Data Transmission

Introduction
• Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog
data over a communication medium to one or more
computing, network, communication or electronic devices.

• It enables the transfer and communication of devices in a

point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-
multipoint environment.
 Analogue and Digital Data
• Analogue data
Is any data that is recorded and stored in a physical way, whether it be
through electrical or optical methods.

It can be stored in a variety of types of media such as tapes or VCR

cassettes.

Analogue data can be recorded using various hardware and software

such as cameras and different types of computer systems. It is also
known as organic or real-world data.
Digital Data
 What are Signals ?
• Signals in electrical circuits are defined as the change of voltage or
current with time. In other words, electrical signals are
electromagnetic or electrical waves that carry information in an
electric network or circuit.

Characteristics of Signals
Amplitude
Frequency
Time period
 Classification of Signals

Signals can be classified on the basis of its type into following

two groups:
• Analog Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog Signal
In analog signal, the physical quantities such as current or voltage
varies continuously with time. These signals get stored in the form of
wave signal. It also has low impedance. Example- Sinusoidal wave,
triangular wave, etc.
Digital Signal
In digital signal, the physical quantities such as current or voltage can
have only one of the two possible values at a time, i.e., digital
signal have only levels, either zero or some maximum finite value of
current or voltage. These signals get stored in the form of binary bit. It is
having high impedance which may reach to 100 megaohms.
 What is Analog to Digital
Conversion?

• When an analog signal is digitalized, that is known as analog-to-digital

conversion.

• Consider a human address a voice in the structure of an analog signal. We

require to digitalize the analog signal that is smaller inclined to noise. It needed
a decrease in the several values in an analog message defined in the digital
flow.
 Importance of Analog to Digital
Conversion
• The main role of ADC in modern technology development process is
the transition of voice communication systems from outdated
analogue signal processing to the more advanced voice over IP, or
VoIP, systems of today is largely due to the contribution.

• The teletypewriters and other computer input devices needed to be

connected to a modem which was connected to a mainframe or other
front end computer system to communicate with the required
computer systems. In contrast to the ultrahigh-speed networks of
today, modem transmission speeds were modest to process.

• The systems for smaller office applications and the digital private
branch exchange, or PBX, were developed by using ADC technology
as the foundation to process properly.
 Techniques of Analog-to-Digital
Conversion
• PULSE CODE MODULATION
• DELTA MODULATION
 PULSE CODE MODULATION
• The most common technique to change an analog
signal to digital data is called pulse code modulation
(PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three
processes:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring the
amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the continuous
signal into a discrete signal. There are three sampling methods:

(i) Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling pulses
from the analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be
easily implemented.

(ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of sampling in which

pulse have finite width equal to T. The result is a sequence of samples that retain the
shape of the analog signal.
 Quantization
• The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values
between the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set
of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral values between two
limits. The following are the steps in Quantization:
1. We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
2. We divide it into L zones each of height d where,
d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L
3.The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual
amplitude.
4.The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated
using the formula amplitude/d.
5. After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects
from the middle of each zone.
6. The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantized value and
normalised PAM value.
7. The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of the
graph.
• Encoding – The digitization of the analog signal is done by the
encoder. After each sample is quantized and the number of bits per
sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an n bit code.

• Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used.

• Note that the number of bits for each sample is determined from the
number of quantization levels.

• If the number of quantization levels is L,

• the number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.

 DELTA MODULATION
• Delta Modulation finds the change from the previous value. Modulator – The
modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog signal.

• The process records a small positive change called delta. If the delta is positive, the
process records a 1 else the process records a 0.

• The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase. The input signal is
then compared with this gradually made staircase signal.
We have the following rules for output:

• If the input analog signal is higher than the last value of the staircase
signal, increase delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 1.

• If the input analog signal is lower than the last value of the staircase
signal, decrease delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 0.

• Demodulator – The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the
staircase maker and the delay unit, creates the analog signal. The
created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass
filter for smoothing.
 Applications
• Digital Signal Processing: In this process, the systems for
processing, storing, or transporting almost any analogue signal into
digital format require ADCs to perform well. Let’s an example, in TV
tuner cards this is use as fast video analog-to-digital converters.

• Recording Music System: The modern digital audio workstation-

based sound recording and music reproduction technologies both are
basically rely heavily on analog-to-digital converters.

