Unit-2 ( fruit crop production)

Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants from a variety of sources such as seeds, cuttings,
bulbs, and other plant parts. This process can be classified into two main types: sexual and asexual
propagation.

1. **Sexual Propagation**:

- Involves the fusion of male and female gametes resulting in the formation of seeds.

- It is a natural method of plant reproduction.

- Examples include the planting of seeds from fruits and flowers.

2. **Asexual Propagation**:

- Involves the reproduction of plants without the fusion of gametes.

- It uses vegetative parts of the plant such as stems, leaves, and roots.

- Examples include cuttings, layering, division, and tissue culture.

 Tissue Culture: A specialized asexual technique using excised tissue or cells in sterile culture.
o Rapid growth and large-scale plant production.

### Advantages of Asexual Propagation Over Sexual Propagation

1. **Uniformity**:

- Produces genetically identical plants, ensuring uniformity in growth, yield, and quality. This is
especially important for commercial production.
2. **Speed**:

- Faster method as it bypasses the seedling phase, allowing for quicker establishment and production.
For instance, fruit trees propagated by grafting or budding can bear fruit in a shorter time compared to
those grown from seeds.

3. **Preservation of Desirable Traits**:

- Allows for the propagation of plants with desirable traits such as disease resistance, superior fruit
quality, and specific flower colors. Sexual propagation may result in the loss of these traits due to
genetic recombination.

4. **Propagation of Seedless Plants**:

- Essential for plants that do not produce viable seeds, such as bananas, seedless grapes, and some
ornamental plants.

5. **Overcoming Germination Barriers**:

- Useful for plants with seeds that have low germination rates, dormancy issues, or require specific
conditions for germination.

6. **Continuous Production**:

- Enables continuous and consistent production of plants throughout the year, which is crucial for the
horticultural industry.

7. **Efficiency**:

- Some asexual methods like tissue culture can produce a large number of plants from a single
specimen, which is particularly valuable for mass production and conservation of rare species.
2.2 Method of Sexual and asexual propagation: seed, vegetative parts, cutting, layering, grafting,
budding, tissue culture etc.

Methods of Sexual and Asexual Propagation

Plant propagation can be achieved through various methods, each with its specific techniques
and benefits. Below is a detailed overview of both sexual and asexual propagation methods.

Sexual Propagation

1. Seeds

 Description: Sexual propagation involves the use of seeds, which are formed as a result
of the fertilization of the ovule by pollen.
 Steps:
1. Seed Collection: Harvest mature seeds from fruits or flowers.
2. Seed Preparation: Clean and dry the seeds.
3. Sowing: Plant the seeds in a suitable growing medium.
 4. Germination: Provide appropriate conditions (light, temperature, and moisture)
for seeds to germinate.
 Advantages: Genetic diversity, adaptability, and often simpler and less expensive than
some asexual methods.
 Disadvantages: Time-consuming, not always true-to-type, and can be affected by
environmental conditions.

Asexual Propagation

1. Vegetative Parts

 Description: Using vegetative parts of the plant, such as stems, roots, or leaves, to
produce new plants.
 Types:
o Bulbs: Underground storage organs (e.g., onions, tulips).
o Rhizomes: Horizontal underground stems (e.g., ginger).
o Tubers: Swollen underground stems (e.g., potatoes).
o Corms: Swollen stem bases (e.g., crocus).

2. Cutting

 Description: Involves cutting a piece of a plant (stem, leaf, or root) and encouraging it to
develop roots and grow into a new plant.
 Types:
o Stem Cuttings: Cut a piece of stem with leaves and nodes (e.g., roses, hibiscus).
o Leaf Cuttings: Use a leaf or a part of a leaf (e.g., African violet).
o Root Cuttings: Use sections of roots to grow new plants (e.g., blackberries).
 Steps:

Selection: Choose a healthy plant and cut a suitable section.

1.
Preparation: Trim and treat with rooting hormone.
2.
Planting: Place the cutting in a growing medium.
3.
Care: Maintain moisture and humidity until roots develop.
4.
 Advantages: True-to-type plants, faster than seeds, and can be done year-round.
 Disadvantages: Limited genetic diversity, risk of disease transmission.

3. Layering

 Description: Involves rooting a part of the plant while it is still attached to the parent
plant.
 Types:
o Simple Layering: Bending a low-growing stem to the ground and covering a part
of it with soil (e.g., blackberries).
 o Air Layering: Wounding a part of a stem and covering it with moist sphagnum
moss and plastic wrap to encourage root formation (e.g., rubber plants).
 Steps:

Preparation: Choose a healthy stem.

