yield of this reaction?
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

Solids:

❑ Crystalline solid consists of repeating patterns of its components in

three dimensions (a crystal lattice).

❑ We can represent the entire crystal by drawing the structure of the

smallest identical units that, when stacked together, form the
crystal. This basic repeating unit is called a unit cell. For example,
the unit cell of a sheet of identical postage stamps is a single
stamp, and the unit cell of a stack of bricks is a single brick.
Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

Solids:

❑ There are seven fundamentally different kinds of unit cells, which

differ in the relative lengths of the edges and the angles between
them.

❑ Each unit cell has six sides, and each side is a parallelogram. We
focus primarily on the cubic unit cells, in which all sides have the
same length and all angles are 90°, but the concepts that we
introduce also apply to substances whose unit cells are not cubic.
Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

❑ If the cubic unit cell consists of eight component atoms, molecules,

or ions located at the corners of the cube, then it is called simple
cubic.

❑ If the unit cell also contains an identical component in the center of

the cube, then it is body-centered cubic (bcc).

❑ If there are components in the center of each face in addition to

those at the corners of the cube, then the unit cell is face-centered
cubic (fcc).
Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

❑ For all unit cells except hexagonal, atoms on the faces contribute
½ atom to each unit cell, atoms on the edges contribute ¼ atom
to each unit cell, and atoms on the corners contribute 1/8 atom to
each unit cell.

❑ A solid consists of a large number of unit cells arrayed in three

dimensions. Any intensive property of the bulk material, such as its
density, must therefore also be related to its unit cell.
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

Example

Metallic gold has a face-centered cubic unit cell. How many Au atoms
are in each unit cell?
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

Solution

A face-centered cubic unit cell has eight atoms at the corners of the
cube and six atoms on the faces. Because atoms on a face are shared
by two unit cells, each counts as ½ atom per unit cell, giving 6 x ½ =
3 Au atoms per unit cell.

Atoms on a corner are shared by eight unit cells and hence contribute
only 1/8 atom per unit cell, giving 8 x 1/8 = 1 Au atom per unit cell.
The total number of Au atoms in each unit cell is thus 3 + 1 = 4.
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

Properties of the Major Classes of Solids

 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
Liquids and Solutions

❑ Many different ways to express the concentration of a solute in a

solvent have been developed. To define any unit of concentration,
we must know both the amount of solute and the quantity of
solvent in the solution.

❑ The most commonly used concentration unit in chemistry is

molarity or molar concentration.
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
Liquids and Solutions

❑ Molarity, represented by the symbol M, is defined as the number of

moles of solute per liter of solution:

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀 = =
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
Example

Many ways to produce biofuels by degrading biomass have been

tried, with some more successful than others. One method that has
not worked is to treat bacterial biomass with aqueous solutions of
sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) to try to digest the complex
biomolecules present. In an attempt to research this process further, a
solution is prepared by dissolving 45.0 g of NaClO in enough water to
produce exactly 750 mL of solution. What is the molarity of the
solution?
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
Liquids and Solutions

❑ One of the most common procedures encountered in any science

laboratory is dilution, the process in which solvent is added to a
solution to decrease the concentration of the solute.

❑ In dilution, the amount of solute does not change. The number of

moles of solute is the same before and after dilution.

𝑀𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑀𝑓 𝑉𝑓
 Solids, Liquids, and Solutions
Example

A chemist requires 1.5 M hydrochloric acid, HCl, for a series of

reactions. The only solution available is 6.0 M HCl. What volume of 6.0
M HCl must be diluted to obtain 5.0 L of 1.5 M HCl?
Gases
 Gases
❑ Gases expand to fill the volume of any container.

❑ Gases have much lower densities than solids or liquids.

❑ Gases have highly variable densities, depending on the conditions.

❑ Gases mix with one another readily and thoroughly.

❑ Gases change volume dramatically with changing temperature.

 Gases
❑ The Kinetic Molecular Theory provides connections between the
observed macroscopic properties of gases, the gas law equation,
and the behavior of gas molecules on a microscopic scale. Once we
understand this model, we can use it to see how gases at high
pressure might deviate from ideal behavior.

❑ Because observation of individual gas molecules is not generally

feasible, we must begin with postulates that are accepted as
reasonable when we construct a model.
 Gases
Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory

❑ A gas is made up of a vast number of particles, and these particles

are in constant random motion.

