COMPUTER

FUNDAMENTALS
 COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or
data. It takes data as input, stores data ,process the data and gives
output.
Hardware
Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the
keyboard or mouse. It also includes all of the computer's internal parts, which you
can see in the image below.
Software
Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do and how to
do it.
Examples of software include web browsers, games, and word processors. Below,
you can see an image of Microsoft PowerPoint, which is used to create
presentations.
Block Diagram of a computer

o
 Block Diagram of a computer
Input Unit:
■ Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem.
Therefore we need to input the data and instructions into the computers.
■ The input unit consists of one or more input devices. Keyboard is the one of the
most commonly used input device. Other commonly used input devices are the
mouse, floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc. All the input devices perform the
following functions.

• Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.

• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
• Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.
 Examples of Input devices
■ Keyboard
■ Mouse
■ Joy Stick
■ Light pen
■ Track Ball
■ Scanner
■ Microphone
■ Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR)
■ Optical Character Reader(OCR)
■ Bar Code Reader
■ Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
 Central Processing Unit
■ The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
•It performs all calculations.
•It takes all decisions.
•It controls all units of the computer.
In the computing world, there are many processor
developers but the main ones are Intel, AMD and ARM.
A PC may have CPU-IC such as Intel 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Celeron,
Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, Intel Core
i5,i7 and AMD etc.
Along with the new Core i9 processor, Intel is also announcing new 9th Gen Core i5
and Core i7 models.
 Central Processing Unit
1. Control Unit:
It is responsible for directing and coordinating most of the computer system
activities. It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other parts of the computer
system what to do. It determines the movement of electronic signals between the
main memory and arithmetic logic unit as well as the control signals between the
CPU and input/output devices.
2. Arithmetic logic Unit:
ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical functions i.e. addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and certain comparisons. These comparisons include greater
than, less than, equals to etc. The ALU controls the speed of calculations.
3. Registers:
It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU. Registers quickly,
accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately (main
memory hold data that will be used shortly, secondary storage holds data that will be
used later). To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves it from
main memory and places it onto a register.
 Output Unit
An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data
from a computer and then translates that data into another form.
That form may be audio, visual, textual, or hard copy such as a
printed document.
A hard copy is a printed or physical copy of a document, while a soft
copy is virtually a copy of the document that is stored on your hard
drives or other storage devices.
 Examples of Output Devices
■ Monitors
■ COM (Computer Output Microfilm)
■ Headphones
■ Plotter
■ Printer (dot matrix printer, inkjet printer, and laser printer)
■ Projector
■ Speakers
 Central Processing Unit
Memory Unit:
It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in
the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing
are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Memory Unit:
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.
Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one.
For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 =
65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
■ Memory is primarily of three types −
■ Cache Memory
■ Primary Memory/Main Memory/Internal Memory
■ Secondary Memory/ External Memory/Auxiliary Memory
COMPUTER -MEMORY
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which
can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main
memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are
most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system,
from where the CPU can access them.
Cache Memory
Advantages
■ The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
■ Cache memory is faster than main memory.
■ It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
■ It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
■ It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
■ The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
■ Cache memory has limited capacity.
■ It is very expensive.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
■ Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the
computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is
lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.
The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Characteristics of Main Memory
■ These are semiconductor memories.
■ It is known as the Primary memory.
■ Usually volatile memory.
■ Data is lost in case power is switched off.
■ It is the working memory of the computer.
■ Faster than secondary memories.
■ A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until
the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
■ RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or
if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS)
is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size
and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
■ Static RAM (SRAM)
■ Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile
nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do
not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis.
Characteristic of Static RAM
■ Long life
■ No need to refresh
■ Faster
■ Used as cache memory
■ Large size
■ Expensive
■ High power consumption
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

■ Short data lifetime
■ Needs to be refreshed continuously
■ Slower as compared to SRAM
■ Used as RAM
■ Smaller in size
■ Less expensive
■ Less power consumption
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Read Only Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read
but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such
instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to
as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
■ PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM
chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.
■ EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than
10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light
is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light
dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
■ EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
reprogramming is flexible but slow.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Advantages of ROM
■ The advantages of ROM are as follows −
■ Non-volatile in nature
■ Cannot be accidentally changed
■ Cheaper than RAMs
■ Easy to test
■ More reliable than RAMs
■ Static and do not require refreshing
■ Contents are always known and can be verified
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or
non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are used for
storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The
contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main
memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, Hard disk,
CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
 COMPUTER -MEMORY
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
■ These are magnetic and optical memories.
■ It is known as the backup memory.
■ It is a non-volatile memory.
■ Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
■ It is used for storage of data in a computer.
■ Computer may run without the secondary memory.
■ Slower than primary memories.
 Data
■ Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a
formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human or electronic machine.
■ Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits
(0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)
■ In a computer's storage, data is a series of bits (binary digits) that have the value one
or zero.
Digital Storage Units
■ Computers store information in the form of "1" and "0"s in different types of storages
such as memory, hard disk, usb drives etc. The most common digital data storage unit
is byte which is 8 bits.
■ Computer data is expressed as bytes, kilobytes, megabytes as it is in the metric
system, but 1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes not 1000 bytes.
■ Data storage units are: bit (b), byte (B), kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte
(GB), terabyte (TB), petabyte (PB), exabyte (EB), zettabyte (ZB) and yottabyte (YB).
Units of Data