1.
Wounding: Make a small cut or remove a ring of bark.
2.
Covering: Apply rooting hormone, if necessary, and cover with soil or moss.
3.
Rooting: Allow roots to form before severing from the parent plant.
4.
 Advantages: High success rate, can propagate difficult-to-root plants.
 Disadvantages: Can be labor-intensive, slower than cuttings.

4. Grafting

 Description: Joining two plant parts (scion and rootstock) together so they grow as one
plant.
 Steps:
1. Selection: Choose compatible plants for scion and rootstock.
2. Preparation: Make appropriate cuts on both parts.
3. Joining: Fit the scion onto the rootstock and secure with grafting tape.
4. Care: Maintain proper conditions for graft union to form.
 Advantages: Combines desirable traits of both plants, can repair damaged plants.
 Disadvantages: Requires skill, potential incompatibility issues.

5. Budding

 Description: A type of grafting where a bud from one plant is inserted into the stem of
another.
 Steps:
1. Selection: Choose a healthy bud and rootstock.
2. Preparation: Make a T-shaped cut in the rootstock.
3. Insertion: Place the bud into the cut and secure it.
4. Care: Ensure proper conditions for the bud to grow.
 Advantages: Economical, quick propagation method.
 Disadvantages: Requires skill, limited to specific seasons.

6. Tissue Culture

 Description: A laboratory method where small pieces of plant tissue are grown in sterile
conditions on a nutrient medium.
 Steps:
1. Selection: Choose a healthy plant and take small tissue samples.
2. Sterilization: Sterilize the tissue to prevent contamination.
3. Culture: Place the tissue in a nutrient medium in a controlled environment.
4. Propagation: Allow tissue to develop into small plants, then transfer to soil.
  Advantages: Produces large numbers of plants quickly, disease-free plants, conserves
rare species.
 Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment and skills, expensive.

2.3 Nursery Raising Techniques for Sapling Production via Seed

1. Selection of Seeds

 Quality: Use high-quality, viable seeds free from diseases and pests.

2. Preparation of Seed Beds

 Location: Choose a site with good drainage, adequate sunlight, and protection from
strong winds.
 Soil Preparation:
o Soil Type: Use a well-draining soil mix, often a combination of sand, loam, and
organic matter.
o Bed Formation: Create raised beds to improve drainage and prevent
waterlogging.

3. Sowing Seeds

 Method:
o Direct Sowing: Sow seeds directly in the seed bed at the recommended depth
and spacing.
o Transplanting: Sow seeds in seed trays or pots and later transplant seedlings to
the seed bed.
 Spacing: Ensure proper spacing to avoid overcrowding and allow for adequate air
circulation.
 Depth: Sow seeds at the correct depth, typically 2-3 times the diameter of the seed.

4. Germination and Early Growth

 Watering: Maintain consistent moisture levels without waterlogging. Use a fine mist to
avoid displacing seeds.
 Temperature: Keep the soil at an optimal temperature for germination, often between
20-25°C (68-77°F).
 Light: Provide adequate light; some seeds may require darkness for germination, while
others need light.
 Mulching: Use a thin layer of mulch to retain moisture and regulate temperature.
5. Care of Seedlings

 Thinning: Remove weaker seedlings to prevent competition and ensure healthy growth
of the remaining plants.
 Weeding: Regularly remove weeds that compete with seedlings for nutrients and light.
 Fertilization: Apply a balanced, diluted fertilizer to provide essential nutrients. Avoid
over-fertilization.
 Pest and Disease Control: Monitor for pests and diseases and use appropriate control
measures such as organic pesticides, beneficial insects, or fungicides.

6. Hardening Off

 Gradual Exposure: Gradually expose seedlings to outdoor conditions to harden them off
before transplanting.
 Duration: This process typically takes 1-2 weeks.
 Steps:
o Initially place seedlings in a sheltered area with indirect sunlight.
o Gradually increase their exposure to direct sunlight and wind.
o Reduce watering to help seedlings acclimate to natural conditions.