❑ Particles in a gas are infinitely small; they occupy no volume.

 Gases
Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory

❑ Particles in a gas move in straight lines except when they collide

with other molecules or with the walls of the container. Collisions
with each other and with the walls of the container are elastic, so
that the total kinetic energy of the particles is conserved.

❑ Particles in a gas interact with each other only when collisions

occur.
 Gases
Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory

❑ The average kinetic energy of the particles in a gas is proportional

to the absolute temperature of the gas and does not depend on
the identity of the gas.
 Gases
❑ An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas dreamed by chemists and
students because it would be much easier if things like
intermolecular forces do not exist to complicate the simple Ideal
Gas Law.

❑ Ideal gases are essentially point masses moving in constant,

random, straight-line motion. Its behavior is described by the
assumptions listed in the Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases. This
definition of an ideal gas contrasts with the Non-Ideal Gas
definition, because this equation represents how gas actually
behaves in reality.
 Gases
❑ In an ideal gas equation, well-known assumptions have to be
made beforehand.

1. The particles have no forces acting among them, and

2. These particles do not take up any space, meaning their atomic

volume is completely ignored.

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
 Gases

𝑃𝑉
❑ The term is called the compression factor and is a measure of
𝑛𝑅𝑇
the ideality of a certain gas.

❑ An ideal gas will always equal 1 when plugged into this equation.
The greater it deviates from the number 1, the more it will behave
like a real gas rather than an ideal.
 Gases

Factor Variable Units

Pressure P atm, torr, Pa, mmHg

Volume V L, 𝑚3

Moles N mol

Temperature T K
 Gases
Gas Constant (R):

𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚
0.08206
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾

𝐽
8.314
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾

𝐵𝑡𝑢
1.987
𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙 − °𝑅
 Gases
❑ Boyle’s Law describes the inverse proportional relationship
between pressure and volume at a constant temperature and a
fixed amount of gas. This law came from a manipulation of the
Ideal Gas Law.

1
𝑃∝
𝑉

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
 Gases
❑ Charles's Law describes the directly proportional relationship
between the volume and temperature (in Kelvin) of a fixed amount
of gas, when the pressure is held constant.

𝑉∝𝑇

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 Gases
❑ Avogadro's Law states that the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the amount of gas at a constant temperature and
pressure.

𝑉∝𝑛

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2
 Gases
❑ Amontons’ Law or Gay-Lussac’s Law states that the given a
constant number of mole of a gas and an unchanged volume,
pressure is directly proportional to temperature.

𝑃∝𝑇

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 Gases
❑ Combined Gas Law is an amalgamation of the three previously
known laws which are - Boyle's law PV = K, Charles law V/T = K,
and Gay-Lussac's law P/T = K.

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 Gases
❑ Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) refers to the nominal
conditions in the atmosphere at sea level. These conditions are 0
degrees Celsius and 1 atmosphere (atm) of pressure.

At STP:
𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑇 = 0 ℃ 𝑜𝑟 273.15 𝐾

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 22.4 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

 Gases
❑ Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP) refers to
the ambient conditions in the atmosphere at sea level. These
conditions are 25 degrees Celsius and 1 bar of pressure.

At SATP:
𝑃 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑇 = 25 ℃ 𝑜𝑟 298.15 𝐾

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 24.79 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

 Gases
Example

For homes or businesses in some rural areas, natural gas pipelines

may not be available. In such cases, methane might be obtained in a
compressed gas cylinder. A common laboratory cylinder of methane
has a volume of 49.0 L and is filled to a pressure of 154 atm. Suppose
that all of the 𝐶𝐻4 from this cylinder is released and expands until its
pressure falls to 1.00 atm. What volume would the 𝐶𝐻4 occupy?
 Gases
Example

A balloon is filled with helium, and its volume is 2.2 L at 298 K. The
balloon is then dunked into a thermos bottle containing liquid
nitrogen. When the helium in the balloon has cooled to the
temperature of the liquid nitrogen (77 K), what will the volume of the
balloon be?
 Gases
Example

One way to reduce air pollution is to remove potential pollutant gases

from an exhaust stream before they are released into the air. Carbon
dioxide can be removed from a stream of gas by reacting it with
calcium oxide to form calcium carbonate. If we react 5.50 L of 𝐶𝑂2 at
STP with excess CaO, what mass of calcium carbonate will form?
End of Module 1:

Thank you!
God bless on your studies.