Cognitive models in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) are frameworks used to understand

and predict how users think, learn, and interact with computer systems. These models are
based on cognitive psychology and aim to improve the design of user interfaces by aligning
them with how users process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Below are
some key cognitive models commonly used in HCI.

**1. GOMS Model (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection Rules)

The GOMS model, developed by Card, Moran, and Newell in 1983, is one of the earliest and
most influential cognitive models in HCI. It describes how users achieve goals when
interacting with a system by breaking down their tasks into smaller components.

 Goals: What the user wants to achieve (e.g., send an email).

 Operators: Basic actions or steps that the user takes to achieve a goal (e.g., clicking a
button, typing).
 Methods: Sequences of operators that can be used to achieve a goal (e.g., the specific
steps to send an email).
 Selection Rules: Criteria used to choose between different methods when there is
more than one way to achieve a goal.

Use in HCI: The GOMS model is used to evaluate the efficiency of user interfaces by
predicting the time it takes for users to complete tasks. It helps designers understand the
cognitive effort required for users to interact with a system and identify potential areas for
improvement.

**2. KLM (Keystroke-Level Model)

The Keystroke-Level Model (KLM) is a simplified version of GOMS that focuses on

predicting the time required to complete tasks using a computer. It breaks down user actions
into a sequence of low-level operations.

 Operators:
o K (Keystroke): The time to press a key or click a mouse.
o P (Pointing): The time to move the cursor to a target.
o H (Homing): The time to switch between mouse and keyboard.
o D (Drawing): The time to draw a line segment.
o M (Mental): The time to make a mental decision.
o R (Response): The time to wait for a system response.

Use in HCI: KLM is used to predict how long it will take for users to perform specific tasks,
allowing designers to optimize interfaces by minimizing the number of steps or reducing the
time needed for each step.

**3. Model Human Processor (MHP)

The Model Human Processor, proposed by Card, Moran, and Newell, describes a user's
cognitive processing in terms of three interacting subsystems: the perceptual system, the
motor system, and the cognitive system.

 Perceptual System: Processes sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory).

  Cognitive System: Processes information, makes decisions, and plans actions.
 Motor System: Executes physical actions (e.g., typing, clicking).

Each subsystem has its own memory and processing resources, with specific processing times
and capacities.

Use in HCI: The MHP model helps in understanding the limits of human cognitive
processing, which can guide the design of interfaces that do not overwhelm users with too
much information or require excessive multitasking.

**4. Fitts's Law

Fitts's Law is a predictive model that describes the time required to move to a target area,
such as clicking a button or touching a screen element. It is based on the distance to the target
and the size of the target.

 Equation: T=a+b⋅log⁡2(DW+1)T = a + b \cdot \log_2 \left(\frac{D}{W} +

1\right)T=a+b⋅log2(WD+1)
o T: Time to complete the movement.
o D: Distance to the target.
o W: Width of the target.
o a, b: Empirical constants.

Use in HCI: Fitts’s Law is used to design user interfaces that are more efficient by
optimizing the size and placement of interactive elements. For example, making frequently
used buttons larger and placing them closer to where users’ attention is focused can reduce
the time needed for interactions.

**5. Hick-Hyman Law

Hick-Hyman Law (or Hick’s Law) predicts the time it takes for a user to make a decision
based on the number of choices available.

 Equation: T=b⋅log⁡2(n+1)T = b \cdot \log_2 (n + 1)T=b⋅log2(n+1)

o T: Decision time.
o n: Number of choices.
o b: Empirical constant.

Use in HCI: This law guides interface design by suggesting that the number of options
presented to users should be minimized to reduce decision-making time. This is particularly
relevant for menu design, where too many choices can overwhelm users and slow down
interactions.

**6. Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive Load Theory explains how the amount of mental effort required to complete a task
affects user performance. It distinguishes between three types of cognitive load:

 Intrinsic Load: The inherent difficulty of the task.

  Extraneous Load: The load imposed by the way information is presented or the
interface design.
 Germane Load: The mental effort required to create meaningful learning from the
task.

Use in HCI: Designers use Cognitive Load Theory to create interfaces that reduce
unnecessary complexity (extraneous load) and support users in focusing on the essential tasks
(germane load), leading to more effective and satisfying interactions.