7. Transplanting

 Timing: Transplant seedlings when they have developed a strong root system and are of
appropriate size (usually 4-6 weeks old).
 Preparation:
o Prepare the planting site by digging holes and amending the soil if necessary.
o Water seedlings thoroughly before transplanting to reduce transplant shock.
 Planting:
o Gently remove seedlings from seed beds or trays, taking care not to damage
roots.
o Place seedlings in planting holes at the same depth they were growing in the
nursery.
o Firm the soil around the roots and water thoroughly.
 Aftercare:
o Continue to water regularly until seedlings are established.
o Provide support (stakes) if needed for taller plants.
o Mulch around the base of the seedlings to retain moisture and suppress weeds.
o

2.4 Nursery Raising Techniques for Sapling Production via Cutting, Grafting,
Budding, etc.
Raising saplings through asexual propagation methods such as cuttings, grafting, and budding
involves specific techniques to ensure the healthy development of plants. Here are the detailed
steps and techniques for each method.

1. Raising Saplings via Cuttings

Types of Cuttings

1. Stem Cuttings: Involves cutting a piece of stem with nodes.

2. Leaf Cuttings: Uses a leaf or part of a leaf.
3. Root Cuttings: Uses sections of roots.

General Steps

1. Selection of Plant Material:

o Choose healthy, disease-free plants.
o Use semi-hardwood, softwood, or hardwood cuttings depending on the plant
species and season.
2. Preparation of Cuttings:
o Stem Cuttings: Cut a 4-6 inch section of the stem, just below a node. Remove the
lower leaves and retain a few leaves at the top.
o Leaf Cuttings: For plants like African violets, cut a healthy leaf with a short
petiole.
o Root Cuttings: Dig up and cut 2-3 inch sections of thick roots.
3. Rooting Hormone:
o Dip the cut end of the cutting in rooting hormone to encourage root
development.
4. Planting:
o Insert the cuttings into a well-draining, sterile rooting medium (e.g., a mix of peat
and perlite).
o Ensure that at least one node is buried for stem cuttings.
5. Environment:
o Maintain high humidity by covering with a plastic bag or placing in a misting
chamber.
o Provide indirect light and maintain a warm temperature (70-75°F or 21-24°C).
6. Care and Maintenance:
o Keep the medium consistently moist but not waterlogged.
o Once roots develop (usually within a few weeks), gradually acclimate the new
plants to normal conditions.
o Transplant the rooted cuttings into individual pots with a suitable potting mix.

2. Raising Saplings via Grafting

Types of Grafting
 1. Cleft Grafting: Used for larger rootstocks.
2. Whip and Tongue Grafting: Common for small rootstocks and scions of similar size.
3. Bark Grafting: Used when the rootstock is much larger than the scion.

General Steps

1. Selection of Plant Material:

o Select compatible rootstock and scion.
o Ensure both are healthy and disease-free.
2. Preparation:
o Cleft Grafting: Split the rootstock and prepare a wedge-shaped scion.
o Whip and Tongue Grafting: Make matching slanting cuts on both the rootstock
and scion, with a tongue on each for better fit.
o Bark Grafting: Make a slit in the bark of the rootstock and insert the scion.
3. Joining:
o Insert the scion into the rootstock cut and ensure good contact between
cambium layers.
4. Securing:
o Bind the graft union tightly with grafting tape or rubber bands.
o Seal with grafting wax to prevent moisture loss and infection.
5. Care and Maintenance:
o Place the grafted plants in a protected environment with controlled humidity
and temperature.
o After the graft union has healed and new growth starts, gradually acclimate the
grafted plants to outdoor conditions.
o Remove any shoots from the rootstock to encourage the growth of the scion.

3. Raising Saplings via Budding

Types of Budding

1. T-Budding: Common for many fruit trees.

2. Chip Budding: Useful when bark is not slipping easily.
3. Patch Budding: Often used for larger barked plants.

General Steps

1. Selection of Plant Material:

o Choose a healthy bud from the parent plant.
o Select a compatible rootstock.
2. Preparation:
o T-Budding: Make a T-shaped cut on the rootstock. Cut a bud from the scion with
a bit of attached bark.
 o Chip Budding: Cut a small chip from the rootstock and a matching chip with a
bud from the scion.
o Patch Budding: Remove a patch of bark from the rootstock and replace it with a
patch containing the bud.
3. Insertion:
o Insert the bud into the cut on the rootstock and ensure it fits snugly.
4. Securing:
o Bind the bud with budding tape, ensuring the bud itself is exposed.
5. Care and Maintenance:
o Keep the budding area moist and protected.
o Once the bud starts growing, cut back the rootstock above the bud to encourage
its growth.
o Gradually acclimate the budded plants to outdoor conditions.