• Scientific Instruments or Projects: The digital imaging systems are

normally use analog-to-digital converters for digitizing the
instruments and projects pixels.
 Digital to Analog Conversion
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog
Conversion:
• Amplitude Shift keying
• Frequency Shift keying
• Phase Shift keying
 Amplitude Shift keying
• Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is
analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

• The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary
data represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The
frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –
• It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

• The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which

also makes it comparatively inexpensive.

• It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers

high bandwidth efficiency.

Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –

• It is susceptible to noise interference and entire
transmissions could be lost due to this.

• It has lower power efficiency.

 Frequency Shift keying
• In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified
to reflect binary data.
• The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in
frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary
low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.
Advantages of frequency shift Keying –
• Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise
problems beset by ASK.
• It has lower chances of an error.
• It provides high signal to noise ratio.
• The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data
rate application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
• It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less
bandwidth efficiency.
• It has lower power efficiency.
 Phase Shift keying
• In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant.
It is further categorized as follows:
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):

BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form
of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed
according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying,
difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0.This
is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and is used
for long distance wireless communication.
Quadrature phase shift keying:

This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e we can code two bits
onto one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits per
symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees. It has double
data rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on
each constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
• It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK
and FSK.
• It has lower chances of an error.
• It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more
efficiently as compared to FSK.

Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –

• It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
• The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.
• It is a non coherent reference signal.
 Analog to Analog Conversion
(Modulation)
Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three
ways:
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
keeping phase and frequency as constant. The figure below shows the
concept of amplitude modulation:

AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because

the amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to
the amplitude of the modulating signal.
FREQUENCY MODULATION –
The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous frequency of the modulating signal
keeping phase and amplitude as constant. The figure below shows the
concept of frequency modulation:

FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as

with FSK. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input
voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 FM bandwidth:
• The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both
deviation and modulating frequency. If modulating frequency (Mf)
0.5, wide band Fm signal.

• For a narrow band Fm signal, bandwidth required is twice the

maximum frequency of the modulation, however for a wide band Fm
signal the required bandwidth can be very much larger, with
detectable sidebands spreading out over large amounts of the
frequency spectrum.
 PHASE MODULATION
• The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous pIn of the modulating signal keeping
amplitude and frequency as constant. The figure below shows the
concept of frequency modulation:

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase

modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. It is normally
implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along with a derivative. The
frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the input voltage
which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
PM bandwidth:
For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation
(AM) and exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and
poor efficiency.

For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its

bandwidth is approximately, 2 (h+1) Fm where h= modulation index.

Thus, Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency

range. If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit
multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel, all using different
frequency ranges.
 Types of Errors
• Single-Bit Error
A single-bit error refers to a type of data transmission error that occurs
when one bit (i.e., a single binary digit) of a transmitted data unit is
altered during transmission, resulting in an incorrect or corrupted data
unit.
 Multiple-Bit Error
• A multiple-bit error is an error type that arises when more than one bit
in a data transmission is affected. Although multiple-bit errors are
relatively rare when compared to single-bit errors, they can still occur,
particularly in high-noise or high-interference digital environments.
 Burst Error
• When several consecutive bits are flipped mistakenly in digital
transmission, it creates a burst error. This error causes a sequence of
consecutive incorrect values.
To detect errors, a common technique is to introduce
redundancy bits that provide additional information. Various
techniques for error detection include::
1. Simple Parity Check
2. Two-dimensional Parity Check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Simple Parity Check
• Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that
involves adding an extra bit to a data transmission. It
works as:
• 1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s,
and
• 0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s
• This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why
it is called even parity checking.
Two-dimensional Parity Check

• Two-dimensional Parity check bits are calculated for each row,

which is equivalent to a simple parity check bit.

• Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent
along with the data.

• At the receiving end, these are compared with the parity bits
calculated on the received data.
Checksum
• Checksum error detection is a method used to identify errors in
transmitted data.

• The process involves dividing the data into equally sized segments
and using a 1’s complement to calculate the sum of these segments.

• The calculated sum is then sent along with the data to the receiver.

• At the receiver’s end, the same process is repeated and if all zeroes
are obtained in the sum, it means that the data is correct.
Checksum – Operation at Sender’s Side
• Firstly, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
• On the sender’s end, the segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum.
• The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
• The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.