4 Bits = 1 Nibble
 MOTHER BOARD
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a
computer together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video
card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can
be considered as the backbone of a computer.
 MOTHER BOARD
Features of Motherboard
■ A motherboard comes with following features −
■ Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
■ Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
■ Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly.
■ Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
■ Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.
■ Intel
■ ASUS
■ AOpen
■ ABIT
■ Biostar
■ Gigabyte
■ MSI
 Bus
Bus refers to an electrical pathway through which bits are transmitted
between the various computer components.
Three types of bus are used.
■ Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components.
The width of a data bus refers to the number of bits (electrical wires) that
make up the bus. Common data bus widths include 1-, 4-, 8-, 16-, 32-, and
64-bit.
■ Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other
components such as primary storage and input/output devices.
The width of the address bus (that is, the number of wires) determines
how many unique memory locations can be addressed. Modern PCs have as
many as 36 address lines, which enables them theoretically to access 64 GB
(gigabytes) of main memory.
■ Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components.
 Operating system
The operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware. It is a collection of programs that coordinates the operations of computer
hardware and software.
Examples of OS:
■ Windows,Android,iOS,Linux
Features of Operating System
■ Program Execution
■ Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
■ Handling I/O operations
■ Manipulation of the file system
■ Error Detection and handling
■ Resource allocation
■ Information and Resource Protection
 Browsers
Web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application
for accessing information on the World Wide Web. When a user requests a
web page from a particular website, the web browser retrieves the necessary
content from a web server and then displays the page on the screen.
Common web browsers include:
■ Microsoft Internet Explorer
■ Google Chrome
■ Mozilla Firefox
■ Netscape navigator
■ Apple Safari
■ Opera
 Search Engines
A search engine is a web-based tool that enables users to locate
information on the World Wide Web.
Most popular search engines are:
■ Google
■ Bing
■ Yahoo
 Computer Network
A Computer Network is a group of devices connected with each other
through a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices
can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines etc. The purpose of
having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other
devices over the network.
 Types of Computer Network

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the
interconnection between devices within the range of a person’s private
space, typically within a range of 10 metres. A person can connect her
laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable printer in a
network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of
wired and wireless.
 Types of Computer Network
LAN
LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a
single site like an office, building or manufacturing unit. A LAN
may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is
completely wireless is called Wireless LAN or WLAN.
 Types of Computer Network
MAN
MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network
spread over a city, college campus or a small region. MAN is larger than
a LAN and typically spread over several kilometres.
The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.
 Types of Computer Network
WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries.
WAN is typically a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is
set up using wired or wireless connections, depending on availability and
reliability. The most common example of WAN is the Internet.
 Computer Network Components
Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the
software required for installing computer networks, both at organizations and at
home. The hardware components are the server, client, peer, transmission medium,
and connecting devices. The software components are operating system and
protocols.
The following figure shows a network along with its components −
 Hardware Components

■ Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources

of the network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server
and so they give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various
kinds: file servers, database servers, print servers etc.
■ Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers
to access and use the network resources
 Hardware Components
Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels
through which data is transferred from one device to another in a
network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial
cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware
between networks or computers, by binding the network media
together. Some of the common connecting devices are:
a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Repeaters
d. Gateways
e. Switches
 Software Components
Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems
is typically installed in the server and facilitate workstations in a
network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.

Protocol
Protocol a set of rules or procedures for transmitting data
between electronic devices, such as computers. In order for
computers to exchange information, there must be a preexisting
agreement as to how the information will be structured and how
each side will send and receive it. Among the most important sets
of Internet protocols are TCP/IP, HTTPS, SMTP etc
 Hardware Components
Repeaters
Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the
OSI model that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before
retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to expand its
coverage area. They are also known as signal boosters.
 Hardware Components
Modem
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or
cable lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable
wire can transmit only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa.
Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the
computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being
received by the computer.
 Hardware Components
Router
A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information
between two or more packet-switched computer networks.
A router inspects a given data packet's destination Internet Protocol address
(IP address), calculates the best way for it to reach its destination and then
forwards it accordingly.
Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it
is also called repeater.
 Hardware Components
RJ45 Connector
RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an
8-pin jack used by devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local
area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for
establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones
and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into the
corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to the network.
 Hardware Components
Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware
component used by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other
devices on the LAN. The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to
be installed manually. In modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component.
The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in.
 Hardware Components
Switch
Switch is a network device that connects other devices
to Ethernet networks through twisted pair cables. It uses packet
switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on the
network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices
connected to it.
 Hardware Components
Bridge
A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single
aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segments.
A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with
other bridge networks that use the same protocol.
 Hardware Components
Gateways
Network gateways are used to interconnect networks, including those
with different communications protocols. They serve as the point of entry to a
network and operate at various network layers. Gateway servers are
hardware devices and gateway nodes are associated with routers and
switches.