**7. Norman’s Seven Stages of Action

Donald Norman's model describes the stages users go through when interacting with a
system, which can be used to identify where usability issues may occur.

 Forming the Goal: The user decides what they want to achieve.
 Forming the Intention: The user plans the action to achieve the goal.
 Specifying the Action: The user decides on specific actions.
 Executing the Action: The user performs the action.
 Perceiving the State of the World: The user observes the results of their action.
 Interpreting the State of the World: The user understands what has happened.
 Evaluating the Outcome: The user assesses whether the goal has been achieved.

Use in HCI: This model helps designers ensure that interfaces provide clear feedback and
support users at each stage, minimizing confusion and errors.

**8. Distributed Cognition

Distributed Cognition is a theory that considers how cognitive processes are shared across
people, artifacts, and environments. It looks at how information flows through and is
transformed by these systems.

Use in HCI: This model helps in designing collaborative systems, where multiple users
interact with shared tools and interfaces. It emphasizes the importance of designing interfaces
that support not just individual users but also the interaction between users and their
environment.

Summary

Cognitive models in HCI are essential tools for understanding user behavior and improving
interface design. By applying models like GOMS, KLM, Fitts’s Law, and Cognitive Load
Theory, designers can create more intuitive, efficient, and user-friendly systems. These
models help predict user actions, identify potential usability issues, and guide the design
process to better align with human cognitive processes.

Socio-organizational issues and stakeholder requirements are critical considerations in

Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), particularly in the design of systems that support
communication and collaboration within organizations. Understanding these aspects is
essential for creating systems that are not only usable but also align with the social and
organizational context in which they are deployed.

1. Socio-Organizational Issues in HCI

Socio-organizational issues in HCI refer to the challenges and factors that arise from the
interaction between technology and the social and organizational environment. These issues
impact how technology is adopted, used, and integrated into organizational processes.

Key Issues:

 Organizational Culture: The values, beliefs, and behaviors that characterize an organization
influence how technology is perceived and used. A system that aligns with the existing
culture is more likely to be accepted and effectively utilized.
 Power Dynamics: The distribution of power within an organization can affect the adoption
of technology. Systems that shift power or control can face resistance from those who feel
threatened by the change.
 Resistance to Change: Employees may resist new technologies due to fear of the unknown,
disruption of established routines, or perceived threats to job security.
 User Diversity: Organizations often have a diverse user base with varying levels of technical
expertise, roles, and responsibilities. Designing systems that cater to this diversity is a
significant challenge.
 Workflows and Processes: Technology should support existing workflows and processes or
facilitate the transition to more efficient ones. Disruptive changes without adequate support
can lead to reduced productivity and user dissatisfaction.

2. Stakeholder Requirements

Stakeholders in an organization include anyone who has an interest in or is affected by the

system, such as employees, managers, clients, and external partners. Understanding and
addressing stakeholder requirements is crucial for the successful design and implementation
of a system.

Identifying Stakeholders:

 Internal Stakeholders: Employees, management, IT staff, and other internal users who will
interact directly with the system.
 External Stakeholders: Clients, suppliers, regulatory bodies, and other external parties who
may interact with the system or be affected by it.

Gathering Stakeholder Requirements:

 Interviews and Surveys: Conducting interviews or surveys with stakeholders to gather their
needs, preferences, and concerns.
 Workshops and Focus Groups: Organizing collaborative sessions where stakeholders can
discuss their requirements and provide feedback on design ideas.
 Observation: Observing stakeholders in their work environment to understand their tasks,
workflows, and challenges.
  Personas and Scenarios: Developing personas (representative user profiles) and scenarios
(narratives of how users will interact with the system) to guide design decisions.

Addressing Stakeholder Requirements:

 Prioritization: Not all requirements can be met equally. Prioritizing based on factors like
impact, feasibility, and alignment with organizational goals is essential.
 Balancing Conflicting Requirements: Different stakeholders may have conflicting needs.
Balancing these conflicts through negotiation and compromise is a critical part of the design
process.
 Continuous Engagement: Stakeholder requirements may evolve over time. Continuous
engagement and iterative design processes help ensure that the system remains aligned
with stakeholder needs.