Checksum – Operation at Receiver’s Side

• At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get the sum.
• The sum is complemented.
• If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is
based on binary division.
• In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy
check bits, are appended to the end of the data unit so that the
resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number.
• At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same
number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed
to be correct and is therefore accepted.
• A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit
and therefore must be rejected.
 Error Correction in Computer
Networks
• Once the errors are detected in the network, the deviated bits
sequence needs to be replaced with the right bit sequence so that
the receiver can accept the data and process it. This method is
called Error Correction. We can correct the errors in the Network
in two different ways which are listed below:
• Forward Error Correction: In this Error Correction Scenario,
the receiving end is responsible for correcting the network error.
There is no need for retransmission of the data from the sender’s
side.
• Backward Error Correction: Backward Error Correction
means that the receiver needs to correct the error either by
transmitting the corrupted message or retransmitting the entire
message to the destination.
 What is the ARP Protocol
• ARP stands for “Address Resolution Protocol”. It is a network
protocol used to determine the MAC address (hardware address) from
any IP address.

• In other words, ARP is used to translate IP Address into MAC

Address. When one device wants to communicate with another device
in a LAN (local area network) network, the ARP protocol is used.

• This protocol is used when a device wants to communicate with

another device over a local area network or Ethernet.
Types of ARP
There are four types of ARP protocol they are as follows:-
• Proxy ARP
• Gratuitous ARP
• Reverse ARP
• Inverse ARP
How ARP Protocol Works?
 What is Ethernet?
• Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined
under IEEE standards 802.3.
• The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to
understand, implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost network
implementation.
• Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that are
allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus topology.
• Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer
and the data link layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame
since we mainly deal with DLLs.
• In order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used
in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to connect
devices and transfer data.

• Fast Ethernet:
• Gigabit Ethernet:
• Switch Ethernet:
• VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Networks; they are nothing but a logical
grouping of switch ports to have separate broadcast domains. VLAN reduces the
size of broadcast domains while increasing the number of broadcast domains.

• VLANs are typically configured on switches by assigning some interfaces to one

broadcast domain and others to another. Each VLAN serves as a subset of the switch
ports on an Ethernet LAN.

• VLANs can be configured on multiple switches, with each VLAN being treated as
its own subnet or broadcast domain. The broadcasted frames onto the network will
only be switched between the same VLAN ports.

• VLANs in networking are identified by a unique number called VLAN ID.

• A Valid ID range is 1-4094. On a VLAN switch, you assign ports with the proper
VLAN ID.

• The switch then allows data that must be sent between various ports with the same
VLAN ID.
Before VLAN working of a switch
After VLAN working of a switch
Types of VLAN
1. Default VLAN
When the switch first boots up, all switch ports are added to the default VLAN.
Generally, all switches have default VLAN as VLAN 1. VLAN1 allows any network
device connected to any switch port to connect with other devices on other switch
ports. The VLAN1, i.e., Default VLAN, can’t be renamed or deleted.
2. Data VLAN
Data VLAN is also known as a user VLAN. The data VLAN is only used for data
generated by users. This VLAN carries data only. It does not carry management
traffic or voice.
3. Voice VLAN
Voice VLAN is configured to carry voice traffic. Voice VLANs typically have higher
transmission priority than most other types of network traffic. We need a separate
voice VLAN to save bandwidth for other applications.
4. Management VLAN
A management VLAN is used to configure the switch for management purposes. It
manages system logging and monitoring. By default, VLAN 1 is the management
VLAN.
5. Native VLAN
This VLAN is used to carry untagged (not belonging to any VLAN) traffic.
How VLAN works?
Here are step-by-step instructions on how VLAN works:
In networking, VLANs are designated by a number.

The range is 1 to 4094. You assign ports on a VLAN switch with the correct VLAN
number.

The switch then permits data to be transmitted between different ports belonging to the
same VLAN.

There should be a means to transport traffic between switches because practically all
networks are bigger than a single switch.

Assigning a port on each network switch with a VLAN and connecting a cable between
them is one quick and straightforward approach to accomplish this.
Network Switch

What is a network switch?

• A network switch connects devices in a network to each other,
enabling them to talk by exchanging data packets.

• Switches can be hardware devices that manage physical networks or

software-based virtual devices.
• A network switch operates on the data-link layer, or Layer 2, of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

• In a local area network (LAN) using Ethernet, a network switch

determines where to send each incoming message frame by looking at
the media access control (MAC) address.