2.5 Protective structure for fruit nursery establishment

When establishing a fruit nursery, it’s essential to create a protective structure to ensure optimal growth and
protect young plants. Here are some considerations:
1. Greenhouse or Shade House:
o Purpose: Provides controlled environmental conditions.
o Benefits:
 Temperature Regulation: Protects plants from extreme temperatures.
 Pest and Disease Control: Reduces exposure to pests and pathogens.
 Light Management: Allows adjustment of light levels.
o Materials: Use UV-resistant polyethylene or shade cloth.
o
2. Windbreaks:
o Purpose: Shields plants from strong winds.
o Benefits:
 Reduced Wind Stress: Prevents wind damage.
 Improved Growth: Helps young plants establish roots.
o Types: Natural (trees, shrubs) or artificial (fences, screens).
o
3. Mulching:
o Purpose: Protects soil and retains moisture.
o Benefits:
 Weed Suppression: Reduces weed competition.
 Temperature Regulation: Insulates soil.
 Moisture Retention: Prevents water loss.
o Materials: Organic (straw, wood chips) or synthetic (plastic).
o
4. Row Covers or Cloches:
o Purpose: Individual protection for seedlings.
o Benefits:
 Frost Protection: Shields from cold temperatures.
 Pest Exclusion: Keeps insects away.
o Materials: Plastic, fabric, or glass.

2.6 Bud wood certification system for citrus nursery

Implementing a Budwood Certification System for citrus nurseries in Nepal involves setting up
a structured and standardized process to ensure the production of healthy, disease-free citrus
plants. This system aims to improve the quality and reliability of citrus budwood, which is
crucial for successful grafting and the overall health of citrus orchards. Below is a detailed
outline for establishing a Budwood Certification System for citrus nurseries in Nepal.

1. Establishment of Regulatory Body

 Government Involvement: The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development

should oversee the certification process.
 Advisory Committee: Form a committee with experts in plant pathology, horticulture,
and citrus production.

2. Selection and Registration of Mother Trees

 Criteria for Selection:

o Disease-free status verified by laboratory tests.
o High yield and quality of fruit.
o Known genetic lineage and variety.
 Registration Process:
o Maintain a detailed registry of all mother trees, including location, health status,
and varietal information.
o Periodic inspection and testing for diseases such as Citrus Tristeza Virus (CTV),
Huanglongbing (HLB), and others.

3. Establishment of Budwood Multiplication Blocks

 Site Selection: Choose isolated locations to prevent disease transmission.

 Planting Protocol:
o Use registered mother trees to establish multiplication blocks.
o Maintain proper spacing and cultural practices to minimize disease spread.
 Maintenance:
o Regular monitoring for pests and diseases.
o Implement integrated pest management (IPM) practices.
o Regular pruning and sanitation practices to maintain tree health.

4. Certification of Budwood
  Budwood Collection:
o Collect budwood from certified mother trees or multiplication blocks.
o Ensure that budwood is collected by trained personnel to avoid contamination.
 Sanitization:
o Treat budwood with appropriate fungicides and insecticides.
o Store and transport budwood under hygienic conditions.
 Labeling and Documentation:
o Each batch of budwood should be labeled with information about the source
tree, date of collection, and certification status.
o Maintain detailed records for traceability.

5. Nursery Certification

 Inspection and Approval:

o Nurseries must apply for certification to use certified budwood.
o Regular inspections by the regulatory body to ensure compliance with standards.
 Training and Education:
o Provide training for nursery staff on best practices for handling and grafting
certified budwood.
o Conduct workshops and seminars to update nursery operators on new
developments and standards.

6. Monitoring and Enforcement

 Regular Audits.
 Laboratory Testing:
 Compliance Measures:

7. Record Keeping and Traceability

 Database Management:
o Develop a centralized database to track certified budwood from mother trees to
nurseries.
 Traceability:
o Each batch of budwood and resulting saplings should be traceable back to its
source.

8. Research and Development

 Continuous Improvement:
o Encourage research on disease-resistant varieties and improved propagation
techniques.
o Collaborate with international citrus research organizations for knowledge
exchange and updates on best practices.
9. Stakeholder Involvement

 Farmer Awareness Programs:

o Educate farmers about the benefits of using certified budwood.
o Promote the adoption of certified saplings through incentives and support
programs.
 Industry Collaboration:
o Engage with citrus growers' associations, nurseries, and research institutions to
ensure the success of the certification system.

10. Implementation Timeline and Review

 Phased Implementation:
o Roll out the certification system in phases, starting with pilot projects in key
citrus-growing regions.
o Collect feedback and make necessary adjustments before full-scale
implementation.
 Periodic Review:
o Regularly review and update the certification system based on feedback, new
research, and evolving industry standards.