3. Communication and Collaboration Models in HCI

Communication and collaboration models describe how information is exchanged and how
people work together using technology. These models are essential for designing systems that
facilitate effective communication and collaboration within and between organizations.

Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)

CSCW is a field of study that examines how technology can support collaborative work. It
focuses on understanding the social interactions and processes involved in teamwork and how
technology can enhance these activities.

 Synchronous Collaboration: Involves real-time interaction, such as video conferencing,

instant messaging, or collaborative editing tools like Google Docs. Synchronous tools require
all participants to be online simultaneously.
 Asynchronous Collaboration: Involves communication and collaboration that occurs over
time, such as email, forums, or project management tools like Trello. Asynchronous tools
allow participants to contribute at their convenience.

Groupware

Groupware refers to software designed to support groups working together, whether in the
same location or distributed across different locations.

 Examples of Groupware:
o Email Systems: Facilitate asynchronous communication between individuals or
groups.
o Calendaring Systems: Support scheduling and planning of meetings and events.
o Collaborative Writing Tools: Allow multiple users to work on the same document
simultaneously (e.g., Google Docs).
o Project Management Tools: Help teams coordinate tasks, track progress, and share
resources (e.g., Asana, Jira).
Social Media and Communication Platforms

Social media and communication platforms have become integral to organizational

communication and collaboration.

 Internal Communication Tools: Platforms like Slack, Microsoft Teams, or Yammer provide
channels for teams to communicate, share information, and collaborate on projects.
 Social Media for Collaboration: Tools like LinkedIn or Twitter can be used for professional
networking, knowledge sharing, and external collaboration.

Collaboration Models

Collaboration models describe how individuals or teams work together using technology.

 Centralized Model: In this model, one person or a central authority coordinates the work
and communication, often through a single platform or system.
 Decentralized Model: Collaboration is more distributed, with multiple individuals or teams
working independently but sharing information and resources as needed.
 Hybrid Model: Combines elements of both centralized and decentralized models, allowing
flexibility in how collaboration is managed.

4. Technological Considerations for Communication and Collaboration

When designing systems to support communication and collaboration, several technological

considerations are essential:

 Interoperability: Systems should be compatible with other tools and platforms used by the
organization to ensure smooth information flow.
 Security and Privacy: Protecting sensitive information is critical, especially in systems that
involve external stakeholders or contain confidential data.
 Scalability: The system should be able to handle increasing numbers of users or data as the
organization grows.
 Usability: The system must be easy to use for all stakeholders, regardless of their technical
expertise, to encourage adoption and effective use.
 Mobility: Support for mobile devices is increasingly important as more employees work
remotely or need to access systems on the go.

Summary

 Socio-Organizational Issues: Include challenges related to organizational culture, power

dynamics, resistance to change, and user diversity. Addressing these issues is crucial for
successful system adoption.
 Stakeholder Requirements: Understanding and prioritizing stakeholder needs is essential for
designing systems that meet organizational goals and user expectations.
 Communication and Collaboration Models: Synchronous and asynchronous collaboration,
groupware, social media platforms, and various collaboration models are vital in supporting
teamwork within organizations.
 Technological Considerations: Interoperability, security, scalability, usability, and mobility
are critical factors in designing effective communication and collaboration systems.
These concepts guide the design of HCI systems that support effective communication and
collaboration, ensuring that they are well-integrated into the social and organizational fabric
of the organization.

Hypertext, multimedia, and the World Wide Web (WWW) are foundational concepts in the
realm of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), particularly in how information is organized,
presented, and accessed by users. These concepts are intertwined with the way digital content
is structured and delivered, shaping the user experience on the web and in digital
environments.

1. Hypertext

Hypertext is a system of managing and presenting text in a non-linear way, allowing users to
navigate through content by clicking on hyperlinks that connect different pieces of
information.

Key Concepts:

 Hyperlinks: Embedded links within text that allow users to jump from one document or
section to another. These links can be to other pages, documents, or resources on the same
or different websites.
 Nodes: Individual pieces of content or documents that are connected by hyperlinks. Each
node can contain text, images, or other media.
 Non-Linear Navigation: Unlike traditional text, which is read sequentially, hypertext allows
users to navigate content in a non-linear fashion, based on their interests or needs.