• Switches maintain tables that match each MAC address to the port
receiving the MAC address.
 How does a network switch work?
• All switches transmit data from one location to another, but their
hardware and software configurations can vary greatly. A network
switch can be deployed in the following ways:
• Edge, or access, switches. These switches manage traffic either
coming into or exiting the network. Devices like computers and APs
connect to edge switches.
• Aggregation, or distribution, switches. These switches are placed
within an optional middle layer in a network topology. Edge switches
connect into these and send traffic from switch to switch or send it up
to core switches.
• Core switches. These network switches form the backbone of the
network. Core switches connect aggregation or edge switches, users
or device edge networks to data center networks and enterprise LANs
to routers.
What are the types of switches?
There are several types of switches in networking:
• Virtual switches are software-only switches instantiated inside VM hosting
environments.
• Routing switches connect LANs. In addition to doing MAC-based Layer 2
switching, they perform routing functions at OSI Layer 3 (network layer), directing
traffic based on the IP address in each packet.
• Managed switches let a user adjust each port on the switch. This enables
monitoring and configuration changes.
• Unmanaged switches enable Ethernet devices to pass data automatically using auto
negotiation, which determines parameters such as data rate. The configuration is
fixed and cannot be edited.
• Smart switches can be configured to enable more control over data transmissions,
but they have more limitations compared to managed switches. Smart switches are
also known as partially managed switches.
• Stackable switches are fixed switches that may be connected to one another via a
backplane cable interface to form a single logical switch from two or more physical
switches.
 What is PPP
• Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a TCP/IP protocol that is used to
connect one computer system to another. Computers use PPP to
communicate over the telephone network or the Internet.

• In PPP, link establishment is controlled and handled mainly by Link

Control Protocol (LCP).

• PPP allows interoperability among the remote access software of

different manufacturers. It also allows multiple network
communication protocols to use the same physical communication
line.
Various fields of Frame are given below :
• Flag field – PPP frame similar to HDLC frame, always begins and ends with
standard HDLC flag. It always has a value of 1 byte i.e., 01111110 binary value.
• Address field – Address field is basically broadcast address. In this, all 1’s simply
indicates that all of the stations are ready to accept frame. It has the value of 1 byte
i.e., 11111111 binary value. PPP on the other hand, does not provide or assign
individual station addresses.
• Control field – This field basically uses format of U-frame i.e., Unnumbered frame
in HDLC. In HDLC, control field is required for various purposes but in PPP, this
field is set to 1 byte i.e., 00000011 binary value. This 1 byte is used for a
connection-less data link.
• Protocol field – This field basically identifies network protocol of the datagram. It
usually identifies the kind of packet in the data field i.e., what exactly is being
carried in data field. This field is of 1 or 2 bytes and helps in identifies the PDU
(Protocol Data Unit) that is being encapsulated by PPP frame.
• Data field – It usually contains the upper layer datagram. Network layer datagram is
particularly encapsulated in this field for regular PPP data frames. Length of this
field is not constant rather it varies.

• FCS field – This field usually contains checksum simply for identification of errors.
It can be either 16 bits or 32 bits in size. It is also calculated over address, control,
protocol, and even information fields. Characters are added to frame for control and
handling of errors.
 Multi Protocol Label Switching
(MPLS)
• Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is an IP packet routing
technique that routes IP packet through paths via labels instead of
looking at complex routing tables of routers. This feature helps in
increasing the delivery rate of IP packets.
• MPLS uses layer 3 service i.e, Internet Protocol, and uses router as
forwarding device. The traffic of different customers is separated from
each other because MPLS works somewhat like VPN.
• It does not work like regular VPN that encrypts the data but it ensures
packet from one customer cannot be received by another customer. An
MPLS header is added to packet that lies between layers 2 and 3.
Hence, it is also considers to be Layer 2.5 protocol.
MPLS Header –

The MPLS Header is 32 bit long and is divided into four parts –
• Label – This field is 20 bit long and can take value b/w 0 & 220 – 1.

• Exp – They are 3 bits long and used for Quality of Service(QoS).

• Bottom of stack (S) – It is of size 1 bit. MPLS labels are stacked one
over other. If there is only one label remained in MPLS header, then
its value is 1 otherwise 0.

• Time to Live (TTL) – It is 8 bit long and its value is decreased by

one at each hop to prevent packet to get stuck in network.
Forwarding in MPLS :