Use in HCI:

Hypertext forms the basis of web navigation, enabling users to explore information
interactively. It allows for a more dynamic and user-driven exploration of content, as users
can choose their own path through the information rather than following a predetermined
sequence.

2. Multimedia

Multimedia refers to the integration of multiple forms of media—such as text, images, audio,
video, and animation—into a single interactive experience. It is a powerful way to convey
information and enhance user engagement.

Components of Multimedia:

 Text: The foundational element, providing written content and context.

  Images: Visual elements, including photographs, illustrations, and diagrams, that
complement or enhance the text.
 Audio: Sound elements, including voiceovers, music, and sound effects, that provide an
auditory dimension to the content.
 Video: Moving images that can convey complex information, narratives, or demonstrations
more effectively than static images or text alone.
 Animation: Dynamic visual content that can illustrate processes, concepts, or actions over
time.

Use in HCI:

Multimedia enhances the user experience by making content more engaging and accessible.
For example, educational websites use multimedia to cater to different learning styles,
combining text with videos, interactive simulations, and audio explanations. In entertainment,
multimedia creates immersive experiences, such as in video games or interactive storytelling.

3. The World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents and
multimedia content that is accessed via the internet. It is the primary platform for delivering
hypertext and multimedia content to users globally.

Key Concepts:

 Web Pages: Documents on the web that contain text, hyperlinks, multimedia, and other
elements. They are created using HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and can be styled
with CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) and made interactive with JavaScript.
 Web Browsers: Software applications used to access and interact with web pages, such as
Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, and Microsoft Edge.
 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): The addresses used to access web pages and resources
on the web.
 Web Servers: Computers that store and deliver web pages to users upon request.

Evolution of the WWW:

 Web 1.0: The early web, characterized by static pages with limited interactivity. Users could
browse content, but not interact with it beyond clicking links.
 Web 2.0: Introduced greater interactivity, user-generated content, and social media. It
enabled the rise of platforms like blogs, wikis, and social networking sites.
 Web 3.0 (Semantic Web): Focuses on making content more understandable by machines,
enabling more intelligent search and information retrieval. It aims to create a web of data
that can be processed by machines, facilitating smarter applications and services.

Use in HCI:

The WWW is the primary medium for delivering hypertext and multimedia content to users.
It has revolutionized how information is accessed, shared, and interacted with. In HCI, the
design of web interfaces focuses on usability, accessibility, and user experience, ensuring that
users can efficiently navigate, find, and interact with content.
4. Hypertext, Multimedia, and the WWW in HCI

The integration of hypertext and multimedia on the WWW presents unique challenges and
opportunities in HCI. Designers must consider:

 User Navigation: How users move through content using hyperlinks. Designers must create
clear, intuitive paths and ensure that users can easily return to previous content or find
related information.
 Content Organization: Structuring content in a way that makes sense to users, balancing the
need for comprehensive information with ease of navigation.
 Interactivity: Incorporating interactive elements, such as forms, quizzes, or multimedia
controls, to engage users and enhance the user experience.
 Accessibility: Ensuring that content is accessible to all users, including those with disabilities.
This includes providing alt text for images, captions for videos, and ensuring that all
interactive elements can be navigated using assistive technologies.
 Performance: Multimedia content can be resource-intensive, so optimizing the performance
of web pages to load quickly and function smoothly on various devices is crucial.

Summary

 Hypertext: Allows non-linear navigation of text and content, forming the backbone of web
navigation through hyperlinks and interconnected documents.
 Multimedia: Combines various media types to create richer, more engaging content. It is
widely used across the web to enhance the user experience.
 WWW: The platform for delivering hypertext and multimedia content, evolving from static
pages (Web 1.0) to interactive, user-driven experiences (Web 2.0) and intelligent, machine-
readable content (Web 3.0).

In HCI, the focus is on designing web interfaces that effectively leverage hypertext and
multimedia to provide a seamless, engaging, and accessible user experience. The WWW
serves as the primary medium for these interactions, making it a central topic in HCI studies
and practice.